ADJUSTMENTS TO EMANCIPATION, 1838 - 1876

PROBLEMS OF THE SUGAR INDUSTRY POST - 1838

LABOUR

Factors Encouraging Blacks to Leave

After emancipation the blacks had no desire to continue working on plantations; psychologically
they wanted to be free from any association with estate work or life. They desired complete
independence and some even wanted to be landowners. After emancipation some of the blacks
left the plantations not because they wanted to, but because they were unsure or felt insecure
about their status on the plantation post-1838. In addition there were others who left plantations
to escape high rent, low wages. An escape from the plantation would hopefully allow them to
access available lands and produce for themselves. Women were also motivated to leave the
plantations, and they became housewives, seamstress or higglers.

Need for Regular and Cheap Labour

After 1838 the planters complained that their production cost had increased significantly
especially because they now had to pay the labourers. Blacks either refused or were reluctant to
continue working on plantations for the low wages the planters were offering. Instead the blacks
became peasant cultivators, livestock rearers, blacksmiths and carpenters. However, some blacks
would on plantations part-time to supplement their income, but the planters were not happy with
this irregular labour situation.

CAPITAL

Increasing Cost of Production

Absentee plantations were severely mismanaged and this contributed to high cost of production
and eventually many estates being abandoned. The planters felt that their only option to reduce
production cost was to reduce wages. Workers in Jamaica and British Guiana resisted this move,
by leaving plantations or some would riot or strike.

Increasing Debts

Between 1847 and 1848 England was going through a severe financial crisis and creditors in
London and Liverpool were calling in their loans. Planters were unable to repay debts owed to
British merchants because of low profits. Despite this many planters continued to borrow in an
attempt to stay in business. However, banks and merchants were reluctant to lend the planters in
the British West Indies any money especially because many refused to use their estates as
security.

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TECHNOLOGY

Backwardness

The technique and measures used by the planters during slavery continued in many territories
even after emancipation. For instance by 1846 Antigua did not have a pitchfork or wheel barrow
on any estates on the island; they were also using hoes instead of ploughs. Planters who could
not afford mechanization still did not make use of central factories. The conservative attitude of
the planters restricted them from even wanting to amalgamate their estates, because they did not
want to lose their independence, especially those in Barbados and Jamaica.

Many planters continued to use a single crushing process to mill their cane, while Cuban planters
were used triple crushing, allowing them to get over 90% of juice from their cane.

The planters were primarily using enslaved labour to produce their tropical goods and as a result
they were not making use of available technology, being used in Cuba and Brazil to improve
productivity and efficiency. Some planters in Trinidad and British Guiana wanted to employ new
technology or large scale mechanization but they could not afford to do so, because they were
limited by capital primarily because their usual creditors in England were reluctant or refusing to
lend them anymore money; as a result they could only introduce new techniques to reduce
inefficiency. The money that the planters had gotten from England as a condition of
emancipation was not enough to use for mechanization as most planters used the money to clear
debts.

FREE TRADE

Sugar Duties Equalisation Act [1846]

In 1846 the Sugar Duties Equalisation Act was passed and this removed the preferential
treatment that the British West Indian planters had previously enjoyed. The British were in
essence repealing all her mercantilism principles and this created new and unwelcoming
competition for the planters.

Foreign Competition

After the 1846 Act, Cuba, Louisiana and Brazil were quick to take advantage of this equalization
of duties opportunity to expand their trade; these territories were very productive and efficient
because they were still using enslaved labour and they were fully mechanized. The British West
Indian colonies were also facing completion from beet sugar grown in France. This sugar was
exported to England and continental European markets; therefore shutting off British reexports
of West Indian sugar.

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Abandonment of Estates

Fall in sugar prices led to more plantations going out of business; after 1846 the planters in the
British colonies could not compete with slave grown and mechanized produced sugar from Cuba
and Brazil. By the 1850’s production of sugar in Jamaica was 60% lower than in 1833; in
addition the price of estate land was 1/5th of 1815 level. By the mid- 19th century about 500
estates had been sold or abandoned in Jamaica. Estates were abandoned because they were
heavily mortgaged and in debt. No one was interested in buying these types of estates, because
they would have to assume the mortgage and the debts.

MEASURES ADOPTED

1. Alternative labour source – immigrants from metropolitan areas were recruited and taken
to the West Indies to use as a regular and cheap labour force.
2. Mechanisation – some planters changed to steam mills and discontinued the use of
animal mills. New equipment was also introduced, including vacuum pans and
centrifuge. The vacuum pans allowed for speedier evaporation in the conversion of syrup
to sugar; the centrifugal allowed for quicker drainage of molasses from sugar crystals and
allowed for drier sugar. Mechanization was costly and was primarily used in large estates
in Trinidad and Guiana; elsewhere they were hardly used.
3. New varieties of cane – new varieties of cane were introduced that had higher sucrose
content.
4. New techniques – planters started making use of new tools such as plough and harrow;
they also introduced different types of fertilizers, better irrigation schemes and proper
drainage systems.
5. Amalgamation of estates – smaller estates joined to make bigger ones and this allowed
for more efficient use of factory equipment and better management of estates; in addition
amalgamated estates could share marketing facilities. Amalgamating estates allowed for
more land to become available for production, and this practice ensured that only the
most fertile land was used for production. In addition it would be easier for a larger estate
to acquire loan than several small ones. In 1833 there were over 600 estates in Guiana
and by 1890 there were only about 140.
6. Central factories – these allowed easier processing of sugar cane of several estates; thus
moving away from the practice of every estate no matter its size having their own factory.
This was not a popular practice in the British colonies until the 20th century.
7. Encumbered Estates Act [1854] – this was a legislation passed by England to assist
planters, however they were given the option to adopt it or not. This allowed for estates to
be sold without encumbrances; and by 1874 over 155 estates was sold under this Act.
8. New markets – planters sought alternative markets and they attempted to export to the
USA; especially from 1875 - 1898, because it was closer and thus transport costs would
be less. Between 1898 to 1912 the planters exported to Canada.

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 9. Loans – Britain offered the planters loan to assist with immigration schemes and
mechanisation; however Jamaican planters were reluctant to take this loan as they were
concerned about their ability to repay the loan. However, territories that took the loan and
used it for the intended purpose saw an improvement in their sugar industry.
10. Royal Commissions – Britain sent out commissions to determine the state of the industry
in the colonies. In 1882 – 83 the Royal Commission came to investigate why the planters
were unable to repay loans. The commission recommended diversification of crops. In
1896 the Norman Commission came to investigate conditions in the colonies. This
commission recommended diversification of economy in all the colonies. The
commission recommended that banks be created in the colonies to help with finances and
loans be made available to help modernize the sugar industry especially in Guiana and
Trinidad. Finally the 1896 commission recommended that agricultural departments be
created to help with scientific cultivation, along with the introduction of agricultural
education in schools.
11. Creation of agriculture departments and scientific agriculture – some agricultural
departments were established in some colonies to give advice and assistance to planters
interested in improving production methods; or to discover through experimentation new
varieties of cane more suited for West Indian soils. 1898 the Imperial Department of
Agriculture was created in Barbados and in 1922 the Imperial College of Tropical
Agriculture was created in Trinidad. Government botanists were also appointed in the
larger colonies.
12. Diversification - many planters realized that they could not just stay in sugar production
as it was not profitable. After 1870 banana production increased in Jamaica and Grenada.
Before the introduction of artificial citric acid in the 1920’s export of lime was very
popular in Dominica and St. Lucia. Other crops produced were Sea Island cotton, cocoa
[Trinidad, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Lucia and Dominica], arrowroot [St. Vincent], nutmeg
[Grenada], rubber [Trinidad and Guiana], coconut [Trinidad and Nevis] and rice
[Guiana].

MIGRATION SCHEMES AS A SOLUTION TO LABOUR ‘CRISIS’

Immigration was seen as a viable solution to the labour crisis anticipated after the complete
emancipation of enslaved Africans. The British Crown had four aims for immigration schemes
(i) restore and expand the sugar economy (ii) create a steady supply of labourers (iii)ensured the
rulling class in the colonies maintains control over the labourforce (iv) keep wages low by
having the immigrants compete for wages with the newly emancipated blacks. The planters’ goal
for the immigrants was not contrary to the Crown’s; they too wanted a consistent source of cheap
labour. Opposition to immigrants came from planters living in colonies that did not have post-
emancipation labour issues such as those in the Leewards, Barbados and Belize.

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EUROPEANS

The planters attempted to use labourers from Europe; however, they soon discovered that this
group was not suitable, not only because they were not use to the work or the climate but
because they requested high wages. Source and Location

The European labourers included mostly the poor, unemployed and prisoners. Many European
immigrants came from Germany, England, Ireland, Scotland and Malta to the British colonies
between 1835 to 1838. Between 1848 to 1859 immigrants came from France to the French
colony of Martinique. In 1852 the French brought labourers to French Guiana [Cheyenne] and
many of them were prisoners. Suriname received labourers from the Netherlands in 1860. Many
labourers came to Cuba from Spain between 1882 and 1885.

Quantity

Martinique received 200 French and 300 Portuguese labourers by 1859. In 1860 Suriname
received 348 Dutch farmers and by 1885 Cuba received 8000 Spanish labourers.

Impact

These labourers were unfavourable because they succumbed easily to diseases and many upon
their arrival to the Caribbean refused to work alongside the Africans. The Europeans did not
have a lot of economic impact because they came in small numbers. Immigration of Europeans
continued despite their relative economic value because some colonial governments for example
the French and the Spanish wanted to increase the population of whites.

AFRICANS

Africa had already proven her worth as a source of consistent, reliable and cheap labour force.
Therefore with emancipation the planters naturally wanted to return to this source. The Africans
were expected to ensure that wages remained at a low rate and be direct competitors to the newly
emancipated blacks.

Source and Location

Africans were acquired from areas in West Africa; in addition attempts were made to acquire
Africans from the USA and Canada.

Quantity

Between 1811 and 1860 6000 West Africans were brought to the Bahamas, and in 1838 500
were taken to Grenada as indenture. Trade in Africans stopped in 1871, but up to that point
Guadeloupe received 6000; Martinique got 10,000 and French Guiana about 1,500. By 1847
Trinidad received about 1523 Africans from the USA and Canada; Jamaica during this period

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received approximately the same quantity of Africans from the USA and Canada. However, by
1848 Africans from these areas became to taper off.

Impact

Immigrants from West Africa discontinued by 1871 because they were not having the desired
impact, especially as it relates to lowering costs. This is because it cost a lot more to acquire
Africans than to acquire Chinese and especially Indians. Attempts to get Africans from closer
regions were not successful either because the Africans from the USA and Canada returned
home after 1848 because they found plantation labour too hard and the wages too low. The few
who stayed after 1848 found jobs as artisans or other non-agricultural work.

MADEIRANS

The authorities in British Guiana were particularly anxious to acquire Madeirans for their socio-
economic benefit; they were reputed to be good workers and they were white which would not
only lighten the population but increase the number of whites..

Source and Location

The Portuguese labourers that came the West Indies in particular British Guiana did not come
directly from Portugal, but they were from the Portuguese colony of Madeira.

Quantity

Between 1835 to 1881 about 30,000 were brought to the Caribbean; of this amount 1,000 went to
Trinidad, 2,500 to Antigua. In addition about 2,100 went to St. Kitts-Nevis and the same amount
going to St. Vincent. However, the largest quantity went to British Guiana.

Impact

Madeirans who survived eventually became quite prosperous; this is because of the privileges
they enjoyed in the colonies. They did have to pay monthly tax for initial expenses and after their
contract ended they were given credit by white merchants to open stores. As a result by 1842
there were 139 new shops in Georgetown of which 42 were owned by Portuguese; by the 1850’s
the Portuguese controlled the retail trade in British Guiana. The Madeirans were also part of a
social engineering scheme designed to maintain the status quo which ensured that blacks were at
the bottom of the social ladder. Perception of Portuguese created resentment among the blacks
which eventually led to anti-Portuguese riots in Guiana. Riots broke out in 1848, 1856 and 1889
amids allegations that Portuguese shop owners were overcharging blacks.

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CHINESE

China was among the first places that planters attempted to recruit labourers because it was a
poor country, which means there were many people who would see the hard labour in the
Caribbean as an opportunity for better life. By the 19th century the population of China was 350
million.

Source and Location

It was in 1852 that large scale immigration of Chinese began especially from the Potuguese
colony of Macao. The immigrants consisted mostly of Chinese men who were convicts and
prisoners of war. As the scheme progressed families were recruited from Canton.

Quantity

Cuba abolished its slave trade in 1845 and slavery continued to 1886; however, to offset the
impact of the ending of the slave trade in 1847 600 Chinese were brought to Cuba. Between
1848 to 1874 Cuba acquired 124,813 Chinese labourers. In the British colonies the first batch of
Chinese amounting to 507 went to Jamaica between 1845 and 1847. When the scheme began in
earnest in 1852 in The British colonies about 20,000 Chinese came to the West Indies from that
period to 1893. Of that amount about 12,000 went to British Guiana, 5000 to Jamaica and 2,500
to Trinidad.

Impact

The fact that no Chinese women were initially brought to the colonies created tension and
eventually led to many running away, producing inadequate work or committing acts of
violence. Later as Chinese families were recruited this did not alleviate the situation as these
individuals were mostly small farmers and market gardeners who were not prepared for the
rigours of plantation life. The scheme eventually concluded because it was cheaper to acquire
Indians. The Chinese who remained in the British colonies after their contract became shop
keepers. In Cuba where the majority of Chinese indentured went, many continued to labour on
plantations for their contracted eight years for 12 hours per day. However, the mortality rate for
Chinese ranged from 2.2% to as high as 19% in a given year over the period.

EAST INDIANS

By the 19th century the population of India was 250 million and it was a colony of Britain. Socio-
economic conditions of India ensured that her population would become a source for cheap and
plentiful labour for the West Indies. In 1838 the first shipment of Indians came; of the 414, 18
died on enroute and another 98 died within five years of being in the Caribbean. Of the total
number only 60 remained in the Caribbean after their contract was up. The high mortality rate
resulted in the suspension of Indian indenture until 1844 while an investigation was conducted.
Indians were considered to be the most successful group despite the initial ‘hiccups’; this is

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because they were: (i) hardworking (ii) accustomed to agricultural labour (ii) easy to transfer
them to the colonies as they were British colonists (iv) many were eager to leave India during the
period due to famine, increasing povery, high taxes and general bad conditions created by the
presence of the Raj [British authorities in India] (v) restriction created by the caste system along
with difficulties widows had in remarrying.

Source and Location

Immigration of Indians in the British colonies began in earnest in 1845. Indians were recruited in
the villages, districts and the crowded cities of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Lucknow, Bengal and
Bihar, where people were poor and unemployed. In India were officials known as Emigration
Agent, they were located mainly in Calcutta and they would provide recruiters with licenses to
recruit a specific number of labourers. Once enough labourers signed on they were taken to the
depot in Calcutta; when there was enough labourers to fill a ship they would board ships in either
Calcutta or Madras to the Caribbean. The journey to the Caribbean lasted an average of 20 weeks
on sailing ships and about 13 weeks for a steamer. Only about 350 immigrants were expected to
be on any one vessel, however overcrowding was common. As a result despite the presence of
medical personnels on these vessels immigrants acquired diseases such as fevers, measles,
meningitis and mumps.

Immigrants were expected to work for five years, for 9 hours per day. They were not to leave the
plantations without permission; they were to live on estates in barracks previously used by
Africans. Planters were to provide general maintenance and medical care; however the cost of
food was deducted from the approximately 25 cents per day wages. The labourers were expected
to work for another five years before they could acquire free or partial paid return passage to
India.

Quantity

Between 1838 and 1917, Jamaica received 21,500 Indians, St. Lucia received 1550, St. Vincent
got 1,820 and Grenada received 2,570 Indians. However, Trinidad got 145,000 and British
Guiana received 238,000 Indians.

Impact

The Indians were the most successful of all the immigrant groups. However, the fact that only
one female came for every three male created jealousy and infidelity. This eventually led to
several murders in the Indian communities and the victims were usually women. Economically
the introduction of immigrants saw an increase in output of sugar in British Guiana and Trinidad.

Conclusion

It is difficult to assess if the immigrants solved the labour issues in the colonies or directly
impacted the growth and or restoration of the sugar industries. Evidence shows that some

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colonies that received immigrants saw an increase in sugar output, while colonies such as
Jamaica saw a decline. In addition colonies such as Barbados which did not have many
immigrants because they had no labour issue saw an increase in production.

Colony 1828 1882

British Guiana 40,115 124,102
Trinidad 13,285 55,327
Barbados 16,942 48,325
St. Kitts-Nevis 6,060 16,664
Antigua 8,848 12,670
Jamaica 72,198 32,638

Some immigrant groups who went to some colonies were so small in quantity that they were
eventually incorporated into the society or they kept to themselves and they therefore had no
social impact. Others like the Chinese and the Portuguese started retail businesses or became
merchants. Many of the groups did not mix with the established groups and thus facilitated the
creation of plural societies in the Caribbean, where there is one society however, several ethnic
groups co-exist independent of each other. This is evident in Trinidad and British Guiana with
the blacks and the Indians; these two groups have different cultural practices, in terms of
religion, food and general lifestyle.

RISE OF FREE VILLAGES AND PEASANTRY AFTER 1838

When the ex-slaves were given complete freedom in 1838, many Africans refused to be
integrated in the plantation economy. Many blacks took this opportunity to leave the plantations
to either buy land or squat on crown lands. Squatting was prevalent in Jamaica, Trinidad and
British Guiana than the Windward or Leeward islands. Blacks from the smaller islands often
migrated to the larger colonies in search of land and higher wages.

The blacks that moved away from the plantations faced many problems in purchasing land; this
is because the planters either refused to sell them land or sold them land in large tracts at very
expensive rates. In Trinidad a law was passed stating that land should only be sold in parcels of
130 hectares – about the size of a small plantation. A parcel of land in Barbados and Jamaica
would be sold to blacks at 2000 pounds, while the same parcel would be sold to whites for 500
pounds. As a result many blacks chose to squat on crown lands or abandoned estates that were
close to potential markets.

Blacks who stayed on the plantation faced obstacles also, especially in Jamaica; those who
remained in estate houses were charged rent, which was not very affordable. For instance an ex-
slave would earn 12 shillings and 6 pence per week, and would be charged 3 shillings and 4
pence per week for rent. Blacks who could not afford rent were evicted; the Ejectment Act in

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Jamaica allowed planters to evict blacks from dwellings with only one week notice. Then the
Trespass Act made it possible for blacks to be arrested if they were tried to return to the
dwelling. The aim of evicting blacks was to facilitate a reduction in wages, as blacks would have
no other option, but to do estate labour. Blacks who attempted to go into other occupations
[charcoal burner, pedlar etc] had to obtain a license.

The peasants in the Dutch colonies did not get as much resistance as in the British colonies. After
emancipation in 1863 many planters in Suriname abandoned their estates making them available
to the blacks. In the smaller islands such as Aruba, the Dutch government sold the available land
to the blacks, which helped to create a large peasant class.

Jamaica 1830 – 1866

Blacks wanted to be close to local markets or ports to sell their produce and so in Jamaica
immediately after emancipation the peasantry developed not on crown lands but on abandoned
estates, which were being sold by planters. Though some planters were willing to sell land to
blacks many more refused to do this, or if they did they sold them marginal land, not fit for
cultivation and at high prices. As a result many blacks thought they had no other option than to
squat on crown land. However as in other colonies many blacks had to return to plantations even
if it was only seasonally.

British Guiana 1838 – 1860

Blacks refused to do plantation labour after 1838, as it was reminiscent of enslavement.

Immediately after 1838 blacks could be seen either wander about or forming task gangs which
bargained for higher wages; and they would only work for half the day.

The blacks were not attracted to the crown lands in the interior of the colony; they were more
attracted to abandoned estates, where subsistence farming was possible. The planters did not
want a rise of a peasantry that was independent of plantation labour; as a result they refused to
sell blacks these ‘prime properties’. However the economic state of the colony made the
planter’s reluctance short lived.

Contribution of Peasants to Society

By 1880 in Jamaica there were 36,756 landholdings which were less than five acres; by 1849
about 40% of arable land in Jamaica was owned by blacks in small holdings.

In Barbados between 1844 and 1859 small farmers increased from 1,100 to 3,537. Also in
Trinidad smallholders in 1848 was at 7,000 and by 1861 it was at 11,000. In the French colonies
the peasantry was on the rise, evidence shows in Guadeloupe market gardens increased from
1,128 in 1847 to 3,467 by 1850.

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The peasants helped to diversify the economy at a time when sugar production was declining.
This helped to prevent colonies from being bankrupt. The peasants produced crops such as
ginger, banana, logwood, coffee and cocoa. By 1850 in Jamaica the goods produced by the
peasants made up 10% of exports and by 1890 they provisions rose to 39% of exports. In
addition the peasantry movement helped to avert poverty and hunger among many of the blacks
after 1838.

FREE VILLAGE MOVEMENT

The abilities of the blacks to buy land facilitated the emergence of the free village movement.
Two types of free villages emerged: proprietary and communal.

Proprietary Free Villages - This type of free village was encouraged by the planters, under this
system, they would sell marginal lands on their estate to blacks; in turn it would allow the
planters to have easy access to a labour force.

Communal Free Villages - This type of free village was achieved by blacks pooling resources to
purchase abandon estates. For instance in 1839 84 blacks combined to purchase the Northbrook
plantation in Demerara. Some blacks who used this method would try to continue the production
of sugar cane. However, they faced many obstacles, primarily due to limited managerial and
marketing skills, along with lack of funds, as most of the funds were used to purchase the estate.
Funds would be needed for irrigation, drainage and sea defense, along with modern equipments
[centrifugals, steam engines, vacuum pans etc.]. By 1840 many blacks in free villages moved
away from sugar production and concentrated on the cultivation of ground provisions. However,
despite the reluctance of many the sad reality was that working for the planters as wage labourers
was the best way to survive. The planters continued to treat their labourers unfairly; in 1847 they
attempted to reduce the wages of the blacks, which resulted in a strike that lasted for three
months. The blacks hoped that the strike would ruin the planters and make it possible for the
blacks to acquire estates at a cheap rate.

The planters feared the free village movement as it limited the continuous labour force that
plantations needed to remain viable. The free villages were seen as direct threats to their estates
and they were relentless in their efforts to hinder and or slow the growth of this movement. The
planters in the assembly would pass laws designed to destroy free villages. For instance
Ordinance 1 in 1851 prohibited joint purchase by more than 20 persons. In 1861 an ordinance
increased the price of land by 500% and set a minimum amount that blacks could buy –
approximately 100 acres. In 1865 Ordinance 38 declared that where more than 10 blacks
combined to buy land, the land will have to be partitioned and charges levied against each
individual for roads, drainage and bridges etc. This ordinance prevented blacks from using their
own labour to do infrastructural development on their own land.

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Development of free villages

Despite the many challenges, many free villages were created and they were assisted by certain
events that impacted the British colonies between 1846 to 1860. Among these events were the
Sugar Duties Equalisation Act, the Encumbered Estates Act and the Metayage System. The first
event resulted in the reduced production of sugar in many colonies resulting in the abandonment
of estates, and the latter two events created situations which made it easier for blacks to acquire
properties. Estates that were abandoned already had existing infrastructures which made it easier
for blacks to start. Free Villages were operated and maintained by monthly subscriptions to meet
the cost of roads etc.

Some free villages in Jamaica were aided by missionaries; the first free village in Jamaica was
Sligoville and it was established on 10 hectares bought by the Rev. James Phillipo in 1835; and
after 1838 100 families went to live there. In 1838 William Knibb got 100 pounds from his
parent church in England which was used to purchase 200 hectares of land, at Sturge Town in St.
Ann. 70 families settled there and they also built a church and school. By 1840 there were about
200 free villages in Jamaica with about 20,000 inhabitants. These villagers occupied about
100,000 acres which had cost the blacks and their sponsors about 70, 000 pounds to purchase.

In British Guiana by 1848 about 10,000 people owned property and lived in free villages. In
Antigua there were 67 villages by 1858 with 5,187 houses and 15,644 inhabitants. Also in
Grenada by 1857 over 10,000 people were living in free villages and at the same time over 8,000
people were living in free villages in St. Vincent.

Contribution of free villages

Peasants supplied plantations and towns with livestock vegetables and other ground provisions;
they also helped to diversify the economy by producing coffee, ginger and pimento. Some
peasants continued sugar cane cultivation on their small holdings which they used to supply the
central factories. Living a free village helped to create a sense of community, where individuals
have shared beliefs and values; this was particularly important because previously Africans were
not allowed to freely practice their culture.

CONSTITUTIONAL CRISIS AND CHANGES IN THE BRITISH WEST INDIES

The Old Representative System of government was the system used in traditional British colonies
such as Jamaica and Barbados. This was a system of government which consisted of a governor,
an assembly [elected lower house] and a council [nominated upper house].under this system the
governor had a lot of power but no authority, and the assembly had a lot of power but no
authority. The governor had the power to pass all laws, but the assembly controlled the budget,
which included the buying of supplies and the salary of officials.

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 But this system by the 1850’s was being condemned because of the political chaos that is has
been causing over the past centuries. Constitutional difficulties were being caused because the
assembly was continually at odds with the executive. The assemblies had so much power that it
could hinder and obstruct the executive at every turn. In addition after emancipation a new social
order was created with in effect rendered the ORS obsolete. The system survived as long as it did
because the conservative Tories in England supported colonial self-government and by extension
the local assemblies. However, the Whigs which later emerged as the ruling group in the British
Parliament recognized the deficiencies of the ORS.

The local assemblies consisted of the planters and they had the power to make internal laws for
their individual colonies. Though the ORS allowed for the presence of a governor who was
charged with the responsibility to govern the colonies as it related to issues of how money should
be spent the governor had to acquire the approval of the assembly in the form of votes to allocate
or spend money in the individual colonies. Matters related to external trade and policies were
administered by the mother country. This is the reason the assemblies were against the
Emancipation Act, because this Act directly interfered with their internal powers. They
complained that complete local autonomy was granted to them; which included slavery and the
treatment of enslaved Africans. They considered these all matters of local concern and the
British government had no right to intervene; they therefore considered the Act of 1833 null and
void. The planters also objected to other policies introduced by the British such as presence of
Stipendiary Magistrates to overseer the Apprenticeship period along with the W.I Prison’s Act of
1838. This Act in effect allowed the British officials to close unfit prisons without the consent of
the local assemblies. The planters considered this act as a usurpation of their political
independence and they protested to the House of Commons; in addition the assembly in Jamaica
went on strike.

After 1838 and the Africans became completely freed citizens, it created a social revolution that
made the previous form of ‘representative’ government impossible to continue. Conflicts arose
as it became clear that the representatives in government consisted of the prejudiced planters
who were the minority group of the population. In 1838 the Jamaican assembly was on strike and
therefore refusing to pass any other legislation necessary to remove the many anomalies in the
status of the newly emancipated blacks. As a result public opinion in England grew more and
more hostile to the planters and the government in England decided that more parliamentary
interference and by extension reforms were needed.

With the passing the Sugar Duties Equalisation Act in 1846 and the negative impact it had on the
colonies the Jamaican assembly again went on strike in 1848 and in 1853. This action halted all
aspects of commerce in the colony. Supplies were withheld and public officials were not paid.
The assembly in Jamaica was protesting because they wanted England to restore protection to the
British West Indies and thus repeal the Sugar Duties Equalisation Act.

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By the 1850’s the Britain decided that the constitutional reforms were needed in the colonies. An
investigation was conducted to assess the constitutional structure of the British colonies. It was
recommended that the ORS should be abolished in the colonies. This recommendation was
eventually accepted but only a few parliamentary members approved this infringement on the
powers that the colonial assemblies have been enjoying for centuries. As a compromise it was
decided that instead of abolishing the ORS, the powers of the governor will increase and the
powers of the assemblies will lessen.

By 1854 Executive Committees were formed in the colonies consisting of representatives from
the council and the assembly. This new system created a unicameral legislature: with the
governor and the members of the Committee and no elected assembly. This new system was
adopted in Jamaica and Tobago in 1854; 1859 in St. Kitts, Antigua, Nevis and St. Vincent. By
1875 Dominica and Grenada had Executive Committees. The new system failed because no one
was quite certain how the Executive Committee should function or to whom it will held
responsibility; in addition the planters were resentful of the new powers of the governor.

By 1865 with the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica the way was paved for the emergence of
Crown Colony Government. Under this system the Crown had the power to override all political
opposition. The governor was recognized as the sole authority in the colonies, responsible for all
executive and policy making decisions. The Crown wanted a change from the ORS because: (i)
assemblies proved a barrier to good government (ii) legislations could be easily passed for the
benefit of all without restrictions, thus allowing the governor to have not only power but
authority (iii) all classes of the society was not represented (iii) under new system Britain could
aid financially backward colonies by directly control their expenditure. The Crown Colony
System would put an end to the selfish, inefficient and corrupt practices of the plantocracy; while
at the same time providing for the social and economic development of the blacks.

Barbados was the only British colony that refused to adopt the Crown Colony system, as their
pride forced them to cling to their political traditions. However, the colonies that adopted the
new political system did so until they achieved independence.

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