PRACTICAL RESEARCH REVIEWER PRE
The research question should be evocative-
FINALS
Central Versus Sub-Questions in
Qualitative Research
Central- the most general question you could ask
Sub-questions- subdivides central question into more
specific topical questions. Limited number
State the basic problem- prompts the research, a useful
way to approach quali research
Set of research objectives- research aims to achieve,
can be formulated based on the research concepts and
specific questions
Objectives- stated in the form of infinitive verb
The quali research problem must meet the following
requirements
1. Specificity- concreteness of concepts in the
problem
2. Operationability- assigning values to the
concepts in an operational way
3. Implicability- with some considerations given to
the units of analysis to shed light on the
phenomenon
Locus problem- selection of the ultimate subject matter
for inquiry in social science research
Units of analysis- basis of the research concepts and
can influence research design
Tips in Finding a Quali Research Problem:
1. Read communication journals
2. Look around and observe the goings-on in
society
3. Think from experience or personal encounters
with people and organizations
4. Tinker with a theory and a “light bulb” will spark
an idea
How can your problem surface out and bring into
focus
1. Observe and talk to people with interest with
problematic situation that can trigger a research
question
2. Read literature and journals
3. Talk to experts
4. Count on your experience as this could be your
best teacher
7 Sources of Qualitative Research Problem
1. Professional Literature
2. Theories
3. Observations and institutions
4. Organizational Problems
5. Fields of interest/specializations
6. Existing practices and needs
7. Extension of investigations already done
Research Question
1. The research question should be clear-
conceptually straightforward, and jargon free.
2. The research question should be researchable-
and clearly doable.
3. The research question should be iterative- is an
approach where insight and learning are
gathered allowing ideas or concepts to be
developed
4.
should catch the interest of te readers and can
be drawn into the proposed study
5. The research question should be relevant-
clearly demonstrated relevance of research
question
Iterative Quali Research- allows certain dynamism in
investigating a problem with great flexibility
Stimuli- starts the research
Meaning- provided to the repeatable formulation
Interplay between the elements of the research-
example of an iterative quali research.
Research Problem must be
1. Original/Unique
2. New and different from what was done before
3. Significant to the field/value
4. Arouse intellectual curiosity
Criterion of narrowness- required in developing the
usable research questions
Evocative questions- often distilled from very
contemporary social or theoretical concerns
Provocative paradox- where we should frame the
question
Checklist in developing Effective Quali Research
Problem
1. The problem must be focused and specific
with available sources (time, research expertise,
data, tools, financial support)
2. The dimensions of the problem should be
described in objective (neutral) rather than
subjective terms
3. The problem must be described sufficiently
so that people can comprehend it
4. The researcher’s start of the problem may be
intuitive, but must be developed logically
5. The problem explanation must provide the
reason (justification) for the research
objective.
Literature as Cornerstone of
Qualitative Research
Julius Caesar- wrote the latin phrase “veni, vidi, vici” ,
achieved the victory in Pharnaces of Pontus at the Battle
of Zelain
“I came”- the first step in going through the pages of a
literature
“I saw”- next move which is to locate and find citations
Review of Relevant Literature (rrl)- is the cornerstone of
qualitative researchwhich places it in context
Literature review- is a place to highlight relevant
contributions that addresses the questions that you are
asking. This summarizes and assess therange of
existing literature
Present themes or identify trends- purpose in writing rrl
Search Strategy
Search strategy- procedure that is a systematic means
of of acquiring and appraising information to illuminate a
subject matter. Provides a coherent overview of
information sources.
Concept of the search tactic- is intended to be practically
useful in information seeking. Is general yet non-trivial
Search proper- threading one’s away through the file
structure of the information facility to find desired
sources
4 Types of Tactics in Search Strategy
1. Monitoring Tactics- designed to keep the search
on track and efficient
2. File Structure Tactics- are techniques for
threading one’s way through the file structure of
the information facility
3. Search Formulation Tactics- designed to aid in
the process of designing or redesigning the
search formulation
4. Term Tactics- designed to aid in the selection
and revision of specific terms within the search
formulation
Sourcing strategy in Research- finds and examine the
body of literature to back up a research question.
Literature- means a body of knowledge that refers to all
published writings in a particular style. Collection of
information and data relevant to research question which
is the crux of the quali inquiry
Research Question- referred to as the research problem
that provides the context for the research study
Review of the Literature- is an essential part of the
academic research to entail a careful examination of the
sources of information
3 General Variants in the Pathfinder of information
sources for the Literature Review
1. Paper Trail- the literature reviewed includes
scholarly books and journals
2. People Trail- includes interviews and
documentation of oral discourse from experts
3. Electronic Tail- authoritative bases and websites
through online sourcing
Sources- can be considered primary and secondary
sources
Primary Sources- fundamental documents relating to a
particular subject or idea. They are first-hand accounts
(e.g thesis, dissertations or research papers). Accessible
as hard copy. Basic materials with little or no
annototations
Secondary Sources- documents or recordings that relate
to or discuss information originally presented elsewhere.
Accessible as physical form or electronically derived
from the internet (e.g books, journals and general
info documents). Derived from materials with analysis
General Sources- which you can browse to gain an
understanding of topics. These may help you formulate o
develop research topic. Integral component of the
scientific process
These Sources or General Sources include:
1. Textbooks- collection of writings in a subject
area such as annuals (compact book of facts
dealing with any topic) and scholarly handbook
or vade mecum (Latin phrase which means “go
with me”)
2. Encyclopedias- all-embracing compilations of
information with multi-faceted approach to a
subject
3. Dictionaries- alphabetical arrangement of words
and their meanings, an abbreviated type of
subject encyclopedia
4. Annual Reviews- yearly summaries of current
research activities useful for selecting and
refining research topic or question
5. Bibliographies- list of citation to sources. An
alphabetical listing by author
6. Indexes- provide a way of finding additional
materials, arrange by subject headings
7. Abstracts- paragraph-length summaries or
considerations of scholarly articles published in
books and journals
8. Scholarly Journals- vehicles for
reporting current studies conducted by
professional organization
9. Professional/Trade Periodicals- provide
important sources of information and insight in a
given field
Systematic Review- aims to provide an exhaustive
summary of literature relevant to research question
Thorough search of the literature for relevant papers-
first step of a systematic review
Conduct of the Literature Search- one of the first step
even before a quali research takes a full blossoming to
illuminate a certain topic or phenomenon
Steps In Literature Review
1. Work closely on your research problem and sub-
problems to identify more specific keywords-
Brainstorm your research problem. This will help
you to identify narrower topics you need to read
more
2. Find out related keywords- Look for them with
your research problem and sub-problems as
guides
3. Locate related-literature- start looking for your
related sources with the keywords in searching
related literature
4. Make searches with specific keywords- different
types of catalogues and databases can show
many results
5. Create the list of the desired sources- you need
to always read and keep updating it
6. Find your sources and look them over- make
remarks on your sources list that comes out not
to be helpful or not found
7. Develop and maintain a systematic tool for
recording relevant information- you can use
bibliography cards for recording relevant
information about each source.
Criteria in Evaluating Literature Resources
1. Type of source- a particular work may be
primary or secondary source according to your
purpose
2. Objectivity- when the source has no bias or
prejudice caused by the author’s affiliation or
allegiances
3. Qualification of the author- credentials of an
author for writing the work
4. Level- determine the level of a work in areas
such as diction for a wide audience that are too
general for your research
Bibliography- needs to be developed to gather
information for your research
Books and articles- appear to be relevant to your topic
that should be listed systematically
Bibliography cards example
The search process in the context of the qualitative
inquiry involves four major steps
1. Question Analysis- refers to the researchers’
approach to narrowing and defining the
information needed
2. Information Sources- refers to the three major
repositories of information such as informal,
institutional and library/databases sources.
 3. Interviews- represent a traditional method that is
widely recognized and used, getting info by
talking to people
4. Selection and Synthesis- include opportunities to
appraise the quality and relevance of the
materials
Identify a research topic and clarify specific questions for
investigations- necessary skills that simplify the research
process by providing an organized direction and outline
RRL- identifies gaps in current knowledge and research
about the topic of interest
Inter-disciplinary research areas- are known as high-
scatter fields because useful information can be found
within the publication that is scattered across scattered
disciplines
Objectives of Review of Literature in Quali Research
accdg to Hart, 1998

Search Strategy method- saves time and energy and 1. To distinguish what has been done from what
helps produce a relevant and informative literature needs to be done
review 2. To discover important variables relevant to the
topic
Literature search- involve a great deal of work 3. To synthesize and gain a new perspective, and
identify difference between ideas and practice
Conceptual literature- contains literature coming from 4. To establish the context of the topic or problem
boos and other forms of materials coming from both 5. To rationalize the significance of the problem
foreign and local sources 6. To enhance and acquire the subject vocabulary
7. To understand the structure of the subject
Two Parts Of Reviewing Sources of Information
8. To relate ideas and theories to application
1. Related Literature- comes from books and other 9. To identify methodologies and techniques that
general reference materials which give have been used
explanation to concepts 10. To place the research in historical context and
2. Related Studies- are taken from research show familiarity with state-of-the-art
documents which provide some findings related developments
to your own research
Distinction between Games and Gamification
Review- may for an essential part of the research
Game Gamification
process or may constitute a research project itself, a
Games have defined May just be a
critical synthesis of previous research rules and objectives collection of tasks with
points or some form of
Comparison of the differences between good and reward
bad literature review There is possibility of Losing may or may not
losing be possible because
Good Literature Bad Literature the point is to motivate
review Review people to take some
A synthesis of An annotated action and do
available sources of bibliography, loose something
information summary Sometimes just Being intrinsically
A critical evaluation on A mere description of playing the game is rewarding is optional
importance of sources sources and facts intrinsically rewarding
An interpretation and A cut-and-paste Games are usually Gamification is usually
paraphrase of facts collage of information hard and expensive to easier and cheaper
An appropriate breadth A narrow and shallow build
and depth collection of facts Content is usually Usually game like
A clear and concise A confusing and morphed to fit the story features are added
presentation loving-windling and scenes of the without making too
statement of facts game many changes to your
A systematic outline of A cluttered and content
ideas disorganized set of
facts
A fair citation of An omission of Four types of players in Games
sources sources ending up as
plagiarism 1. The achievers- who need to be at the top, will do
A rigorous and A construction of ideas whatever it takes to complete the course/ valid
consistent method in arbitrary, topsy-turvy for educational games
manner
2. The explorers- who need to find something new,
will discover all that the game has to offer
Literature Review- reflects on every step to evaluate the thereby covering the whole course/ valid for
evidence-based practice educational games
3. The socializers- who need to interact with
Evidence-based practice- is both a goal and a process, others, will work with all the players of the game
serving as the starting point for the quali research but may not complete the course
4. The killers- who need to eliminate other players,
Initial search of the literature- is what researchers carry
by suing a set of words that will be developed using a Game Features- are motivational in giving points to
brainstorming technique tasks that need to be completed

Review of the Literature Includes:
1. Background of the study
2. Synthesis of relevant information
3. Discussion of the importance of the topic
Gamification- suggests by using game thinking and
game design elements to improve learners’ engagement
and motivation

Making Citations for
Literature
Variation of Disciplines to unique formats of
Documentation of Research Assigned
1. APA- psychological, education, communication
and other social sciences
2. MLA- literature, arts and humanities
3. AMA- medicine, health and biological sciences
4. Turabian- designed for college students to use
with all subjects
5. Chicago- used with all subjects in the real world
by books, magazines, etc.
American Psychological Association (APA)- one of
the essential skills every researcher should possess
to effectively communicate research results and
analytics. Gives an opportunity to structure research
manuscript. In which formatting of the research
follows. Developed for social sciences. Mandates an
overall structure for a professional research
document.
Modern Language Association (MLA)- one of the
several styles usually used in literature, arts and
humanities to provide consistent standards for
writing citations
American Medical Association (AMA)- the style used
primarily biology and medical majors when writing
research papers. It uses just the initials of authors’
first and middle names in the references
TURABIAN- the style spoused by Kate L. Turabian
in a Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Thesis,
Dissertations which presents two basic
documentation systems: notes-bibliography style
and author-date style
Styles- are essentially the same with slight
modifications for the needs of student writers
Parenthetical Citations- are amplified in a list of
references where full bibliographic information is
provided
CHICAGO- the style based on the Chicago Manual
of Style which covers a variety of topics from
manuscript preparation, called “editors’ bible”
Notes- Bibliography System- in which materials in
the resources focus primarily
Author-Date System- nearly identical in content nut
slightly different in form and is preferred in the social
sciences
References- where various sources of information is
listed at the end of the research manuscript
APA Publication Manual- is the style manual of
choice for researchers, designed to help writers in
behavioral and social sciences
APA Format- has its own peculiarities and limitations
and has many similarities with other writing styles.
Citation- one of the most important aspects of APA
format
Title page of APA thesis- should contain the title of
the research paper, the author’s name and the name
of the institution
Footnotes- should not be used when writing APA
thesis
Ethics of Writing Literature
Ethical aspects in writing- are still high-and-mighty
Online Research- has become a by-word in the
emerging IT society that makes available and fast
access thru the internet.
Internet Research- a host of search engines where
data can be drawn via Internet
Research- is vulnerable to certain misconducts
Research Misconduct- precluding honest error or
differences of opinion. A fabrication, falsification or
plagiarism.
Sub-Components of Research Misconducts
1. Fabrication- is making up data or results and
recording or reporting them
2. Falsification- is manipulating research
materials such that there search is not
accurately represented in the research
record
3. Plagiarism- is the appropriation of another
person’s ideas and process without giving
appropriate credit
Northwestern University Guideposts to Avoid
Plagiarism
1. Cite all ideas and information that is not
your own and/or is not common knowledge
2. Always use quotation marks if you are using
someone else’s word then cite source
3. Even in paraphrases, you must show the
work is someone else’s idea and place the
proper citation
Redundant Publication- a special type of plagiarism that
invokes the copyright infringement. ICMJE defines this
act as a duplicate publication paper that over laps
substantially with one already published. More serious
than plain plagiarism. A total submission of research
manuscript that has already been published in toto
elsewhere.
Unauthorized ownership- is another nagging issue
especially in student researches where advising is the
usual contribution of the research adviser
Authorship- remains a questionable manner for many
researchers who have difficulty in deciding whom to
include as authors and co-authors
Reporting and Analyzing results- is the key to applying
research findings to the real world
Issue on copyright and authorship- is also a serious
matter in research which entails a policy set by the
school on intellectual property
Intellectual property- defined to include any inventions,
know-how and show-how
Intellectual Property Encompasses Two Things:
 1. New and useful processes
2. The physical embodiments of intellectual efforts
(e.g compositions of matter, plants and records
of research)
Research- considered a traditional academic
copyrightable work as a subset of copyrightable works
created independently
Certifications on authorship- a general rule and what
research must include for it dispel the issue on
plagiarism and also giving assurance and safeguard to
the intellectual work
Ethical standards against plagiarism and unauthorized
ownership- bring the idea of copyright for it guarantees
protection on ownership of intellectual property of the
researcher.
Sample certificates on authorship and copyright
page
Ethical Requirements to help Researchers steer
clear on the Moral problems in any Investigation
1. Honor thy intellectual property- give only credit
when its due
2. Respect Confidentiality of Information- soliciting
volunteer information from sources may get into
some individual beliefs and actions on varied
topics
Reviewing Thru Disciplinary
Approaches
Expanse of Human Intellect- renders an insatiable quest
for information that usually does not stand alone
Multi-disciplinary technique- additive process from
multiple disciplines
Cross-disciplinary- sharing of information across
discipline
Therapeutic Communication- is a form of psychotherapy
that uses verbal and non-verbal techniques
Findings or results of the related studies- should be
objective and free of biases
Journal- is a periodical publish by academic
organizations usually quarterly which contains research
reports
Tips in Recording Research Information
1. Note Cards- the use of note cards is indeed
valuable to follow the logic and the development
of each source
2. System for Note-taking- before you begin to take
notes, enter on the card information you will
need to link the note card
3. Form- you may choose the record information in
one of two basic forms: direct quotations for
accuracy and summary
Summary- a brief statement of the original materials in
your own cards.
2 major places you can visit for Information and
Data Source
1. Libraries- are knowledge storehouses which
carry a collection of books and periodicals
2. Electronic Information Services- are specialized
to meet the needs of researchers in particular
fields including communication. Two primary
kinds are: On-line Database and Compact-Disc
Read-Only Memory
3 Kinds Of Libraries
1. Public or general use libraries- stock a broad
range of materials to serve its community
2. Research libraries- such as those in universities
and colleges which have a collection of scholarly
journals than books
3. Special-use libraries- archives store original
records and documents that are useful in
conducting historical research
Cataloguing system- which libraries adopt to decide
where any given piece of research can be found
2 Cataloguing Systems Most commonly used:
1. Dewey Decimal System- most commonly used
in public libraries employing general headings
with call numbers assigned
2. Library of Congress- uses letters to designate its
major categories
Conducting the Literature
Review
Scientific Literature- where you must concentrate your
efforts on the title
Prior Research- will help assure that you include all of
the major relevant constructs in your study
Literature Review- will help you find and select
appropriate measurement instruments, will help you
anticipate common problems in your research context
Important Reminders to het you Closer to
Information Sources
1. Select and narrow the research topic until you
come up with the central idea
2. Zero in to your research questions which can
also narrow down the focus of the research
3. Cover research relevant to all the variables
being studies. Research explaining the
relationship between variables is a top priority
4. Choose the search strategy and organize
research based on a plan. The following
plans/structures may be followed
a. Topical order- organized by main topics
b. Chronological order- time sequence
c. Problem-cause-solution order- organize
from problem to solution
d. General-to-specific- broad-based
research to specific topic
e. Known-to-unknown- identify problem
and state what is still unknown
f. Comparison-contrast- similarity and
difference
g. Specific-to-general- make sense out of
specific then draw up a conclusion
5. Summarize what has been done and present
arguments and evidence about what research
has found and what needs to be done in the
future.
 6. After the formal literature review, pose a formal
research question or state a hypothesis
7. List all the information sources in alphabetical
order in the bibliography
4 Main Points in doing a Review or Literature
1. Don’t get bogged down and read only those
articles that are relevant and note other
interesting materials for future reference
2. Don’t entertain the idea that you can
exhaust all possible sources related to your
topic
3. Practice good note-taking and
summarizing/abstracting skills while you are
conducting your library research work
4. You may opt to reproduce the portions of
the literature surveyed, in case there’s still
the available reference material and no
need to make a second visit to the library
Sub-topics- may help you start thinking about the
experiences of organization
6 Steps Employed in the Literature Review and
Search
1. Summarize the topic- the highlights of the
search will depend on the synopsis or thesis
statements
2. Identify the key concepts- look for terms or key
ideas that will require explanation
3. Find related terms and synonyms- find synonym
or equivalent words that can similarly explain the
concepts
4. Build the search- locate the search engines and
the database in the Internet
5. Run your search- actual encounters with the text
of the documents and web sources
6. Examine results and refine search strategy- this
requires the review of the initial results and
expectations on results
Presenting a Written Review
Review of Literature- similar to writing term papers, goal
is to summarize information and to make a statement
about a particular topic
Review- should appear cohesive and not choppy
Thesis statement- is a way of clearly stating what the
researcher plans to support with evidence
Parts of the Literature Review
1. Introduction- informs the readers of what is to
follow, sets the tone of the research
2. General statement of the Problem- describes the
topic and its significance, fills the research gaps
3. Summarizing strategies- the substance of the
literature review, giving the summary of theories
and previous investigation
4. Critical evaluation and Research Prospects-
statements of hypothesis or research questions
must clearly and logically emanate
Elements of Good Writing Style of Literature
Review- adhere to the basic rules of clarity
Clear writing- is smooth in terms or presentation of
topics, even the use of language and the syntax
Standard formula for verb tense- is what most
literature should use
Publication of APA- advocates using the past tense
and perfect tense for literature reviews
Past tense- should be used to describe the
procedures of a study that have already been
conducted
Present Tense- is used to discuss the meanings and
implications of the results of the study
Guidelines on Effective Writing of Literature
Review (BOX)
1. Research papers must be written in a format
style which is in third person, not first person
2. Avoid highly-descriptive writing style, not
appropriate for a scholarly research
3. Use active voice for direct impact and easy
understanding
4. Avoid the use of jargon, use familiar terms
in place of terminologies
5. Language should be gender neutral, no
sexist languages like his her etc
6. Make the conclusions and contractions
found in the literature clear in your report
7. Use short sentences, avoid elongated and
run-on experiences
8. Use proper grammar and proofread your
work
9. Never plagiarize, give credit to the original
author or ideas
10. Pay attention to the structure and form of
published articles which are good examples
of literature reviews can be written
Communicating ideas- is the objective of your writing
Conclusion- which you should end your writing that
wraps up what you learned in the literature review
process
Interaction- is a learning process that gives researchers
new insight into their area of research
Most Useful Principles For Instructing a Research
paper
1. Chronological- explains each of the steps in a
time-order process. Appropriate for a paper
describing a series of historical and etc
2. Comparison and Contrast- presents the
similarities and differences between two or more
persons. Appropriate when a subject can best
be understood by distinguishing it from other
3. Spatial Pattern- develops the physical layout of
geographical dimensions of a topic
4. Cause and Effect- presents the events or forces
that produce certain results if conditions had
been different
5. Analysis- process of dividing subject ino its parts
and classifying them
Vagueness- due to too much or inappropriate
generalizations can result to a limited range of ideas
Two areas of RRL that demonstrate skills
1. Information Seeking- the ability to scan the
literature efficiently using manual or
computerized methods
 2. Critical appraisal- the ability to apply principles
of analysis to identify
Analogy- like tree of growing stems and branches which
can show the offshoots of concepts and ideas
Annex 1: APA Citation Style
APA citation style- refers to the rules and conventions
established by the American Psychological Association
for documenting sources used in a research paper.
Requires in-text citations and reference list
In-text Citation- there should be a full citation the
reference list and vice versa
Reference Citations In Text- in-text citations are
placed within sentences and paragraphs so that it is
clear what information is being quoted
Examples are:
Works by a Single Author- the last name of the author
and the year of publication are inserted in the text at the
appropriate point
From theory on bounded
Rationality (Simon, 1945)
Works by multiple authors- when a work has two
authors, always cite both names every time the
reference occurs in the text
Works by associations, corporations, government
agencies, etc- the names of groups that serves as
authors are usually written out each time they appear in
a text reference. When appropriate, the names of some
corporate authors are spelled out in the first reference
and abbreviated in all subsequent citations.
Works with no author- use the first two or three words of
the works title as your text reference, capitalizing each
word. Place the title in quotation marks if it refers to an
article
Guide to Agricultural Meteorological Practices (1981)
Specific Parts of A Source- to cite a specific part of a
source, include the page, chapter, etc
(Stigter & Das, 1981, p.96)
Reference List- references cited in the text of a
research paper must appear in Reference List or
Bibliography
1. Order- entries should be arranged in an
alphabetical order by author’s last names
2. Authors- write out the last names and initials for
all the authors of a particular work.
3. Titles- Capitalize only the first word of the a title
or subtitle and any proper names that are part of
title
4. Pagination- Use the abbreviation p. or pp. to
designate page numbers of article from
periodicals
5. Identation- the first line of the entry is flush with
the left margin and all subsequent lines are
indented
6. Underlining vs. Italics- It is appropriate to use
italics instead of underlining for titles of books
and journals
7. Internet address- A stable internet address
should be included and should direct the reader
as close as possible to the actual work. If the
work has a DOI use DOI if not use a stable URL
8. Date- if the work is a finalized version published
and dated, the date within the main body of the
citation is enough
Examples:
Articles in journals, magazines and newspapers
Journal article, one author, accessed online
Journal article, two authors, accessed online
Journal article, more than two authors, accessed
online
Magazines
Books
Newspapers and dabo pa
Understanding and Collecting
Qualitative Data
Quali Research- is based on the assumption that
individuals construct their social reality in the form of
meanings and interpretations. Involves narrative
data
Quali Data Collection methods- aims to capture what
people say about these meanings and
interpretations. Reading, rereading and exploring the
data. Requires you to interpret the information
gathered, most often without the benefit of statistical
support
Main Data Collection Devices
1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Artifacts like records and documents
4. Oral histories
5. Specimen Records
Interview Process- allows the researcher to vary what
questions are asked
Decipher the components of a phenomena following an
inductive analysis- the fundamental benefit of a
qualitative design
Charecteristics of Qualitative Data Collection (BOX)
1. Use of open-ended and less structured
protocols
2. Reliance on immersive interviews like
informants may be interviewed several times to
follow up on a particular issue
3. Use of triangulation to increase the credibility of
their findings
4. Findings are not generalizable to any specific
population, rather each case study produces a
single piece of evidence
Open-ended questions- are used to make the
participants come up with their own responses. Useful
for obtaining in-depth formation which the researcher is
not very familiar
Completely open-ended questions- allow you to probe Conduct of a scholarly literature review- where the
more deeply, thus providing new insights strength of the quali researcher lies in

Steps in Data Collection for Qualitative Research
(BOX)
1. Perform a literature review of the topic to
discover what evidence is already available with
a wide range of sources from trusted journals,
books and experts
2. Use the findings of the literature review to refine
the objectives of the study
3. Investigate various approaches used in
qualitative research and when they can be
applied
4. Choose a research approach while considering
the subject, the amount of evidence already
published to meet research objectives
5. Create a data collection tool, such as an
interview tool but prevent bias and extract as
much useful information suitable for analysis
using your chosen method
6. Select the participants rich with experience, and
should not just be selected randomly but
purposively
7. Record the interview or discussion data in an
appropriate way
8. Transcribe your data into written text, and covert
ideas into themes using the appropriate method
Thick Description- a way to achieve on delving on the
views and meanings of the people involved in the
research. Develops from the primacy of data and the
context. Deep. Dense. Detailed accounts of problematic
experiences. Cornerstone of the quali research. Includes
theoretical and analytic description
Primary or peak of data- drives you to find out rich and
in-depth data collected from the participants
Generation of Concepts- basis for theorizing and as the
product of the research act
Theoretical Framework- is not pre-determined but based
on the incoming data
Rapport- does not automatically imply an intimate
relationship or deep friendship
Research design- allows the data-gathering with
interpretation of results until the conclusions are arrived
at
Quali methods- are useful when a question cannot be
answered by a simple yes or no hypothesis
Research question- must be clear specific and
manageable. Is one of the most important pieces of the
research design
Quali Inquiry- can shape how the study will be
conducted since different questions require different
methods of inquiry
Literature Review- is the process of studying of what
others have written about the research question
Qualitative study- aims to explore not explain the
phenomena
Question- where quali studies begin
Examples of Quali Approaches
1. Ethnography- immersing yourself in one specific
culture or group of people to conduct in-depth
interviews and observations
2. Phenomenology- exploring the participants’
subjective interpretations
3. Grounded Theory- creating new theory that is
grounded in the data
4. Action Research- the researcher is part of what
is being studied
Common Methods
1. Participant observation
2. Direct Observation
3. Interviewing
4. Document Reviews
Quali Research Designing
Basis on the Important factors to Consider in
designing a qualitative research (BOX)

Grounded Theory- to think of the concern for the 1. Questions

generation of a theory 2. Problem
3. Method
Immersion in the setting- the key to achievement of 4. Scope of the Inquiry
context .This techniques uses strategies of observing in 5. Nature of the data
the real world of the participants 6. Creativity of the researcher on controlling the
topic of investigation
Immersion- can mean attending meetings with or about
the informants Focus Groups or In-depth Interviews- are techniques to
account for behavior and experience in digging into the
Emic Perspective- makes way for data collection in quali
social reality of the participants
research. This method provides insights and meanings
as viewed by the participants 5 Guiding Principles in Designing the Quali Inquiry

Emic- coined by the linguist Pike which means a
procedure in data collection where the researchers
attempt to examine the experiences of the people they
study
Scope- the domain and the coverage of the inquiry
Inductive Reasoning- starts with research questions, but
does not usually form hypothesis
1. Establish Purpose- What are you asking?
2. Locate Methodology- Never start with the
method and then seek a topic
3. Define Scope- Define the scope of your project
4. Plan the nature of your data- What sorts of data
will be available and relevant?
5. Think ahead- How satisfying will this study be?

Sample and Sampling
Procedures
Sampling- is a good and rational choice of the
participants who can provide in-depth data through the
interview or discussion process. Done purposively
Purposive Sampling- also referred to as judgment,
selective or subjective sampling is a non-probability
sampling method that is characterized by a deliberate
effort to gain representative samples. Mainly popular in
qualitative studies.
Data Collection Methods and
Analysis
Quali Research data Collection Methods- are time
consuming with data usually collected from a smaller
sample
Main Methods For Collecting Qualitative Data
1. Individual Interviews
2. Focus Group Discussions
3. Observations
Quali research methods- are continually evolving as
pattern and styles of human interaction and
communication
Interviews- can be conducted at a participants’ home or
at a public location. Can be unstructured but with depth
yet may have very little structure
Paired Interview- is consecutive or interlocking with two
people
Focused Interview- is a moderator-led discussion among
a group of individuals who share a need relevant to
research issues. Can be conducted remotely
In-depth Interview- is a one-on-one technique with a
single individual, typically lasting from 30-90 minutes,
depending on the subject matter or context
Semi-structured Interviews- are sometimes called as
focused interviews with a series of open-ended
questions based on the topic areas you want to conduct.
Allows you to prompt or encourage the interviewee. This
method gives you the freedom to probe the interviewee
to elaborate
Structured Interview- asks the participants the same
questions in the same way but a tightly scheduled is
used
Focus Group Discussion- the data collection method in
obtaining qualitative information from a group instead of
individual. Manageable size is 6-10 people
Group Interviews- can be used when you have limited
resources
Focus groups- are panels, facilitated by a moderator.
Can quickly and cheaply identif core issue of a topic
Groups- are rarely more than a dozen members
Participant Observation- involves taking lengthy and
descriptive notes of what is happening in natural settings
Observation- can sometimes obtain more reliable
information about certain things. Can also serve as a
technique for verifying or nullifying information provided
Primary source- original or first-hand account . of the
event or experience. More desirable.
Secondary source- has undergone interpretation
Two Types of Criticisms
1. External Criticism- is used to determine the
physical authenticity of the record or document
2. Internal Criticism- is employed to assess the
degree, within the content of a record or
document
Qualitative data Analysis- is the process of moving from
the raw interview data that have been collected as part
of the research study
Interviews contain informations such as
1. A person’s interpretation of the world in which
they find themselves at any given moment
2. How they come to have that point of view of
their situation or environment in which they find
themselves
3. How they relate to others within their world
4. How they cope within their world
5. Their own view of their history and the history of
others who share their own experiences and
situations
6. How they identify and see themselves and
others who share their own experiences and
situations
Coding techniques
1. Open-coding – the first organization of the data
to try to make some sense of it
2. Axial Coding- a way of interconnecting the data
3. Selective coding- building of a story that
connects the data
Skills needed in Data Analysis as Evidence of Quali
Research
1. Examining
2. Categorizing
3. Tabulating
4. Recombining
Simplified version of the data analysis procedures
1. First of all the interview transcript will be read in
their entirety to get the whole picture
2. The interview transcript will then be divided into
meaning units from the words of the participants
3. Then the meaning units which are found to have
similar focus or content are categorized and
integrated in order to clarify the sense of the
qualitative study
4. Transform meaning units into words and
phrases and determines whoch of the term is
essential for the phenomena being studied
5. When Qualitative data analysis is complete,
there will then follow a critical analysis of the
data verified with the participants about the
essential meanings in the transcriptions as raw
data
 6. Historical research- which relies on records and
Presenting Methodology other artifacts to explain past events

Methodology- steps inherent to qualitative inquiry. Set of

procedures is meant to gather data characterized by Technique To Produce Creative
depth and breadth to fulfill the requirements of a quali Work
research
Use of metaphor- could be a creative function of a quali
Methodology of Quali Research
researcher
1. Tradition of Inquiry
Metaphor- figure of speech in which a term or phrase is
2. Techniques
applied to something. Can help describe the quali
3. Sampling techniques and Procedure
research processes and results
4. Making the research instrument
5. Data generation and informed consent Metaphorical Concepts- by George Lakoff and Mark
6. Tools used in gathering qualitative data Johnson, has led to the creation of an evaluation method
for quali research
Tradition of Inquiry- traces the history of qualitative
approaches Schalkwyk- describes the metaphor of a classical
concert as framework of the study
6 Distinct Traditions of Inquiry
Combe- used the scenario of purchasing a car as a kind
1. Human Ethology- the obvservation and detailed
of metaphor to discuss options open for decision
descriptions of behavior in natural settings
2. Ecological Psychology- the focus is in the Deacon- suggested that the participants describe
relationship between humans and their social themselves either rin terms of color and etc
environment
3. Holistic Ethnography- based on the assumption Christensen and Olson- used metaphor by asking the
that groups in generating the research stresses research participants to bring several pictures showing
studying wholes than analyzing individual parts their attitude and feelings towards a phenomenon during
4. Cognitive Anthropology- assumes that cultural the interview
knowledge is embedded in a particular groups’
language
5. Ethnography of Communication- understanding
culture is an essential to understanding human
behavior
6. Symbolic Interaction- an approach to derive
meaning from social interaction between the
researcher and the participants

Giving the Research Instrument

Open-ended structure- is what the set of questions
intended for a quali inquiry that seeks more than what
meets the eys

Data Generation and Ethics

Informed consent- must be voluntarily given by the
participants who are informed on the consequences of
revealing themselves during the study

Transcribing and Producing data

Transcription of data- stems from the result of the open-
ended interview which must put into full writing all the
statements and words uttered by the participants

Instrumentalities in the different Collection Tools

1. Case study- involving an investigation of a single

person with a specified time frame
2. Ethnography- which involves the study of
researcher acting typically as an observes or
participant observer
3. Phenomenology- which develops an
understanding of a subject’s reality through lived
experiences
4. Grounded Theory- general research
methodology used in building naturalistic theory
and is rooted in sociology
5. Focused group discussion- which is a panel that
is facilitated by a moderator