PRACTICAL RESEARCH REVIEWER
Existing practices and needs
PRE FINALS
Central Versus Sub-Questions in
Qualitative Research
Central- the most general question you could
ask
Sub-questions- subdivides central question into
more specific topical questions. Limited
number
State the basic problem- prompts the research,
a useful way to approach quali research
Set of research objectives- research aims to
achieve, can be formulated based on the
research concepts and specific questions
Objectives- stated in the form of infinitive verb
The quali research problem must meet the
following requirements
1. Specificity- concreteness of concepts in
the problem
2. Operationability- assigning values to the
concepts in an operational way
3. Implicability- with some considerations
given to the units of analysis to shed
light on the phenomenon
Locus problem- selection of the ultimate
subject matter for inquiry in social science
research
Units of analysis- basis of the research
concepts and can influence research design
Tips in Finding a Quali Research Problem:
1. Read communication journals
2. Look around and observe the goings-on
in society
3. Think from experience or personal
encounters with people and
organizations
4. Tinker with a theory and a “light bulb”
will spark an idea
How can your problem surface out and
bring into focus
1. Observe and talk to people with interest
with problematic situation that can
trigger a research question
2. Read literature and journals
3. Talk to experts
4. Count on your experience as this could
be your best teacher
7 Sources of Qualitative Research Problem
1. Professional Literature
2. Theories
3. Observations and institutions
4. Organizational Problems
5. Fields of interest/specializations
6.
7. Extension of investigations already done
Research Question
1. The research question should be clear-
conceptually straightforward, and jargon
free.
2. The research question should be
researchable- and clearly doable.
3. The research question should be
iterative- is an approach where insight
and learning are gathered allowing
ideas or concepts to be developed
4. The research question should be
evocative- should catch the interest of te
readers and can be drawn into the
proposed study
5. The research question should be
relevant- clearly demonstrated
relevance of research question
Iterative Quali Research- allows certain
dynamism in investigating a problem with great
flexibility
Stimuli- starts the research
Meaning- provided to the repeatable
formulation
Interplay between the elements of the
research- example of an iterative quali
research.
Research Problem must be
1. Original/Unique
2. New and different from what was done
before
3. Significant to the field/value
4. Arouse intellectual curiosity
Criterion of narrowness- required in developing
the usable research questions
Evocative questions- often distilled from very
contemporary social or theoretical concerns
Provocative paradox- where we should frame
the question
Checklist in developing Effective Quali
Research Problem
1. The problem must be focused and
specific with available sources (time,
research expertise, data, tools, financial
support)
2. The dimensions of the problem should
be described in objective (neutral)
rather than subjective terms
3. The problem must be described
sufficiently so that people can
comprehend it
4. The researcher’s start of the problem
may be intuitive, but must be
developed logically
 5. The problem explanation must provide
the reason (justification) for the
research objective.
Literature as Cornerstone of
Qualitative Research
Julius Caesar- wrote the latin phrase “veni,
vidi, vici” , achieved the victory in Pharnaces of
Pontus at the Battle of Zelain
“I came”- the first step in going through the
pages of a literature
“I saw”- next move which is to locate and find
citations
Review of Relevant Literature (rrl)- is the
cornerstone of qualitative researchwhich
places it in context
Literature review- is a place to highlight
relevant contributions that addresses the
questions that you are asking. This
summarizes and assess therange of existing
literature
Present themes or identify trends- purpose in
writing rrl
Search Strategy
Search strategy- procedure that is a systematic
means of of acquiring and appraising
information to illuminate a subject matter.
Provides a coherent overview of information
sources.
Concept of the search tactic- is intended to be
practically useful in information seeking. Is
general yet non-trivial
Search proper- threading one’s away through
the file structure of the information facility to
find desired sources
4 Types of Tactics in Search Strategy
1. Monitoring Tactics- designed to keep
the search on track and efficient
2. File Structure Tactics- are techniques
for threading one’s way through the file
structure of the information facility
3. Search Formulation Tactics- designed to
aid in the process of designing or
redesigning the search formulation
4. Term Tactics- designed to aid in the
selection and revision of specific terms
within the search formulation
Sourcing strategy in Research- finds and
examine the body of literature to back up a
research question.
Literature- means a body of knowledge that
refers to all published writings in a particular
style. Collection of information and data
relevant to research question which is the crux
of the quali inquiry
Research Question- referred to as the research
problem that provides the context for the
research study
Review of the Literature- is an essential part of
the academic research to entail a careful
examination of the sources of information
3 General Variants in the Pathfinder of
information sources for the Literature
Review
1. Paper Trail- the literature reviewed
includes scholarly books and journals
2. People Trail- includes interviews and
documentation of oral discourse from
experts
3. Electronic Tail- authoritative bases and
websites through online sourcing
Sources- can be considered primary and
secondary sources
Primary Sources- fundamental documents
relating to a particular subject or idea. They are
first-hand accounts (e.g thesis, dissertations or
research papers). Accessible as hard copy.
Basic materials with little or no annototations
Secondary Sources- documents or recordings
that relate to or discuss information originally
presented elsewhere. Accessible as physical
form or electronically derived from the internet
(e.g books, journals and general
info documents). Derived from materials with
analysis
General Sources- which you can browse to
gain an understanding of topics. These may
help you formulate o develop research topic.
Integral component of the scientific process
These Sources or General Sources include:
1. Textbooks- collection of writings in a
subject area such as annuals (compact
book of facts dealing with any topic) and
scholarly handbook or vade mecum
(Latin phrase which means “go with
me”)
2. Encyclopedias- all-embracing
compilations of information with multi-
faceted approach to a subject
3. Dictionaries- alphabetical arrangement
of words and their meanings, an
abbreviated type of subject
encyclopedia
4. Annual Reviews- yearly summaries of
current research activities useful for
selecting and refining research topic or
question
5. Bibliographies- list of citation to sources.
An alphabetical listing by author
6. Indexes- provide a way of finding
additional materials, arrange by subject
headings
7. Abstracts- paragraph-length summaries
or considerations of scholarly articles
published in books and journals
 8. Scholarly Journals- vehicles for
reporting current studies conducted by
professional organization
9. Professional/Trade Periodicals- provide
important sources of information and
insight in a given field
Systematic Review- aims to provide an
exhaustive summary of literature relevant to
research question
Thorough search of the literature for relevant
papers- first step of a systematic review
Conduct of the Literature Search- one of the
first step even before a quali research takes a
full blossoming to illuminate a certain topic or
phenomenon
Steps In Literature Review
1. Work closely on your research problem
and sub-problems to identify more
specific keywords- Brainstorm your
research problem. This will help you to
identify narrower topics you need to
read more
2. Find out related keywords- Look for
them with your research problem and
sub-problems as guides
3. Locate related-literature- start looking
for your related sources with the
keywords in searching related literature
4. Make searches with specific keywords-
different types of catalogues and
databases can show many results
5. Create the list of the desired sources-
you need to always read and keep
updating it
6. Find your sources and look them over-
make remarks on your sources list that
comes out not to be helpful or not found
7. Develop and maintain a systematic tool
for recording relevant information- you
can use bibliography cards for recording
relevant information about each source.
Criteria in Evaluating Literature Resources
1. Type of source- a particular work may
be primary or secondary source
according to your purpose
2. Objectivity- when the source has no bias
or prejudice caused by the author’s
affiliation or allegiances
3. Qualification of the author- credentials of
an author for writing the work
4. Level- determine the level of a work in
areas such as diction for a wide
audience that are too general for your
research
Bibliography- needs to be developed to gather
information for your research
Books and articles- appear to be relevant to
your topic that should be listed systematically
Bibliography cards examples
The search process in the context of the
qualitative inquiry involves four major
steps
1. Question Analysis- refers to the
researchers’ approach to narrowing and
defining the information needed
2. Information Sources- refers to the three
major repositories of information such
as informal, institutional and
library/databases sources.
3. Interviews- represent a traditional
method that is widely recognized and
used, getting info by talking to people
4. Selection and Synthesis- include
opportunities to appraise the quality and
relevance of the materials
Identify a research topic and clarify specific
questions for investigations- necessary skills
that simplify the research process by providing
an organized direction and outline
Search Strategy method- saves time and
energy and helps produce a relevant and
informative literature review
Literature search- involve a great deal of work
Conceptual literature- contains literature
coming from boos and other forms of materials
coming from both foreign and local sources
Two Parts Of Reviewing Sources of
Information
1. Related Literature- comes from books
and other general reference materials
which give explanation to concepts
2. Related Studies- are taken from
research documents which provide
some findings related to your own
research
Review- may for an essential part of the
research process or may constitute a research
project itself, a critical synthesis of previous
research
Comparison of the differences between
good and bad literature review
Good Literature Bad Literature
review Review
A synthesis of An annotated
available sources bibliography, loose
of information summary 5. To rationalize the significance of the
A critical A mere description problem
evaluation on of sources and 6. To enhance and acquire the subject
importance of facts vocabulary
sources
7. To understand the structure of the
An interpretation A cut-and-paste
and paraphrase of collage of subject
facts information 8. To relate ideas and theories to
An appropriate A narrow and application
breadth and depth shallow collection 9. To identify methodologies and
of facts techniques that have been used
A clear and A confusing and 10. To place the research in historical
concise loving-windling
context and show familiarity with state-
presentation statement of facts
of-the-art developments
A systematic A cluttered and
outline of ideas disorganized set of Distinction between Games and
facts
Gamification
A fair citation of An omission of
sources sources ending up
Game Gamification
as plagiarism
Games have May just be a
A rigorous and A construction of
defined rules and collection of tasks
consistent method ideas in arbitrary,
objectives with points or
topsy-turvy
some form of
manner
reward
There is possibility Losing may or may
Literature Review- reflects on every step to of losing not be possible
because the point
evaluate the evidence-based practice is to motivate
people to take
Evidence-based practice- is both a goal and a
some action and
process, serving as the starting point for the do something
quali research Sometimes just Being intrinsically
playing the game rewarding is
Initial search of the literature- is what is intrinsically optional
researchers carry by suing a set of words that rewarding
will be developed using a brainstorming Games are usually Gamification is
technique hard and usually easier and
expensive to build cheaper
Review of the Literature Includes: Content is usually Usually game like
morphed to fit the features are added
1. Background of the study story and scenes without making too
2. Synthesis of relevant information of the game many changes to
3. Discussion of the importance of the your content
topic

RRL- identifies gaps in current knowledge and
research about the topic of interest
Inter-disciplinary research areas- are known as
high-scatter fields because useful information
can be found within the publication that is
scattered across scattered disciplines
Objectives of Review of Literature in Quali
Research accdg to Hart, 1998
1. To distinguish what has been done from
what needs to be done
2. To discover important variables relevant
to the topic
3. To synthesize and gain a new
perspective, and identify difference
between ideas and practice
4. To establish the context of the topic or
problem
Four types of players in Games
1. The achievers- who need to be at the
top, will do whatever it takes to complete
the course/ valid for educational games
2. The explorers- who need to find
something new, will discover all that the
game has to offer thereby covering the
whole course/ valid for educational
games
3. The socializers- who need to interact
with others, will work with all the players
of the game but may not complete the
course
4. The killers- who need to eliminate other
players,
Game Features- are motivational in giving
points to tasks that need to be completed
Gamification- suggests by using game thinking
and game design elements to improve
learners’ engagement and motivation
Making Citations for
Literature
Variation of Disciplines to unique formats
of Documentation of Research Assigned
1. APA- psychological, education,
communication and other social
sciences
2. MLA- literature, arts and humanities
3. AMA- medicine, health and biological
sciences
4. Turabian- designed for college students
to use with all subjects
5. Chicago- used with all subjects in the
real world by books, magazines, etc.
American Psychological Association (APA)-
one of the essential skills every researcher
should possess to effectively communicate
research results and analytics. Gives an
opportunity to structure research
manuscript. In which formatting of the
research follows. Developed for social
sciences. Mandates an overall structure for
a professional research document.
Modern Language Association (MLA)- one
of the several styles usually used in
literature, arts and humanities to provide
consistent standards for writing citations
American Medical Association (AMA)- the
style used primarily biology and medical
majors when writing research papers. It
uses just the initials of authors’ first and
middle names in the references
TURABIAN- the style spoused by Kate L.
Turabian in a Manual for Writers of
Research Papers, Thesis, Dissertations
which presents two basic documentation
systems: notes-bibliography style and
author-date style
Styles- are essentially the same with slight
modifications for the needs of student
writers
Parenthetical Citations- are amplified in a
list of references where full bibliographic
information is provided
CHICAGO- the style based on the Chicago
Manual of Style which covers a variety of
topics from manuscript preparation, called
“editors’ bible”
Notes- Bibliography System- in which
materials in the resources focus primarily
Author-Date System- nearly identical in
content nut slightly different in form and is
preferred in the social sciences
References- where various sources of
information is listed at the end of the
research manuscript
APA Publication Manual- is the style
manual of choice for researchers, designed
to help writers in behavioral and social
sciences
APA Format- has its own peculiarities and
limitations and has many similarities with
other writing styles.
Citation- one of the most important aspects
of APA format
Title page of APA thesis- should contain the
title of the research paper, the author’s
name and the name of the institution
Footnotes- should not be used when writing
APA thesis
Ethics of Writing
Literature
Ethical aspects in writing- are still high-and-
mighty
Online Research- has become a by-word in
the emerging IT society that makes
available and fast access thru the internet.
Internet Research- a host of search engines
where data can be drawn via Internet
Research- is vulnerable to certain
misconducts
Research Misconduct- precluding honest
error or differences of opinion. A fabrication,
falsification or plagiarism.
Sub-Components of Research
Misconducts
1. Fabrication- is making up data or
results and recording or reporting
them
2. Falsification- is manipulating
research materials such that there
search is not accurately represented
in the research record
3. Plagiarism- is the appropriation of
another person’s ideas and process
without giving appropriate credit
 copyright for it guarantees protection on
ownership of intellectual property of the
Northwestern University Guideposts to researcher.
Avoid Plagiarism
Sample certificates on authorship and
1. Cite all ideas and information that is copyright page
not your own and/or is not common
knowledge
2. Always use quotation marks if you
are using someone else’s word then
cite source
3. Even in paraphrases, you must show
the work is someone else’s idea and
place the proper citation

Redundant Publication- a special type of

plagiarism that invokes the copyright
infringement. ICMJE defines this act as a
duplicate publication paper that over laps
substantially with one already published. More
serious than plain plagiarism. A total
submission of research manuscript that has
already been published in toto elsewhere.
Unauthorized ownership- is another nagging
issue especially in student researches where
advising is the usual contribution of the
research adviser
Ethical Requirements to help Researchers
steer clear on the Moral problems in any
Investigation
1. Honor thy intellectual property- give only
credit when its due
2. Respect Confidentiality of Information-
soliciting volunteer information from
sources may get into some individual
beliefs and actions on varied topics

Authorship- remains a questionable manner for Reviewing Thru

many researchers who have difficulty in
deciding whom to include as authors and co-
authors
Reporting and Analyzing results- is the key to
applying research findings to the real world
Issue on copyright and authorship- is also a
serious matter in research which entails a
policy set by the school on intellectual property
Intellectual property- defined to include any
inventions, know-how and show-how
Intellectual Property Encompasses Two
Things:
1. New and useful processes
2. The physical embodiments of
intellectual efforts (e.g compositions of
matter, plants and records of research)
Research- considered a traditional academic
copyrightable work as a subset of
copyrightable works created independently
Certifications on authorship- a general rule and
what research must include for it dispel the
issue on plagiarism and also giving assurance
and safeguard to the intellectual work
Ethical standards against plagiarism and
unauthorized ownership- bring the idea of
Disciplinary Approaches
Expanse of Human Intellect- renders an
insatiable quest for information that usually
does not stand alone
Multi-disciplinary technique- additive process
from multiple disciplines
Cross-disciplinary- sharing of information
across discipline
Therapeutic Communication- is a form of
psychotherapy that uses verbal and non-verbal
techniques
Findings or results of the related studies-
should be objective and free of biases
Journal- is a periodical publish by academic
organizations usually quarterly which contains
research reports
Tips in Recording Research Information
1. Note Cards- the use of note cards is
indeed valuable to follow the logic and
the development of each source
2. System for Note-taking- before you
begin to take notes, enter on the card
information you will need to link the note
card
 3. Form- you may choose the record
information in one of two basic forms:
direct quotations for accuracy and
summary
Summary- a brief statement of the original
materials in your own cards.
2 major places you can visit for Information
and Data Source
1. Libraries- are knowledge storehouses
which carry a collection of books and
periodicals
2. Electronic Information Services- are
specialized to meet the needs of
researchers in particular fields including
communication. Two primary kinds are:
On-line Database and Compact-Disc
Read-Only Memory
3 Kinds Of Libraries
1. Public or general use libraries- stock a
broad range of materials to serve its
community
2. Research libraries- such as those in
universities and colleges which have a
collection of scholarly journals than
books
3. Special-use libraries- archives store
original records and documents that are
useful in conducting historical research
Cataloguing system- which libraries adopt to
decide where any given piece of research can
be found
2 Cataloguing Systems Most commonly
used:
1. Dewey Decimal System- most
commonly used in public libraries
employing general headings with call
numbers assigned
2. Library of Congress- uses letters to
designate its major categories
Conducting the Literature
Review
Scientific Literature- where you must
concentrate your efforts on the title
Prior Research- will help assure that you
include all of the major relevant constructs in
your study
Literature Review- will help you find and select
appropriate measurement instruments, will
help you anticipate common problems in your
research context
Important Reminders to het you Closer to
Information Sources
1. Select and narrow the research topic
until you come up with the central idea
2. Zero in to your research questions
which can also narrow down the focus
of the research
3. Cover research relevant to all the
variables being studies. Research
explaining the relationship between
variables is a top priority
4. Choose the search strategy and
organize research based on a plan. The
following plans/structures may be
followed
a. Topical order- organized by main
topics
b. Chronological order- time
sequence
c. Problem-cause-solution order-
organize from problem to solution
d. General-to-specific- broad-based
research to specific topic
e. Known-to-unknown- identify
problem and state what is still
unknown
f. Comparison-contrast- similarity
and difference
g. Specific-to-general- make sense
out of specific then draw up a
conclusion
5. Summarize what has been done and
present arguments and evidence about
what research has found and what
needs to be done in the future.
6. After the formal literature review, pose a
formal research question or state a
hypothesis
7. List all the information sources in
alphabetical order in the bibliography
4 Main Points in doing a Review or
Literature
1. Don’t get bogged down and read
only those articles that are relevant
and note other interesting materials
for future reference
2. Don’t entertain the idea that you can
exhaust all possible sources related
to your topic
3. Practice good note-taking and
summarizing/abstracting skills while
you are conducting your library
research work
4. You may opt to reproduce the
portions of the literature surveyed, in
case there’s still the available
 reference material and no need to
make a second visit to the library
Sub-topics- may help you start thinking about
the experiences of organization
6 Steps Employed in the Literature Review
and Search
1. Summarize the topic- the highlights of
the search will depend on the synopsis
or thesis statements
2. Identify the key concepts- look for terms
or key ideas that will require explanation
3. Find related terms and synonyms- find
synonym or equivalent words that can
similarly explain the concepts
4. Build the search- locate the search
engines and the database in the Internet
5. Run your search- actual encounters with
the text of the documents and web
sources
6. Examine results and refine search
strategy- this requires the review of the
initial results and expectations on results
Presenting a Written
Review
Review of Literature- similar to writing term
papers, goal is to summarize information and
to make a statement about a particular topic
Review- should appear cohesive and not
choppy
Thesis statement- is a way of clearly stating
what the researcher plans to support with
evidence
Parts of the Literature Review
1. Introduction- informs the readers of what
is to follow, sets the tone of the research
2. General statement of the Problem-
describes the topic and its significance,
fills the research gaps
3. Summarizing strategies- the substance
of the literature review, giving the
summary of theories and previous
investigation
4. Critical evaluation and Research
Prospects- statements of hypothesis or
research questions must clearly and
logically emanate
Elements of Good Writing Style of
Literature Review- adhere to the basic rules
of clarity
Clear writing- is smooth in terms or
presentation of topics, even the use of
language and the syntax
Standard formula for verb tense- is what
most literature should use
Publication of APA- advocates using the
past tense and perfect tense for literature
reviews
Past tense- should be used to describe the
procedures of a study that have already
been conducted
Present Tense- is used to discuss the
meanings and implications of the results of
the study
Guidelines on Effective Writing of
Literature Review (BOX)
1. Research papers must be written in
a format style which is in third
person, not first person
2. Avoid highly-descriptive writing style,
not appropriate for a scholarly
research
3. Use active voice for direct impact
and easy understanding
4. Avoid the use of jargon, use familiar
terms in place of terminologies
5. Language should be gender neutral,
no sexist languages like his her etc
6. Make the conclusions and
contractions found in the literature
clear in your report
7. Use short sentences, avoid
elongated and run-on experiences
8. Use proper grammar and proofread
your work
9. Never plagiarize, give credit to the
original author or ideas
10. Pay attention to the structure and
form of published articles which are
good examples of literature reviews
can be written
Communicating ideas- is the objective of your
writing
Conclusion- which you should end your writing
that wraps up what you learned in the literature
review process
Interaction- is a learning process that gives
researchers new insight into their area of
research
Most Useful Principles For Instructing a
Research paper
1. Chronological- explains each of the
steps in a time-order process.
Appropriate for a paper describing a
series of historical and etc
2. Comparison and Contrast- presents the
similarities and differences between two
or more persons. Appropriate when a
subject can best be understood by
distinguishing it from other
3. Spatial Pattern- develops the physical
layout of geographical dimensions of a
topic
4. Cause and Effect- presents the events
or forces that produce certain results if
conditions had been different
5. Analysis- process of dividing subject ino
its parts and classifying them
Vagueness- due to too much or inappropriate
generalizations can result to a limited range of
ideas
Two areas of RRL that demonstrate skills
1. Information Seeking- the ability to scan
the literature efficiently using manual or
computerized methods
2. Critical appraisal- the ability to apply
principles of analysis to identify
Analogy- like tree of growing stems and
branches which can show the offshoots of
concepts and ideas
Annex 1: APA Citation Style
APA citation style- refers to the rules and
conventions established by the American
Psychological Association for documenting
sources used in a research paper. Requires in-
text citations and reference list
In-text Citation- there should be a full citation
the reference list and vice versa
Reference Citations In Text- in-text
citations are placed within sentences and
paragraphs so that it is clear what information
is being quoted
Examples are:
Works by a Single Author- the last name of the
author and the year of publication are inserted
in the text at the appropriate point
From theory on bounded
Rationality (Simon, 1945)
Works by multiple authors- when a work has
two authors, always cite both names every
time the reference occurs in the text
Works by associations, corporations,
government agencies, etc- the names of
groups that serves as authors are usually
written out each time they appear in a text
reference. When appropriate, the names of
some corporate authors are spelled out in the
first reference and abbreviated in all
subsequent citations.
Works with no author- use the first two or three
words of the works title as your text reference,
capitalizing each word. Place the title in
quotation marks if it refers to an article
Guide to Agricultural Meteorological Practices
(1981)
Specific Parts of A Source- to cite a specific
part of a source, include the page, chapter, etc
(Stigter & Das, 1981, p.96)
Reference List- references cited in the text of a
research paper must appear in Reference List
or Bibliography
1. Order- entries should be arranged in an
alphabetical order by author’s last
names
2. Authors- write out the last names and
initials for all the authors of a particular
work.
3. Titles- Capitalize only the first word of
the a title or subtitle and any proper
names that are part of title
4. Pagination- Use the abbreviation p. or
pp. to designate page numbers of article
from periodicals
5. Identation- the first line of the entry is
flush with the left margin and all
subsequent lines are indented
6. Underlining vs. Italics- It is appropriate
to use italics instead of underlining for
titles of books and journals
7. Internet address- A stable internet
address should be included and should
direct the reader as close as possible to
the actual work. If the work has a DOI
use DOI if not use a stable URL
8. Date- if the work is a finalized version
published and dated, the date within the
main body of the citation is enough
Examples:
 Articles in journals, magazines and
newspapers
Journal article, one author, accessed online
Journal article, two authors, accessed
online
Journal article, more than two authors,
accessed online
Magazines
Books
Newspapers and dabo pa
Understanding and
Collecting Qualitative Data
Quali Research- is based on the
assumption that individuals construct their
social reality in the form of meanings and
interpretations. Involves narrative data
Quali Data Collection methods- aims to
capture what people say about these
meanings and interpretations. Reading,
rereading and exploring the data. Requires
you to interpret the information gathered,
most often without the benefit of statistical
support
Main Data Collection Devices
1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Artifacts like records and documents
4. Oral histories
5. Specimen Records
Interview Process- allows the researcher to
vary what questions are asked
Decipher the components of a phenomena
following an inductive analysis- the
fundamental benefit of a qualitative design
Charecteristics of Qualitative Data Collection
(BOX)
1. Use of open-ended and less structured
protocols
2. Reliance on immersive interviews like
informants may be interviewed several
times to follow up on a particular issue
3. Use of triangulation to increase the
credibility of their findings
4. Findings are not generalizable to any
specific population, rather each case
study produces a single piece of
evidence
Open-ended questions- are used to make the
participants come up with their own responses.
Useful for obtaining in-depth formation which
the researcher is not very familiar
Completely open-ended questions- allow you
to probe more deeply, thus providing new
insights
Steps in Data Collection for Qualitative
Research (BOX)
1. Perform a literature review of the topic
to discover what evidence is already
available with a wide range of sources
from trusted journals, books and experts
2. Use the findings of the literature review
to refine the objectives of the study
3. Investigate various approaches used in
qualitative research and when they can
be applied
4. Choose a research approach while
considering the subject, the amount of
evidence already published to meet
research objectives
5. Create a data collection tool, such as an
interview tool but prevent bias and
extract as much useful information
suitable for analysis using your chosen
method
6. Select the participants rich with
experience, and should not just be
selected randomly but purposively
7. Record the interview or discussion data
in an appropriate way
8. Transcribe your data into written text,
and covert ideas into themes using the
appropriate method
Thick Description- a way to achieve on delving
on the views and meanings of the people
involved in the research. Develops from the
primacy of data and the context. Deep. Dense.
Detailed accounts of problematic experiences.
Cornerstone of the quali research. Includes
theoretical and analytic description
Primary or peak of data- drives you to find out
rich and in-depth data collected from the
participants
Generation of Concepts- basis for theorizing
and as the product of the research act
Theoretical Framework- is not pre-determined
but based on the incoming data
Rapport- does not automatically imply an
intimate relationship or deep friendship
Grounded Theory- to think of the concern for
the generation of a theory
Immersion in the setting- the key to 4. Action Research- the researcher is part
achievement of context .This techniques uses of what is being studied
strategies of observing in the real world of the
participants Common Methods

Immersion- can mean attending meetings with 1. Participant observation

or about the informants
Emic Perspective- makes way for data
collection in quali research. This method
provides insights and meanings as viewed by
the participants
Emic- coined by the linguist Pike which means
a procedure in data collection where the
researchers attempt to examine the
experiences of the people they study
Scope- the domain and the coverage of the
inquiry
Inductive Reasoning- starts with research
questions, but does not usually form
hypothesis
Conduct of a scholarly literature review- where
the strength of the quali researcher lies in
Research design- allows the data-gathering
with interpretation of results until the
conclusions are arrived at
Quali methods- are useful when a question
cannot be answered by a simple yes or no
hypothesis
Research question- must be clear specific and
manageable. Is one of the most important
pieces of the research design
Quali Inquiry- can shape how the study will be
conducted since different questions require
different methods of inquiry
Literature Review- is the process of studying of
what others have written about the research
question
Qualitative study- aims to explore not explain
the phenomena
Question- where quali studies begin
Examples of Quali Approaches
1. Ethnography- immersing yourself in one
specific culture or group of people to
conduct in-depth interviews and
observations
2. Phenomenology- exploring the
participants’ subjective interpretations
3. Grounded Theory- creating new theory
that is grounded in the data
2. Direct Observation
3. Interviewing
4. Document Reviews
Quali Research Designing
Basis on the Important factors to Consider in
designing a qualitative research (BOX)
1. Questions
2. Problem
3. Method
4. Scope of the Inquiry
5. Nature of the data
6. Creativity of the researcher on
controlling the topic of investigation
Focus Groups or In-depth Interviews- are
techniques to account for behavior and
experience in digging into the social reality of
the participants
5 Guiding Principles in Designing the Quali
Inquiry
1. Establish Purpose- What are you
asking?
2. Locate Methodology- Never start with
the method and then seek a topic
3. Define Scope- Define the scope of your
project
4. Plan the nature of your data- What sorts
of data will be available and relevant?
5. Think ahead- How satisfying will this
study be?
Sample and Sampling Procedures
Sampling- is a good and rational choice of the
participants who can provide in-depth data
through the interview or discussion process.
Done purposively
Purposive Sampling- also referred to as
judgment, selective or subjective sampling is a
non-probability sampling method that is
characterized by a deliberate effort to gain
representative samples. Mainly popular in
qualitative studies.
Data Collection Methods and Analysis
Quali Research data Collection Methods- are
time consuming with data usually collected
from a smaller sample
Main Methods For Collecting Qualitative Data
 1. Individual Interviews
2. Focus Group Discussions
3. Observations

Quali research methods- are continually

evolving as pattern and styles of human
interaction and communication

Interviews- can be conducted at a participants’

home or at a public location. Can be
unstructured but with depth yet may have very
little structure

Paired Interview- is consecutive or interlocking

with two people

Focused Interview- is a moderator-led

discussion among a group of individuals who
share a need relevant to research issues. Can
be conducted remotely

In-depth Interview- is a one-on-one technique

with a single individual, typically lasting from
30-90 minutes, depending on the subject
matter or context

Semi-structured Interviews- are sometimes

called as focused interviews with a series of
open-ended questions based on the topic
areas you want to conduct. Allows you to
prompt or encourage the interviewee. This
method gives you the freedom to probe the
interviewee to elaborate

Structured Interview- asks the participants the

same questions in the same way but a tightly
scheduled is used

Focus Group Discussion- the data collection

method in obtaining qualitative information
from a group instead of individual

Group Interviews- can be used when you have

limited resources

Focus groups- are panels, facilitated by a

moderator. Can quickly and cheaply identif
core issue of a topic

Groups- are rarely more than a dozen

members