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Antennas and Its Applications: Pramod Dhande
Antennas and Its Applications: Pramod Dhande
© 2009, DESIDOC
Pramod Dhande
Armament Research & Development Establishment, Dr Homi Bhabha Rd, Pashan, Pune-411 021
ABSTRACT
In the world of modern wireless communication, engineer who wants to specialize in the communication field needs
to have a basic understanding of the roles of electromagnetic radiation, antennas, and related propagation phenomena.
These papers discuss on the performance, characteristic, testing, measurement and application of antennas in modern
wireless communication systems. Antenna is an important part of any wireless communication system as it converts
the electronic signals (propagating in the RF Transreceiver) into Electromagnetic Waves (Propagating in the free space)
efficiently with minimum loss. We use antennas when nothing else is possible, as in communication with a missile or
over rugged mountain terrain where cables are expensive and take a long time to install. The performance characteristics
of the parent system are heavily influenced by the selection, position and design of the antenna suite. To understand
the concept of antenna one should know the behaviour of Electromagnetic waves in free space. So I am briefly covering
the basics of Electromagnetic waves and its propagation modes in free space. Apart from that I am also covering Antenna
classifications (based on Frequency, aperture, polarization and radiation pattern), its performance parameters (Gain,
Directivity, Beam area and beam efficiency, radiation pattern, VSWR/Return loss, polarization, Efficiency), measurement
techniques (Outdoor and Indoor Testing) and its defence applications (Naval antennas, Airborne Antennas and Earth
Station Antennas). Finally I discuss about Pyramidal horn antennas, Monopole antennas.
Keywords: Antenna, wireless communication, pyramidal horn antennas, monopole antennas
1. INTRODUCTION
Antennas are basic components of any electric system
and are connecting links between the transmitter and free
space or free space and the receiver. Thus antennas play
very important role in finding the characteristics of the
system in which antennas are employed. Antennas are
employed in different systems in different forms. That is,
in some systems the operational characteristic of the system
are designed around the directional properties of the antennas
or in some others systems, the antennas are used simply
to radiate electromagnetic energy in an omnidirectinal or
finally in some systems for point-to-point communication
purpose in which increased gain and reduced wave interference Figure 1. Wireless communication system.
are required.
1.2 Antenna Definitions • An antenna is basically a transforming device that will
convert impedance of transmitter output (50/75 Ohm)
There are several definitions of antenna, and are as
into free space impedance (120pi or 377 Ohm).
follows:
• Region of transition between guided and free space
• The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms (IEEE Std 145- propagation
1983): • Concentrates incoming wave onto a sensor (receiving
--A means for radiating or receiving radio waves case)
• “An antenna is any device that converts electronic • Launches waves from a guiding structure into space
signals to electromagnetic waves (and vice versa)” or air (transmitting case)
effectively with minimum loss of signals as shown in • Often part of a signal transmitting system over some
Fig.1. distance.
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DHANDE: ANTENNAS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
(b)
Figure 3. Application of airborne antennas. Figure 5. EM wave in free space.
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manner. Once the disturbance in the water has been initiated, • Follows contour of the earth.
water waves are created which begin to travel outwardly. • Can propagate considerable distances.
If the disturbance has been removed the waves do not • Frequencies up to 2 MHz.
stop or extinguish themselves but continue their course • Example
of travel. If the disturbance persists, new waves are continuously – AM radio
created which lag in their travel behind the others. The 5.2 Sky-wave Propagation
same is true with the electromagnetic waves created by
an electric disturbance. If the initial electric disturbance The sky waves are of practical importance at medium
by the source is of short duration, the created electromagnetic and high frequencies for very long distance radio
waves will travel inside the transmission line, then into communications. In this mode of propagation electromagnetic
the a antenna, and finally will be radiated as free space waves reach the receiving point after reflection from the
waves, even if the electric source ceased to exist. If the ionized region in the upper atmosphere called ionosphere-
electric disturbance is of continuous nature, electromagnetic situated between 50Km to 400 Km above earth surface-
waves will exist continuously and follow in their travel under favorable conditions.
behind the others.
When the electromagnetic waves are within the
transmission line and antenna, their existence is associated
with the presence of the charges inside the conductors.
However, when the waves are radiated, they form closed
loops and there are no charges to sustain their existence.
This leads us to conclude that electric charges are required
to excite the fields but are not needed to sustain them and
may exist in their absence. This is in direct analogy with
water waves.
5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAG-ATION
MODES:
Electromagnetic wave can propagate into the free space Figure 13. Sky wave propagation.
by three modes:
• Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back
1. Ground-wave propagation
down to earth.
2. Sky-wave propagation
• Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
3. Line-of-sight propagation
between ionosphere and earth’s surface.
5.1 Ground-wave propagation • Reflection effect caused by refraction.
The ground wave is a wave that is guided along the • Frequency: 2-30MHz.
surface of the earth just as an electromagnetic wave is Examples
guided by a waveguide or transmission line. Surface wave – Military Comm.
permits the propagation around the curvature of the earth. – Amateur radio
This mode of propagation exists when the transmitting and 5.3 Line-of-sight propagation
receiving antennas are closed to the surface of the earth
and is supported at its lower edge by the presence of the In this mode of propagation, electromagnetic waves
ground. from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna
either directly or after reflections from the ground in the
earth’s troposphere region. Troposphere is that portion of
the atmosphere which extends upto 16Km from the earth
surface. Frequency: More then 30MHz
Figure 12. Ground wave propagation. Figure 14. Line of sight propagationa
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• Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within 4. Very High Frequency (VHF) & Ultra High Frequency
line of sight (UHF) antennas:
– Satellite communication – signal above 30 Yagi-Uda antennas, log periodic antennas, Helical antennas,
MHz not reflected by ionosphere Panel antennas, Corner reflector antennas, parabolic
– Ground communication – antennas within antennas, discone antennas,
effective line of site due to refraction 5. Super High Frequency (SHF) & Extremely High Frequency
• Refraction – bending of microwaves by the atmosphere (EHF) antennas:
– Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function Parabolic antenna, pyramidal horn antennas, discone
of the density of the medium antennas, monopoles and dipoles antennas, Microstrip
– When wave changes medium, speed changes patch antennas, fractal antenns.
– Wave bends at the boundary between
6.2 Aperture Antennas
mediums
Examples: Aperture antennas transmit and receive energy from
TV, satellite, optical comm. its aperture.
• Wire antennas
6. ANTENNA CLASSSIFICATION
• Horn Antenna
Antenna can be classified on the basis of: • Parabolic reflective antenna
1 Frequency - VLF, LF, HF, VHF, UHF, Microwave, • Cassegrain antenna
Millimeter wave antenna
6.2.1 Wire Antenna
2 Aperture - Wire, Parabolic Dish, Microstrip
Patch antenna A wire antenna is simply a straight wire of length ë/
3. Polarization - Linear (Vertical/Horizontal), 2 (dipole antenna) and ë/4 (monopole antenna), where ë
Circular polarization antenna is the transmitted signal wavelength. A wire antenna can
4. Radiation - Isotropic, Omnidirectional, be a loop antenna such as circular loop, rectangular loop,
Directional, Hemispherical etc. Basically all vertical radiators are come in to wire
antenna antenna categories. A whip antenna is the best example
of wire antenna.
6.1 Frequency Basis
6.2.2 Vertical Monopole antenna
Frequency Designation Typical service
Band • Length < 0.64l
3-30 KHz Very Low frequency (VLF) Navigation, SONAR. • Self impedance: ZS = Z ANT+R GND + R REF
30-300 KHz Low Frequency (LF) Radio beacons, Navigational Aids. • Efficiency: η = |Z ANT | /|ZS | η ranges
300-3000 KHz Medium Frequency (MF) AM broadcasting, maritime radio, coast from < 1% to > 80% depending on antenna length
guard communication, direction
finding.
and ground system
3-30 MHz High Frequency (HF) Telephone, Telegraph and Facsimile,
• Efficiency improves as monopole gets longer and
amateur radio, ship-to-coast and ship- ground losses are reduced
to-aircraft communication.
30-300 MHz Very High Frequency (VHF) Television, FM broadcast, air traffic
control, police, navigational aids.
300-3000 MHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Television, satellite communication,
radiosonde, surveillance RADAR,
navigational aids.
3-30 GHz Super High Frequency (SHF) Airborne RADAR, Microwave Links,
Satellite Communication.
30-300 GHz Extremely High Frequency RADAR, Experimental
(EHF)
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• Length ~ 0.25l one end and open at the other end. If flaring is done in
• Self impedance: ZS ~ 36 - 70 W one direction, then sectorial horn is produced. Flaring in
• The l /4 vertical requires a ground system, which acts the direction of Electric vector and Magnetic vector, the
as a return for ground currents. The “image” of the sectorial E-plane horn and sectorial H-plane Horn are obtained
monopole in the ground provides the “other half” of respectively. If flaring is done along both walls (E and H)
the antenna of the rectangular waveguide, then pyramidal horn is obtained.
• The length of the radials depends on how many there By flaring the walls of a circular waveguide, a conical horn
are is formed.
• Take off angle ~ 25 deg
ë /4 Vertical Monopole: (Fig.17)
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6.2.6 Cassegrain Antenna plane. The major disadvantages of patch or microstrip antennas
are their inefficiency and very narrow bandwidth which
In cassegrain antenna primary feed radiator is positioned
is typically only a fraction of a percent or at the most a
around an opening near the vertex of the paraboloid instead
few percent.
of at focus. Cassegrain feed system employs a hyperboloid
secondary reflector whose one of the foci coincides with 6.3 Antenna Classification on Polarization Basis
the focus of paraboloid. The feed radiator is aimed at the
Antenna polarization is governed by the polarization
secondary hyperboloid reflector or sub-reflector. As such,
of Electromagnetic waves. Based on that:
the radiations emitted from feed radiator are reflected from
1. Linearly (Vertically/Horizontally) Polarized antenna.
cassegrain secondary reflector which illuminates the main
2. Circularly Polarized antenna.
paraboloid reflector as if they had originated from the
focus. Then the paraboloid reflector colliminates the rays 6.3.1 Linearly (Vertically/Horizontally) polarized
as usual. antenna
If antenna is transmitting/receiving Vertical E field
vector, then antenna is said to be vertically polarized antenna.
If antenna is transmitting/receiving horizontal E field
vector, then antenna is said to be horizontally polarized
antenna.
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Omnidirectional antennas are those antennas which Before designing an antenna one should know its
will cover equally well in azimuth direction and having performance parameters or characteristics of antenna for
some angle in elevation direction. Basically most of the particular applications. The beam pattern of any antenna
wire antennas are having omnidirectional radiation pattern. is shown below in Fig.29 and 30.
Examples are Whip antenna, Dipoles antennas, etc. The
radiation patterns of omnidirectional antennas are shown
below.
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λ ç = [Rr/(Rr+Rl)] × 100
Reactive Near-Field r<
2π where, Rr = Radiation resistance; Rl = Ohmic loss resistance
– Gain is not a meaningful parameter here of antenna conductor
– E and H are not equal
– Reactive components 10% or more of radiating components 7.5 Beam Area and Beam Efficiency
may cause error in field measurements Beam area : ΩA = ∫
2π π
0 ∫
0
Pn (θ , φ ) ⋅ sin(θ ) dθ dφ = ∫∫ Pn (θ , φ ) d Ω
4π
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(also elliptical)
Ae
Aperture efficiency can be defined: ε ap = A 7.10 VSWR/Return loss
p
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• Directivity
• Half Power Beamwidth Radiation Pattern of Mobile antennas
• Cross Polarization
8.3 Radiation Pattern Measurement 9. ANTENNA APPLICATIONS
• Open field
– Outdoor Elevated Range 9.1 Astronomical Antenna
– Ground Reflection Range
• Anechoic chamber
– Rectangular Anechoic Chamber
– Compact Antenna Test Range
Open Field
Helical Antenna
1. Highly Directional
Anechoic Chamber Antenna
2. Circularly Polarized
Antenna
3. Use in Radio Astronomy
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