Mineralium Deposita (2002) 37: 249–282
DOI 10.1007/s00126-001-0237-4
A RT I C L E
Taihe Zhou Æ Richard J. Goldfarb Æ G. Neil Phillips
Tectonics and distribution of gold deposits
in China – an overview
Received: 30 November 2000 / Accepted: 10 October 2001 / Published online: 17 January 2002

Springer-Verlag 2002
Abstract Gold exploration in China has expanded
rapidly during the last two decades since a modern
approach to economic development has become a na-
tional priority. China currently produces 180 tonnes (t)
of gold annually, which is still significantly less than
South Africa, USA, and Australia. However, China is
now recognized as possessing significant gold resources
in a wide range of mineral deposit types. Present esti-
mates of gold resources in China exceed 4,500 t, which
comprise 60% in gold-only deposits, more than 25% in
base metal-rich skarn, porphyry, and vein deposits, and
more than 10% in placer accumulations. The major
gold provinces in China formed during the main epi-
sodes of Phanerozoic tectonism. Such tectonism in-
volved interaction of China’s three major Precambrian
cratons, North China, Tarim, and Yangtze (or South
China when combined with Cathaysia block), with the
Angara (or Siberian), Kazakhstan–Kyrgyzstan, and
T. Zhou (&)
Great Central Mines Limited &
Centaur Mining and Exploration Limited,
210 Kings Way, South Melbourne,
Victoria 3205, Australia
E-mail: tzhou@sinoaus.com
R.J. Goldfarb
US Geological Survey, MS 964, Box 25046,
Denver Federal Center, Denver,
Colorado 80225-0046, USA
G.N. Phillips
CSIRO Exploration and Mining, P.O. Box 3,
Central Park, Victoria 3145, Australia
R.J. Goldfarb
Centre for Global Metallogeny,
Dept. of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Western Australia,
Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
Present address: T. Zhou
Sino-QZ Group,
P.O. Box 2424, Mount Waverley,
3149 Victoria, Australia
Indian cratons. Resulting collisions included deforma-
tion of accreted oceanic sequences between the cratonic
blocks. The most important ore-forming orogenies
were (1) the late Paleozoic Variscan (405–270 Ma),
which led to amalgamation of the Angara, North
China and Yangtze cratons, (2) the Indosinian (270–
208 Ma), which led to the collision of North China and
South China cratons, (3) the Yanshanian (208–90 Ma),
which was largely influenced by the subduction of the
Izanagi–Pacific plates beneath eastern China, and (4)
the Himalayan (<90 Ma) indentation of the Indian
continent into Eurasia. No important Precambrian
gold systems are recognized in China, mainly because
of reworking of exposed Precambrian rocks by these
younger orogenies, but there are a few Caledonian
(600–405 Ma) gold-bearing systems in northern Xinji-
ang. Most of China’s orogenic, epithermal, and Carlin-
like gold deposits are in the reworked margins of major
cratonic blocks and in metasedimentary rock-domi-
nated fold belts adjacent to these margins. According-
ly, the major gold provinces are present along the
northern, southeastern and southern margins of the
North China craton, along the southwestern and
northwestern margins of the Yangtze craton, in the
Tianshan and Altayshan orogenic belts in northern
Xinjiang, and throughout the southeastern China fold
belt. Gold-placer deposits derived from these primary
deposits are concentrated in the northernmost part of
northeastern China and along the northwestern margin
of the Yangtze craton. The major provinces with sig-
nificant gold in porphyry-related copper systems and
base metal skarns are present in the Yangtze River
area along the northeastern and southeastern margin of
the Yangtze craton, in the fold belt in southwestern
China, and scattered through northern China. Three-
quarters of the Chinese gold-only deposits occur within
the North China craton margins. Half are located in
the uplifted Precambrian metamorphic rocks and most
of the remainder are hosted in the Phanerozoic grani-
toids that intruded the reworked Precambrian terranes.
The abundance of granite-hosted gold contrasts the
250
North China craton with other Precambrian cratons,
such as those in Western Australia, central Canada,
and Zimbabwe, where gold is mainly hosted in the
Archean greenstone belts. This difference may be ex-
plained by the multiple episodes of Phanerozoic tec-
tonism along the North China craton margins resulting
from the collision of the Angara, North China, and
South China cratons, and from subduction of the
Izanagi–Pacific oceanic plates underneath the eastern
China continent.
Keywords China Æ Gold Æ Tectonics
Introduction
China’s annual gold production has increased signifi-
cantly during the last 20 years, from approximately
25 tonnes of gold (t Au) in 1980 to 180 t in 1999 (In-
stitute of Geology, unpublished data; Cun and Ju 1999).
More importantly, as major new gold resources have
been delineated in many parts of China, the country has
attracted growing interest from the international explo-
ration community. In addition, a better understanding
of these resources is now possible because of the recent
detailed reviews in English on the tectonics of China
(Wang and Mo 1995; Sengör and Natal’in 1996; Yin and
Nie 1996; Zhao et al. 1996), and a few papers that have
attempted to present some aspects of China’s gold re-
sources (Xu et al. 1992; Nie 1997). However, detailed
information on Chinese gold deposits is uncommon in
the international literature, and there have been no
comprehensive reviews in English relating regional ge-
ology and plate tectonics to the distribution of different
types of gold deposits for the entire country.
This paper provides a general overview of the distri-
bution of gold deposits in China, and specifically relates
the deposits to orogenic episodes that define the tectonic
evolution of China. The geology of the Chinese gold
Fig. 1a–d. Gold resources of
China (data sources: Institute of
Gold Geology, unpublished
data; Cun and Ju 1999; Zhou
and Lü 2000). a Gold resources
in gold-only lodes, gold-base
metal lodes, and placers in
China; b gold resources of
major gold provinces in China;
c gold resources in different
mineral deposit types in China;
d gold resources in different
types of gold-only deposits in
China, with orogenic gold sub-
divided between granitoid-
hosted resources and resources
in metamorphic rocks of vari-
ous ages
deposits mainly is compiled from recent data and in-
formation in Chinese government reports and both the
western and Chinese literature, as well as from our re-
cent visits to China and the senior author’s work in
China from 1974 to 1986. The paper emphasizes links
between gold deposit distribution and plate tectonics in
order to increase understanding of the regional genetic
controls on the gold deposits of China.
Gold exploration and the state of mining in China
China has been producing gold for more than 4,000 years (Xu et al.
1992). However, there were no detailed official records of gold
production before the establishment of the People’s Republic of
China in 1949. Gold exploration and China’s mining industry grew
slowly between then and the late 1970s, but growth has been sub-
stantial since economic development began to dominate China’s
policies.
The definition of gold ‘‘resource’’ and ‘‘reserve’’ in China is very
different from that in Western countries and this has typically led to
confusion when the resource/reserve figures are translated into
English. In China, resources are divided into categories A through
E according to the extent of knowledge of ore control. Although
categories A and B may sometimes be used to describe a ‘‘reserve’’
in China, in general, only part of category A is used to indicate a
‘‘reserve’’ within a resource. Categories A to C mainly are used to
define ‘‘resources’’ (e.g., measured, indicated, and inferred reserves,
respectively), whereas categories D and E are geologically inferred
potential resources categories (e.g., undiscovered and speculative
resources, respectively).
The total gold production in China has been more than 1,000 t
since 1949. Currently, combined gold resources (categories A
through C) in China are more than 4,500 t (Cun and Ju 1999).
These combined 5,500 t Au comprise about 60% (3,300 t) from
gold-only deposits (e.g., epithermal veins, orogenic lodes, Carlin-
like deposits), 27% (1,500 t) from gold-enriched base metal-rich
deposits (e.g., skarn-Cu, porphyry-Cu deposits), and 13% (700 t)
from placer gold deposits (Fig. 1a).
Gold exploration has traditionally been carried out by geolog-
ical brigades from the Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources
(MGMR), which is now a part of the Ministry of Land and Re-
sources (MLAR), the China National Nonferrous Corporation
(CNNC), the Gold Bureau of the Ministry of Mining and Metal-
lurgy Industries (MMI), and the Gold Army. There are approxi-
mately 500,000 geologists that have carried out detailed surface

Fig. 2. Provinces and geogra-
phy of China (the South China
Sea islands are not shown in the
map) and locations of some of
the surrounding countries
geological mapping at 1:200,000 scale over all of China and
1:50,000-scale mapping has been completed for most of the eastern
areas. The total Chinese government budget for mineral explora-
tion is approximately US$1 billion annually (Chinese Geological
Survey 1999, personal communication) with most of the money
going towards salaries. Government-sponsored drilling has been
very limited. Major exploration methods employed are surface
geological mapping and geochemical exploration, which are occa-
sionally combined with follow-up trenching and limited drilling.
Airborne geophysical data also are available, but are coarse and
used for geological mapping rather than for mineral exploration.
Geochemical data are extensive for most areas and excellent in
quality, although data processing and interpretation may be in-
complete. Most drill rigs are rather old and incapable of angle
drilling. Compared with targets in Western countries, which are
characterized by an abundance of detailed geophysical data and
extensive drill hole information, many impressive gold targets in
China remain relatively unexplored.
China has emerged as one of the major gold producers in the
world behind South Africa, United States, and Australia. Gold
mining was previously directly controlled by, and generally oper-
ated by, the central Chinese government, but this has changed
during the 1990s. Local governments and rural Chinese companies
now play a more important role and are responsible for 45 and
38% of China’s annual gold production, respectively (Chinese
Institute of Gold Geology, unpublished data).
Unlike the other major gold producing countries, which have a
number of large gold mines producing as much as 20–30 t Au
annually, most of China’s gold mines are small. The largest indi-
vidual mines are in the Jiaodong (or East Shandong) gold province
(Fig. 1b) in Shandong province (Fig. 2), which produce about 3 t
Au per year (G. Lü 1998, personal communication). There are
approximately 1,000 operating gold mines across the country, as
well as numerous very small local mines (treating <25 t rock per
day) that are not accounted for in government statistics (Institute
of Gold Geology, unpublished data). Many of the newer opera-
251
tions are open cut operations, particularly those mining oxide ores.
Some open pit mines have recently been installed with modern
equipment in northeastern and northwestern China (e.g., the
Paishanlou[14] 1 and Axi[64] mines, respectively) and these are pro-
ducing as much as 2–2.5 t Au annually. Most of the older and more
established mines are underground operations that use longhole
open stoping, vertical crater retreat, and sub-level open stopping
methods. Rail haulage is employed at virtually all operations. Ball
and SAG (i.e., semi-autogenous grind) mills and conventional
carbon-in-leach and carbon-in-pulp processing are commonly used
for gold recovery. Tailings from these operations average 0.5 g/t
Au, but most of the rural companies, and some local government-
operated mines, have serious gold recovery problems and, in these
cases, the tailings may contain as much as 8 g/t Au. Recovery of
gold as a by-product from base metal ores (e.g., Cu-rich skarns)
remains problematic, with recovery rates averaging only 54%.
Consequently, gold from porphyry and skarn deposits comprises
28% of the total Chinese resource, but presently only accounts for
15% of the total gold production. Recovery of sub-microscopic
gold from Carlin-like deposits and fine-grained gold from epi-
thermal deposits is also problematic. Therefore, much of the hyp-
ogene ores in these systems remain unmined. Bio-leaching
techniques have been tried within some of the major Carlin-like
deposits (e.g., Zimudang[56]), but with little success (T.Z. visited
Zimudang Mine 1996; J. Mao and W. Shen 1996–1998, personal
communication). Pressure-leaching and roasters have rarely been
used because of the lack of capital.
Gold mining was opened to foreign investment joint ventures
for low-grade or refractory ores in 1994. However, gold exploration
by foreign investment joint ventures was not introduced by law in
China until 1996. Collaborating with some major mining industry
and government representatives from western countries, the Chi-
nese government updated its exploration and mining law, and
1
The deposit number in Tables 2–4 and Figs. 4–6.
252

introduced detailed new regulations in February 1998 in order to

bring it into accordance with Australian and North American
standards. Three major changes have been introduced that provide
for regulations that are very similar to those of Australia and
North America: (1) regulation of mineral exploration licenses, (2)
regulation of the interests and rights of mining licenses, and (3)
regulation of the transfer of exploration and mining rights and
licenses (State Council of the People’s Republic of China 1998). At
the same time, the previous regulation that required a company to
sell gold at 90% of the world spot price has been abolished. Bullion
still has to be sold to the People’s Bank of China at about the world
spot price. This policy makes forward selling of gold impossible
and is of concern to some of the major mining companies. The
possibility of changing this policy is under discussion and consid-
eration. There is no doubt that the Chinese government is aiming
towards an open policy for foreign investment in gold exploration
and mining in China. However, China does not have an adequate
number of technical professionals to make thorough evaluations of
tenement and property values (MGMR 1998, personal communi-
cation). This has hampered joint venture investment negotiations.
Nevertheless, current Chinese exploration and mining regulations
and policies are encouraging to foreign investors. Moreover, geo-
logical settings and gold deposit distribution characteristics suggest
China may be very favorable for discovery of new, world-class gold
deposits.

Tectonics of China
The tectonic framework of China is dominated by three global
orogenic systems, the Central-Asian or Paleo-Tethyan (Fig. 3a),
the Circum-Pacific and the Tethys–Himalaya systems (Guo 1987).
The Mesozoic–Cenozoic Circum-Pacific orogenic belt in eastern
China and the Tethys–Himalaya system in southwestern China are
the products of the subduction of Pacific Ocean floor beneath
China (Cox et al. 1989), and the indentation of the Indian conti-
nent into Eurasia (Figs 2 and 3; and Fig. 7 of Li 1998), respectively
(Fig. 3c). The Central-Asian geotectonic system in northern China
consists of a series of broadly E–W-trending fold belts, which,
from south to north, include the Kunlunshan–Qinling, Tianshan–
Beishan–Yinshan, and Altayshan–Xinganling belts. These fold
belts occur along the margins of the South China, North China,
Tarim, Kazakhstan–Kyrgyzstan, and Angara cratonic blocks
(Fig. 3). The fold belts are dominantly products of subduction and
accretion of oceanic complexes, and were the focus of deformation
in Paleozoic–Mesozoic cratonic collisions during final ocean clo-
sures. As is most commonly used in the Chinese literature, we
define orogeny between 600 and 405 Ma as Caledonian, 405 and
270 Ma as Variscan, 270 and 208 Ma as Indosinian, 208 and
90 Ma as Yanshanian, and <90 Ma as Himalayan (Wang and Mo
1995).

Major Precambrian continental blocks in China

The major Precambrian cratons in China are North China, South

China, and Tarim (Fig. 3). The easternmost part of the Kazakh-
stan–Kyrgyzstan Precambrian block terminates in the Yili area of
northwestern China, and is known there as the Yili block in China
(Fig. 3a). There are a few fragments of Precambrian micro-conti-
nents scattered across China, which include the Cathaysia block in
the southeast, the Tibet and Qiangtang blocks in the southwest, the
Qaidam block in the northwest, and the Jiamusi, Sanguan, Xin-
ganling, and Erguna blocks in the northeast. All the so-called
cratons in China are not strictly cratons; they have, instead,
undergone multiple tectonism since the late Paleozoic.

b
Fig. 3a–c. Tectonic evolution of the major Chinese Precambrian
blocks and evolution of gold systems since the Variscan.
a Variscan; b Indosinian; c Yanshanian

Table 1. Tectonic stages during
the crustal evolution of China
(modified from Wang and Mo
1995)
North China (Sino-Korean) craton
The oldest rock (granite) in the North China craton has been
identified in the Anshan area of eastern Liaoning province (Fig. 2)
with an age of 3.8 Ga (U–Pb in zircon, Liu et al. 1992; Chen 1994;
Fang 1994). Other Early Archean rocks also are scattered across
the craton (CGMC 1990; Fang 1994; Wang and Mo 1995), par-
ticularly those of Middle and Late Archean age (ca. 3.5–2.5 Ga).
These Archean rocks were influenced by the Wutaian (ca. 2.5) and
Lüliangian (ca. 1.8 Ga) orogenies and were then cratonized for
more than 1 billion years (Table 1). The Precambrian sequences
were locally uplifted and exposed, especially along the margins of
the North China ‘‘craton’’ during a series of Phanerozoic oroge-
nies. Much of the Caledonian orogeny (e.g., from Middle Ord-
ovician through Silurian) involved the subduction of both the
Mongolian and Qaidam–Qilianshan–Qinling (Fig. 2) oceanic
plates under the North China craton from the north and the south,
respectively. Many of the basement uplifts along the margins of the
North China craton occurred during the Variscan and Indosinian
orogenies, when the Angara and the South China blocks were
juxtaposed with northern China from the north and south, re-
spectively (Wang et al. 1990; Wang and Mo 1995; Zhou 1998,
1999). Some of the uplifts, however, are also clearly of later
Mesozoic age (Griffin et al. 1998).
253
Yangtze craton
In the northern Yangtze craton, (Qiu et al. 2000) have identified
Archean basement older than 3.2 Ga. In addition, a Pb–Pb age of
about 2.9 Ga has been reported at Dukou (Fig. 2) in Sichuan
province (Wang et al. 1990). The Kongling trondhjemite–tonalite–
granodiorite (TTG) gneiss in the Gorges area (Fig. 2) has an age
of 2.8 Ga, and detrital zircons older than 2.8 Ga have also been
reported in southeastern and northern Guizhou province (Wang
and Mo 1995). The Yangtze craton was consolidated into what is
commonly referred to as the more extensive South China craton
after the Jinning orogeny (ca. 1000–850 Ma), when it was amal-
gamated with the Cathaysia block on its southeastern margin
(Li et al. 1996). Today, the Yangzte craton is separated from the
North China craton by the Qinling fold belt and from south-
ernmost China and southeast Asia by the Southeast China and
Sanjiang fold belts.
Tarim craton
The main part of the Tarim craton is covered by the central part
of the present Tarim basin (Fig. 2; Shen et al. 1994). The oldest
exposed rocks are Middle Archean amphibolites (ca. 3.2 Ga) located
254
along the northeastern margin of the basin (Hu and Luo 1991).
Ages of 2.8–2.6 Ga are also reported from same area for a volcanic
and clastic rock sequence that is metamorphosed to low amphib-
olite facies (Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources
1993). Small blocks of high-metamorphic grade Archean rocks (ca.
2.5 Ga), which occur in the Altayshan and Beishan belts (Fig. 3),
also may have been parts of the Tarim craton at one time (Liu et al.
1996). The Archean–Paleoproterozoic Tarim nucleus was craton-
ized by the end of the Jinning orogeny (ca. 850 Ma) and became the
basement for an inland basin that formed during Late Carbonif-
erous/Early Permian Variscan tectonism (Xinjiang Bureau of Ge-
ology and Mineral Resources 1993; Zhao et al. 1996). The collision
into and subduction of the Indian continent under the Eurasia
continent, and the uplift of the Tibet–Qinghai plateau (Fig. 2) since
the Late Cretaceous, also may have been responsible for final Tarim
basin formation (Fig. 2).
Angara craton
The Angara craton (or Siberian platform) underlies Siberia
(Fig. 3a) in an area roughly covering 2,500 km. Much of the craton
is covered by Neoproterozoic to Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks. It
is immediately north of the east–west-trending Altayshan–Xin-
ganling fold belts, which outcrop across northern China and much
of Mongolia. These fold belts consist of Proterozoic to early Pa-
leozoic arc and metasedimentary rock terranes that were accreted
to the Angara craton during Mesozoic closure of the Mongolia–
Okhotsk Sea (Fig. 21.53E of Sengör and Natal’in 1996). Craton-
ization occurred in the Paleoproterozoic, with rifted margins
characterizing the period ca. 1650–800 Ma (Sengör and Natal’in
1996).
Other Precambrian blocks
Additional, relatively-isolated outcrops of Precambrian rocks are
scattered throughout Phanerozoic terranes over much of China.
The Yili block, in the western part of the Xinjiang Autonomous
Region (Fig. 3a), is the easternmost exposure of a series of small
Precambrian fragments that were joined together in the early Pa-
leozoic (Zonenshain et al. 1990). The block pinches out in central
Xinjiang (Fig. 3a), between Paleozoic oceanic terranes of the north
and south Tianshan geologic provinces. The Cathaysia block, on
the southern side of the Yangtze craton, has reported ages of ca.
2.5 Ga from the Zhejiang and Fujian provinces (Wang and Mo
1995), where Paleoproterozoic amphibolite facies rocks are widely-
distributed. The Cathaysia block collided with the Yangtze craton
during the early part of the Jinning orogeny (ca. 1.0 Ga), probably
underwent partial rifting during the Sinian, and recollided with the
Yangtze craton during a Silurian, late Caledonian event. Except for
the Jiamusi block, which has a Paleoproterozoic basement and may
have been a part of the North China craton, all other Precambrian
blocks in northeastern China are Neoproterozoic, and are inter-
preted to be rifted pieces of the passive margin of the Angara
craton (Wang and Mo 1995). In central China, to the northwest of
the Yangtze craton, the small Songpan-Ganzi block was probably
part of the Yangtze craton that separated during the Paleozoic
(Wang et al. 1990). Both the Tibet and Qiangtang blocks, in
southwestern China, show Australian (Gondwana) paleogeo-
graphic affinities and may have Precambrian basement (Wang and
Mo 1995), but they are generally poorly understood.
Tectonic evolution of China
Precambrian tectonism
The three major cratons in China (North China, Tarim, and
Yangtze) underwent at least three orogenies during the Archean,
widely-termed the Qianxian (ca. 3.2 Ga), Fuping (ca. 2.8 Ga), and
Wutai (ca. 2.5 Ga; Table 1). During these orogenies, rock units
experienced extensive greenschist to granulite facies metamor-
phism, intensive migmatization, and widespread magmatism. These
Archean rocks were subsequently cratonized throughout much of
the Proterozoic.
From 2.5 to 1.0 Ga, the North China, Tarim and Yangtze
cratons experienced little tectonism, although rifting took place
along the margins of these areas in the Paleoproterozoic and
Mesoproterozoic. At about 1.8 Ga, Paleoproterozoic rocks, which
are now exposed along the margins of the cratons, were deformed,
folded, and uplifted during the Lüliang (or Zhongtiao) orogeny
(Table 1). By Neoproterozoic time, the three cratons were very
close or partly connected in the supercontinent of Rodinia, as in-
dicated from stratigraphic and paleomagnetic studies (Wang and
Mo 1995).
The 1.0–0.85 Ga Jinning ‘‘Grenvillian’’ orogeny involved clo-
sure of the ocean basin at the southern margin of the North China
craton and accretion of the Qinling arc (Qinling belt area in Fig. 4).
Simultaneously, collisions occurred along both the northern and
southern margins of the Tarim craton (already amalgamated with
the Qaidam block), with the southern suture now defined by the
Kunlunshan orogenic belt (Fig. 4; Wang and Mo 1995). By the end
of the Jinning orogeny, the Yangtze cratonic block had collided
with the Cathaysia block to form the so-called South China craton.
These events are all part of Neoproterozoic supercontinent growth
that led to formation of Rodinia (Li et al. 1996). Sinian (also
known as ‘‘Zhendan’’ in China) rifting (850–600 Ma) resulted in
the breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent and, locally, the sepa-
ration from this large amalgamation of the major Chinese cratonic
blocks, perhaps from eastern Australia (Li et al 1996), along old
suture zones.
Caledonian (600–400 Ma)
By the Cambrian, subsequent to the Sinian rifting, the now sepa-
rated North China, South China, and Tarim cratons may each have
been close to the Australian continent within the newly forming
Gondwanaland. The Chinese and Australian land masses may have
been proximal to each other until the Devonian (Li et al. 1996).
During the Middle Ordovician to Late Silurian, the Mongolia and
Qaidam–Qilianshan–Qinling oceanic plates were subducted under
the North China craton from the north and southwest, respectively.
This led to the Caledonian uplift of a large part of the North China
craton, which acted as an eroding topographic high until the
middle Carboniferous. To the northwest, a series of Late Ordovi-
cian collisions formed the Kipchak arc (or Kazakhstania micro-
continent) along the margin of the northern Paleo-Tethys ocean
(Fig. 21.31 of Sengör and Natal’in 1996). Some of this event in-
cluded formation of the older parts of the Altaids in northern
Xinjiang (Altayshan belt in Fig. 3a). In southern China, the Yan-
gtze and Cathaysia blocks, which had been rifted apart during the
Sinian, collided for a second time and reformed the South China
craton.
Variscan (405–270 Ma)
The South Tianshan orogenic belt (Fig. 3a) developed during
Variscan tectonism on the seaward side of the Caledonian Kip-
chak arc along the edge of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean (Fig. 21.31 of
Sengör and Natal’in 1996). This was characterized by continued
terrane collision and final accretion of the Tarim block to the Yili
and Junggar blocks ca. 300 Ma (Fig. 3a; Sengör and Natal’in
1996). Collapse of the Kipchak arc closed a back-arc ocean
between the Yili and Junggar blocks and formed the North
Tianshan orogenic belt (Fig. 3a). During late Variscan events, the
North China craton was amalgamated to the Tarim craton along
the Altunshan strike-slip fault system (Fig. 3a). The diachronous
eastward continuation of the collision between the North China
and Angara cratons led to eventual establishment of the elongate
Tianshan–Beishan–Yinshan fold belts (Fig. 3a). Suturing proba-
bly continued until the Triassic, or even Early Jurassic, in
northeastern China.

Fig. 4. Distribution of different types of deposits with gold as the
main commodity. The tectonic framework is modified from Wang
and Mo (1995). Data sources and deposit numbers are listed in
Table 2
Indosinian (270–210 Ma)
The Yangtze craton began to move northward in the late Paleozoic
(Fig. 3a, b), which led to large-scale rifting and basalt eruption
along its western margin now within Sichuan and Guizhou prov-
inces. The collision between the North China and South China (or
the amalgamated Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks) cratons was
diachronous, i.e., first in Shandong province during the Late
Permian, and later in the Qinling-Dabie area (Fig. 3b) in the Late
Triassic (Yin and Nie 1993). This collision might have coincided
with development of the Tan-Lu fault system, which was contin-
ually active along the eastern margin of China during the middle
and late Mesozoic Yanshanian orogeny (Fig. 3b). The final suture
zone between the Yangtze and North China cratons is along the
South Qinling-Dabie zone (Fig. 3b), and the Eurasia superconti-
nent was formed near the end of the Indosinian events (Yin and Nie
1993; Wang and Mo 1995).
Yanshanian (210–90 Ma) and Himalayan (<90 Ma)
During Jurassic and subsequent to it, oblique subduction of the
Izanagi–Pacific basin plates under the eastern edge of China led to
the formation of the NNE-trending Yanshanian magmatic belts
and faults along the Pacific continental margin. In western China,
255
the Triassic to Jurassic Neotethys Ocean developed by opening of
the Yaluzangbu and Bangong–Nujiang basins (now the Sanjiang
fold belt area, Fig. 3c). After breaking away from Gondwanaland,
the Indian plate began to drift northward (Fig. 3c) during the
Jurassic, and collided with the Eurasia continent by the end of the
Cretaceous or early Tertiary. The indentation of the Indian conti-
nent into the Eurasia continent caused intra-continental subduction
and convergence in western China, and led to more than 5 km of
uplift in the Tibet–Qinghai plateau (Fig. 2).
Major gold provinces of China
Gold deposits are irregularly distributed across China.
More than 25% of the gold production and 20% of the
gold resource in China are in eastern Shandong province
(i.e., Jiaodong gold province), and about 12% of the
resource is in western Henan province (i.e., Xiao Qinling
gold province). The remaining gold resources are mainly
in the Shaanxi, Hebei, Liaoning, Jilin, Inner Mongolia,
Guizhou, and Hunan provinces, with recent important
discoveries in the Xinjiang and Gansu provinces
(Fig. 2). However, when the gold resource data are ex-
amined in a tectonic framework, most of the gold de-
posits are located along margins of the larger
Precambrian cratons and in the adjacent parts of
Phanerozoic collisional belts. Accordingly, gold in
256

China may be divided into the following major gold metamorphic rocks; Carlin-like and epithermal gold
provinces: deposits also are present in unmetamorphosed to
slightly metamorphosed rocks.
1. Jiaodong (or East Shandong) gold province (>20%
4. Yangtze River gold province (>20% resource) along
of gold resource in China) along the southeastern
the eastern edge of the Yangtze craton – gold-bearing
margin of the North China craton – most orogenic
skarn and porphyry copper deposits. Some of these
gold deposits cut Mesozoic granites, although a few
types of deposits, as well as epithermal gold deposits,
very small deposits are also hosted in Archean
continue northward along the western side of the
metamorphic rocks.
Tan-Lu fault into the western Shandong province
2. Northern China gold province (20% resource) along
(Figs. 4 and 5).
the northern margin of the North China craton –
5. Southeastern China gold province (2–3% resource)
orogenic gold deposits are present in both Precam-
along the southeast China fold belt– orogenic gold
brian metamorphic rocks and in Variscan and
and epithermal gold deposits are both present.
Yanshanian granites.
6. Dian–Gui–Qian gold province (<5% resource) along
3. Qinlingand Xiao Qinling gold provinces (20% re-
the southwestern margin of the Yangtze craton –
source) along the suture zone between the North
mainly Carlin-like and epithermal gold deposits.
China and Yangtze cratons and within the southern
7. Chuan–Shaan–Gan gold province (5% resource)
margin of the North China craton – orogenic gold is
along the northwestern margin of the Yangtze craton –
sited in Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic
mainly Carlin-like deposits and placer gold.
8. Northern Xinjiang gold province (<5% resource,
mostly new discoveries) within the Altayshan and
Tianshan orogenic belts and surrounding the Junggar
Fig. 5. Distribution of mineral deposits in China with base metals
as the major commodity, but in which gold is also at economic basin in northwestern China – mainly orogenic and
levels. The tectonic framework is modified from Wang and Mo volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in the Altay-
(1995). Data sources and deposit numbers are listed in Table 3 shan and western Junggar, whereas epithermal vein,

gold-bearing copper porphyry, and granitoid-related
replacement deposits are most abundant in the east-
ern Tianshan and eastern Junggar.
9. Heilongjiang gold province (5% resource) the Xing-
anling and Jiamusi areas of northeastern most China –
mainly placer gold.
Main types of gold deposits in China
Gold deposits in China have been typically classified by
host rock lithologies such as granite-hosted, volcanic-
hosted, and sedimentary-hosted gold deposits (e.g., Tu
1990, 1994; Nie 1997). Whereas this makes the classifi-
cation process easy and clear, it provides little infor-
mation on ore genesis and classification of Chinese gold
deposits using common mineral-deposit models. There-
fore, in this paper, the gold deposits of China are defined
only by the more common western terminology. Ac-
cordingly, the main gold deposits in China (Fig. 1c, d),
and their approximate percentage of the nation’s total
gold resources, may be classified as follows: orogenic
gold (approximately 50%). Carlin-like gold (5–6%),
epithermal gold (4%), Skarn/porphyry Cu–Au and Au–
Cu (± other metals; 25%), placer gold (13%), and
others, e.g., volcanogenic massive sulfide copper–gold,
magmatic nickel–copper–gold, replacement gold, and
regolith gold (3%).
Below, the distribution, common deposit features,
and regional characteristics of each of these gold deposit
types in China are described. More specific descriptions
of important individual gold deposits are included in
the other papers of this thematic issue of Mineralium
Deposita.
Distribution of orogenic gold deposits in China
Orogenic gold deposits (also sometimes referred to as
mesothermal or shear-zone type gold deposits) contain
about half of the total gold resource in China (i.e.,
2,700 t Au). Orogenic gold deposits are typically
spatially associated with regionally metamorphosed
terranes, and formed during compressional to trans-
pressional deformation processes at convergent plate
margins in accretionary and collisional orogenies
(Groves et al. 1998). In China, they are distributed
within the Jiaodong, northern China, Qinling, northern
Xinjiang (e.g., Altayshan and western Junggar), and
southeastern China gold provinces (Fig. 4). Here, as
elsewhere (e.g., Phillips and Groves 1983; Groves et al.
1987; Phillips 1993), ore genesis studies normally indi-
cate CO2-rich (10–25%), low salinity (<10%), and
neutral to slightly alkaline ore fluids, with sulfur species
involved in the complexing of the gold. Carbonization,
sulfidation, and silicification of wall rocks are consis-
tently associated with the orogenic gold deposits. In
addition, in the gold provinces along the margins of the
257
North China craton, addition of potassium to rocks
adjacent to ore zones is notable.
Most Archean cratons elsewhere in the world (e.g.,
the Yilgarn craton in Australia and the Superior Prov-
ince in Canada) are characterized by major gold deposits
in greenstone belts, which were formed during tectonism
in the Late Archean (ca. 2.7–2.6 Ga), and have been
isolated from further significant orogeny since that time.
The North China craton, however, is not a true Pre-
cambrian craton because it has undergone multiple
tectonic and magmatic events along both its northern
and southern borders since the late Paleozoic. Much of
the gold along these margins is hosted in Phanerozoic
granites that intruded the Late Archean and Paleopro-
terozoic rocks, making North China the most important
global example where granites that intruded into Pre-
cambrian crust contain substantial amounts of gold. The
spatial and temporal associations of gold and granites in
gold provinces, such as Jiaodong and northern China,
suggest to some workers that the mineralized systems are
intrusion-related gold deposits (e.g., Sillitoe and
Thompson 1998; Thompson et al. 1999; Lang et al.
2000). However, as no genetic link has been demon-
strated, we prefer instead to treat all such Chinese de-
posits as ‘‘orogenic’’ gold deposits, and argue that both
fluid (no matter what its source) and magma are simply
products of the same craton margin orogenic and ther-
mal event.
Jiaodong gold province
The Jiaodong gold province is the largest gold producer
in China, yielding about 30 t bullion per year. More
than 95% of the 850 t Au resource in the province is
hosted in Mesozoic Yanshanian granites that intrude
Late Archean metamorphic rocks. As stated above, this
predominance of granite host rocks for the orogenic
lodes contrasts with other large global gold provinces,
such as those of the Yilgarn craton, Zimbabwe craton,
Tasman Orogen, California Mother Lode, and Superior
Province, where syntectonic granites host less than 5–
10% of the total gold resource (Phillips and Zhou 1999).
The Jiaodong gold province is on the southeastern
margin of the North China craton immediately north of
the easternmost part of the ultra-high pressure belt
(Figs 3c and 4) that marks the Late Permian to Early
Jurassic suture between the Yangtze and North China
cratons (Yin and Nie 1993). During the Late Jurassic to
Cretaceous Yanshanian orogen, the Izanagi and Pacific
plates were obliquely subducted beneath the eastern part
of the China continent on the Eurasia plate. Granulite,
gneiss, amphibolite, and biotite-bearing schist of the
Jiaodong Group, dated at 2.94–2.67 Ga (Yu 1984),
comprise the basement to the gold province. The
Archean rocks are unconformably overlain by Paleo-
proterozoic ultramafic igneous, granulite, amphibolite,
marble, and schist, and Neoproterozoic slate, phyllite,
and carbonate rocks. The Precambrian rock units are
Table 2. Characteristics of the major gold deposits in China
258

Gold province Deposit Tectonic Orogena Deposit Host rockc,d Igneous Resource Grade Major ore Alteration
(and no. setting typeb agee (Ma) (t Au) (g/t) mineralsf mineralsf
on Fig. 4)

Orogenic gold
Jiaodong
1 Sanshandao Craton margin Yanshan shz J-K gr/Ar mm 160–1264 107 6.1 py, cp, ga, mt, apy mu, q, kf, cc, ank
2 Jiaojia Craton margin Yanshan shz J gr/Ar mm 160–1504 125+ 7.3 py, cp, ga, po, mt mu, q, kf, ab,
cc, sid, ch
3 Xincheng Craton margin Yanshan shz J-K gr/Ar mm 160–1264 85 7.2 py, cp mu, q, kf, cb
4 Linglong Craton margin Yanshan qv J-K gr 160–1504 125+ 9.7 py, cp, po, ga, mt mu, q, kf, cc,
ch, sid, ba
5 Fushang Craton margin Yanshan shz J-K gr 160–1504 43 6.3 py, ga mu, q, kf, ch, cb
6 Taishang Craton margin Yanshan shz J-K gr 160–1504 108 4.9
7 Daingezhuang Craton margin Yanshan shz J-K gr/Ar mm 160–1504 44 4.6
North China
8 Maoling Craton margin Variscan diss Pt phyl/schist 2082 25+ 3.2 po, apy, py, mt q, mu, ch, tu, cb
9 Wulong Craton margin Yanshan qv Pt gneiss 1604 40+ 7.3 py, bs mu, ch, cb
10 Cuocao Craton margin Yanshan qv Pr phyl/schist 20 10
11 Haigou Craton margin Yanshan qv J gr 144 30+ 6 py, ga, cp, po, ag q, mu, ch, tur, ep
12 Jiapigou Craton margin Yanshan qv/shz Ar mm 268–201, 1682 60 8.0 py, cp, po, sp, mt, q, mu, ch, ab, cc, sid
w, bs, ag
13 Erdaodianzi Craton margin Variscan qv Pz mm 40+ 6.4
14 Paishanlou Craton margin Yanshan qv/diss Ar mm 40+ 4.0 py, cp, apy, po q, mu, kf, cb, ch
2
15 Jinchangoliang Craton margin Yanshan qv/shz Ar mm 235, 135 50 12 py, cp, ga, sp,
sul 10–30%
16 Honghuagou Craton margin Yanshan qv/shz Ar mm 23+ 15.8 py, cp, sp, hem q, ch, mu, cc
17 Yuerya craton margin Yanshan qv J gr 165–1702 25 10.7 py, cp, ga, po, Mo q, mu, ab, cb
18 Baizhangzi Craton margin Yanshan shz J gr/dior 2224 206, 104 20+ 15 py, cp, ga, sp kf, ab, mu, q, cc
19 Niuxinshan Craton margin Yanshan qv/shz J gr /Ar amph 2293, 1743 20+ 20 py, cp, sp, ga q, ms, fl, ch, cb
20 Jinchangyu Craton margin Yanshan qv/shz Ar mm 199–1961,2,4 90 2 py, cp, ga, sp, te, q, mu, ab, cc, ch
mo, ag, Sb
21 Dongping Craton margin Yanshan qv/shz Pz syen/Ar mm 390–1502,3,4,5 100+ 6 py, mt, cp, ga, sp, te kf, mu, cb, q, ba
22 Xiaoyinpan Craton margin Variscan qv Ar mm 260–2352 68 9.7 py, cp, ga, te q, cc, kf, ank,
ch, mu
23 Saiyinwusu Craton margin Variscan shz/qv Pr ss/qtzite 270–2302,3 20 5–6 py, ga, apy mu, ch, cb
24 Hadamengou Craton margin Variscan qv/diss Ar mm 300–2702 60+ 8–9 py, mt, hem, te kf, cc, ank, mu, ch
25 Shihu Craton margin qv 20+ 12.6
Xiao Qinling
26 Laowan Craton margin Yanshan diss 24 5.1
27 Yindongpo Craton margin Yanshan qv/diss Schist 46 5.1 py, ga, sp, ag q, mu, cb
28 Kangshan Craton margin Yanshan shz Pr mvx 22 4–8 py, ga, cp q, kf, mu, cb, ch, ep
29 Shanggong Craton margin Yanshan shz Pr mvx 30+ 6.9 py, ga, cp, sp, te, ag q, cb, mu, ch, ab, tu
30 Dahu Craton margin Yanshan qv/bre Ar mm 177–1722,3 63 6.0 py, cp, ga, te q, mu, kf, cb, ch
31 Sifangou Craton margin Yanshan qv Ar mm 177–1722,3 37 10 py, cp, ga
32 Yangzaiyu Craton margin Indosinian? qv Ar mm 177–1722,3 50 11 py, cp, ga, sp, te q, kf, mu, cb, sh
33 Dongchuang Craton margin Yanshan qv/shz Ar mm 177–1722,3 55 7.0 py, ga, cp, te q, kf, mu, ch, cb
34 Wenyu Craton margin Yanshan shz/qv Ar mm 177–1722,3 50 6.5 py, ga, cp, sp, te mu, cb, q, kf, ch
35 Tongyu Craton margin Yanshan qv Ar mm 166, 123–1022,3 32 8–20 py, cp, sp, ga, mt q, mu, ch, ep, cb, bi
Qinling
36 Maanqiao Fold belt Indosin/ diss Carb slate Early Mz 30 5.1
Yanshan
37 Shuangwang Fold belt Indosin/ bx Dev phyl 214–1983, 50 3.1 py, te, mt, po ab, ank, mu, cc, q
Yanshan 183–1685
38 Baguamiao Fold belt Indosin/ shz Dev phyl Early Mz 80+ 3.8–6 py, po, mt, cp, sb q, cb, ch, mu, ab, tu
Yanshan
39 Pangjiahe Fold belt Indosin/ diss Dev phyl Early Mz 40+ 6.0
Yanshan
40 Liba Fold belt Indosin/ qv Dev-Carb phyl Early Mz 25+ 4.0 py, apy, po, sp, ga q, mu
Yanshan
Qilianshan
41 Tanjianshan Fold belt ? diss/qv Ord phyl Late Pz 20+ 4–5 py, apy, po, cp, ga q, mu, sid, ank
42 Hanshan Fold belt Indosinian qv/shz Ord mvx Ord, Perm 30+ 3–5 py apy, po, cp, te q, mu, ch, ank, sid
North Xinjiang
43 Kangguer E. Tianshan Variscan shz/qv E. Carb 2753 30+ 7 py, mt, po, cp, sp q, mu, ch, cc,
belt mseds ank, sid, ba
44 Duolanasaiyi Altay fold Variscan qv/diss Dev mseds 297–261 20+ 8.3 py, cp, bn, w, te, po q, cb, ch
belt
45 Hatu Junggar Variscan qv E. Carb mseds 298–2853, 2561 30+ 7.5 py, apy, cp, sp q, mu, ch, cc
fold belt
46 Sawuyaerdun S. Tianshan Variscan/ diss L Sil mseds 100+ 3–5 py, po, apy, sb, cp q, mu, sid, cc, ch
belt Indosin
Kunlunshan
47 Wulonggou Fold belt Indosinian? shz/diss meta, mafic-inte 20 py, apy
SW China
48 Qiuluo Fold belt diss/shz c-shale-sil/T 26 16.2 py, sb, apy, cp, cin q, cc, ch, mu, cb
49 Gala Fold belt diss c-vol, slate/T 20 10 py, apy, sb q, mu, ch, cb
50 Zhenyuan Fold belt shzx 55 8.6
51 Jinchang Fold belt qv/shz Ultramafic-sed/ 27 4.2 py, hem, ga, sp q, dol, mup
SE China
52 Hetai Fold belt Cale/ shz/ml Pt mm 392, 197–190 50 10 py, cp, po, apy q, cb, ch
Yanshan
53 Zhilingtou Craton margin Yanshan shz/qv Pt gneiss 20 12 py, sp, ga, po, te q, rod
Yangtze River
54 Jinshan Craton margin shz/qv Pt mm 45 6.0 py, apy, mt, te, cp q, ab, mu, cb, ch
Yangtze craton
55 Woxi Craton margin Caledonian qv Slate 38+ 8.0 py, q, cb, ch
sb, w
Carlin gold
Dian–Gui–Qian
56 Zimudang Craton Yanshan diss/shz L. Perm/E. 60 5.0 py, apy, re q, cc, il, kao, wm
marine rift Tr clastics/lm
57 Lannigou Craton marine Yanshan diss/shz M. Tr clastics 80 7.0 py, apy, sb, cin, re q, cc, dol, wm, il, kao
rift
58 Jinya Craton marine diss M. Tr 25+ 5.0 py, apy, q, dol, cc, il, kao, ch
rift Yanshan clastics cin,
re, sb
59 Gaolong Craton marine Yanshan diss M. Tr clastics 20+ 4.0 py, sb, cin q, cc, wm, il, dec
rift
60 Getang Craton Yanshan diss L. Perm lm 22 6.2 py, sb, apy, cin, re q, cc, wm, ba, kao
marine rift
259
Table 2. (Contd.)
260

Gold province Deposit Tectonic Orogena Deposit Host rockc,d Igneous Resource Grade Major ore Alteration
(and no. setting typeb agee (Ma) (t Au) (g/t) mineralsf mineralsf
on Fig. 4)

Chuan–Shaan–Gan
61 Manaoke Basin margin Indosin/ diss Tr slate/lm 20 5.0 py, sb, apy, re q, cc, wm, ba
Yanshan
62 Dongbeizhai Basin margin Indosin/ diss Tr slate 50+ 6.2 py, sb, apy, re q, cc, wm, kao
Yanshan
Epithermal gold
North Xinjinag
63 Xitan E. Tianshan Indosinian diss/qv Perm bx pipe 293–2341,3 20 7.0 py, apy, cp, te cd, cc, wm, adu,
belt ba, alu
64 Axi W. Tian- Variscan qv E Carb vex 70 5.8 py, apy, ma cd, cc, wm, ch, alu,
shan belt adu
SE China
65 Jinguashi Oceanic arc Present-day qv /diss Pleist dacite 1.3–0.9 100 2.2 ena, luz, q, ba, alu,
py, sp, cin kao
Jamusi block
66 Tuanjiegou Fold belt Cal/ diss/bre Porphyry- 113–932 61 7.5 mar, py, sb, cd, adu, cc,
Yanshan vol/K cin, re ank, op, kao
Qinling
67 Qiyugou? Craton margin Indo/ diss fels–bre–pip/K 102 22 7.4 py, cp, bs, te q, ch, pyr, ep
Yanshan
Skarn/Porphyry gold
Yangtze River
68 Jiguanzui Craton margin Yanshan ms/diss E. Tr lm/dol 1222 10 4.9 py, cp, bn, q, sid, wm, ch, ba
co, Mo
69 Jilongshan Craton margin Yanshan ms/diss Tr lm 138 30 (Au-Cu), 4.0, py, cp, bn, mt, co, gar, di, wo, tre, cb,
Cu:0.28Mt 0.7% hem, mo, falk ep, ch, kf, wm
70 Xinqiao Craton margin Indo/ ms/diss Sil–Tr lm 168 20 (Au-Cu), 6.1,0.78% py, po, cp, mt, cb, di, wo, ga
Yanshan Cu:0.5Mt gn, sp
71 Mashan Craton Yanshan ms/diss Sil–Tr lm 1432 32 (Au-Cu) 6.5 py, po, apy, cp, mt q, cb,
margin di.serp, tc
Hunan
72 Kangjiawan Craton margin Cal/Indosin ms/diss arg–lim/P-C-g gd-143–150/127 34 (Au- 3.7 py, sp, ga, sk, q, wm, ch, cb
Pb-Zn) po, hem
Jamusi block
73 Laozhaishan Craton margin ms/diss 20 (Au-Cu) 7.4
North China
74 Xinancha Craton margin Va/Yan- qv/bre do–por/Va Va/Yansh/1312 38+ (Au- 0.1–0.5% 15% q, cb, wm, ch, ep, ac
shan Cu), cp,py,
Cu:0.18Mt po,1

Data sources: CAGS 1992; Chen 1994; Dong et al. 1994; Gan et al. 1994; Ge et al. 1992; Guo 1987; Hu et al. 2001, this volume; Ji et al. 1997; Li and Peters 1998; Lu et al. 1996; Lü and
Kong 1993; Miller et al. 1998; Naldrett 1997; Nie 1997; Pirajno et al. 1997; Qiu et al. 2002 this volume; Rui et al. 1984; Rui et al. 1994; Rui et al. 2002, this volume; Sengör and Natal’in
1996; Shen et al. 1994; So et al. 1998; Trumbull et al. 1992; Wang and Mo 1995; Wang et al. 1998b; Xie et al. 1994. Xinjiang Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources 1993; Yang and
Dong 1994; Yang and Lü 1996; Ye et al. 1994; Yin and Nie 1993, 1996; Zhai and Deng 1996; Zhang and Mao 1995; Zhang 1984; Zhou 1982, 1984, 1993, 1998; Zhou et al. 1998; Institute
of Gold Geology, unpublished data; and personal communication with Jingwem Mao, Zongyao Rui, Hongtao Zhang, Jianquan Mao, Wanjun shen; Guxian L€ u Jiqong Liu, Jidong
Sun, Dequan Zhang, Jishun Ren, Jun Zhou, Rongfu Pei, Fengiun Nie, Ken McQueen, Xuchang Xiao, Yuming Qiu, Zhengxiang Li, Quojian Xu
 261

overlain by unmetamorphosed Mesozoic clastic and

gar garnet; hem hematite; il illite; kao kaolinite; kf K-feldspar; luz luzonite; ma marcasite; mo molybdenite; mt magnetite; mu muscovite; op opal; phl phlogopite; pyr pyrophylite; py pyrite; q
Ore and alteraton minerals: ab albite; ac actinolite; adu adrularia; ag argentite; alu alunite; ank ankerite; apy arsenopyrite; ba barite; bn bornite; bs bismutholamprite; cb carbonate;
cc calcite; cd chalcedony; ch chlorite; cin cinnabar; co chalcocite; cp chalcopyrite; dec decarbonitization; di diopside; ena enargite; ep epidote; falk falkenhaynite; fl fluorite; ga galena;
Host rock: amph amphibolite; arg argillite; c carbonaceous; clast clastics; do diorite; dolo dolomite; fels felsic; gr granite; gd granodiorite; gp granitic porphyry; int intermediate;

quartz; re realgar; rod rhodochrosite; sb stibnite; serp serpentine; sid siderite; sk skarn minerals; sp sphalerite; tc talc; te telluride; tre tremolite; tu tourmaline; w sheelite; wm white mica; wo
volcanic rocks. Yanshanian age plutons intrude all these
units.
Orogenic gold in the Jiaodong province comprises
seven major deposits, i.e., Sanshandao[1] (including
Cangshang), Jiaojia[2] Xincheng[3], Linglong[4], Fushan[5],
Orogen: Cale Caledonian (Sinian-Ordovician); Var Variscan (Silurian-Carboniferous); Indo Indosinian (Permo-Triassic); Yanshan Yanshanian (Jurassic-Cretaceous)

lim limestone; mm metamorphic rocks; mz monozonite; mud mudstone; phyll phyllite; por porphyry; sed sedimentary rock; sil siltstone; sst sandstone; vol volcanics

Taishang[6], and Daingezhuang[7] (Table 2 and Fig. 4),

Age: Ar Archean; C Carboniferous; D Devonian; J Jurassic; K Cretaceous; Mio Miocene; O Ordovician; P Permian; Pt Proterozoic; Tr Triassic; Pz Paleozoic

and approximately 300 smaller deposits and prospects.

Almost all of these are hosted in granite. More than 85%
of the gold resources are spatially associated with the
Mesozoic Linglong and Guojialing granites in a 3,000-
km2 area in the Zhaoyuan-Yexian region (Zhou and Lü
2000; Qiu et al. 2002, this volume). Much of the
remainder of the gold is located in the Muping-Rushan
region, about 80 km east of Zhaoyuan-Yexian. Gold
deposits hosted by the Precambrian metamorphic rocks
define less than 5% of the total gold resource in the
province and are concentrated between the two above
main regions. Gold-forming events are tightly con-
strained to a period of 130–120 Ma, whereas much of the
Mesozoic magmatism is spread over a broader range of
165–125 Ma (Yang and Lü 1996; Wang et al. 1998b;
Zhou and Lü 2000; Qiu et al. 2002, this volume).
Texture: bre breccia; cont contact; diss disseminated; ml mylonite; ms massive; qv quartz vein; shz shear zone

There are primarily two subtypes of orogenic gold

deposits in the Jiaodong gold province, those dominated
by large quartz-vein systems and those defined by small
veinlets and disseminated ores along shear-zones. The
former includes the granite-hosted ores in mainly brittle
faults at the Linglong goldfield and, hence, these gold-
bearing quartz veins are locally termed Linglong-style
ores. The disseminated/stockwork type is best repre-
sented by the Jiaojia-Xincheng goldfield, and is often
Age determination: 1 U-Pb; 2 K-Ar; 3 Rb-Sr; 4 SHRIMP; 5 40 Ar-39 Ar; 6 Nd-Sm

termed Jiaojia-style disseminated ore. Many of the

Jiaojia-style ores are present in fault and shear zones
along granite–metamorphic rock contacts.
The Linglong goldfield comprises an area of about
75 km2. The major gold deposits are the Dongfeng,
Jiuqyu, Dakaitou, Shuangding, Dongshan, Linglong,
and Vein-108 deposits (Zhou and Lü 2000; Qiu et al.
2002, this volume). Gold occurs in large quartz veins
cutting the Linglong and Guojialing granites. Orebodies
are commonly localized at the intersections of NNE-,
NE- and ENE-trending shear zones and faults. More
than 540 major gold-bearing quartz veins have been
discovered that extend from 100 m to 5.8 km along
strike, are typically 1 to 10 m wide although locally
reaching 100 m, and extend 600 to 700 m down dip. Ore
grades of the veins vary from 3 to 32 g/t. Gold miner-
alization mainly occurs as gold or electrum in pyrite or
in quartz, with also pyrrhotite, and local chalcopyrite,
galena, and sphalerite. The major alteration minerals
include white mica, pyrite, and quartz, with lesser car-
bonate, chlorite, albite, and K-feldspar, typically sur-
rounding the veins for a few meters. During
hydrothermal activity, Ag, Cu, Rb, and Co were en-
wollastonite

riched in adjacent granite wall rock and Sr, V, and Zr

were depleted (Zhou and Lü 2000).
The Jiaojia-Xincheng goldfield comprises the Jiaojia,
Xincheng, Wangershan, Hedong, and Hexi deposits.
b

d
a

e
f
262
These deposits are located in the contact zone of the
Linglong and Guojialing granites with the Archean am-
phibolite, gneiss and schist. They are controlled by
moderately-dipping, NNE- and NE-striking faults and
brittle–ductile shear zones. The major orebodies are
1.2 km long, 2 to 4 m thick, approximately 850 m deep,
and mainly formed by dilational events along the faults.
Gold grades vary from 3 to 50 g/t, averaging about 10 g/t.
Mineralization occurs as stockworks and veinlets, or is
disseminated in the altered wall rocks. Ore and gangue
minerals in veinlets and altered granite include pyrite,
pyrrhotite muscovite, and K-feldspar with lesser magne-
tite, electrum, gold, silver, chalcopyrite, galena, sphale-
rite, chlorite, siderite, ankerite, and epidote. Arsenopyrite
only occurs locally. Secondary epidote and chlorite form
broadest alteration halos, extending for tens of meters
from the ore-related shear zones.
Northern China gold province
A resource of approximately 800 t Au is recognized
across the province. Gold occurrences along the north-
ern margin of the North China craton occur in both
areas of abundant Archean (± Paleoproterozoic) base-
ment (e.g., Dongping[21], Hadamengou[24], and Jin-
changyu[20]), and in areas of Proterozoic country rocks
(Yuerya[17], Baizhangzi[18], Wulong[9], Haigou[11], and
Maoling[8], Table 2 and Fig. 4). In addition, both Vari-
scan and Yanshanian orogenic gold deposits and plu-
tons are common within the province (Hart et al. 2002,
this volume). About 70% of the gold resource is hosted
by Precambrian rocks, in contrast to the Jiaodong gold
province, and some 30% by Variscan and Yanshanian
granites.
The northern China gold province is a 1,500-km-
long, E–W fold belt along the northern margin of the
North China craton (Fig. 4), extending from the middle
of Inner Mongolia, through northern Hebei and Lia-
oning, to Jilin province. Basement uplifts of Archean
and Paleoproterozoic gneiss, schist, granulite, amphib-
olite, and banded iron formation outcrop over one-third
of the area and are sites of most of the mineralization.
Slightly metamorphosed Mesoproterozoic to Neoprote-
rozoic shallow marine quartzite, slate and limestone,
and Paleozoic to Cretaceous shallow marine to conti-
nental sedimentary rocks, surround the uplifts. Gold
deposits and granites are associated with both Variscan
and Yanshanian tectonism, but broad-scale regional
deformation is mainly Variscan. It is best characterized
by E–W-striking folds and fault zones formed during
Permian early stages of ocean closure between the North
China and Angara cratons (Fig. 3a). Locally, in the
eastern part of the gold province, the Variscan structures
are overprinted by Yanshanian NNE-trending strike-
slip faults. The Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous Yansh-
anian tectonism could have been caused either by the
oblique subduction of the Izanagi oceanic plate under-
neath the North China craton and (or) final closure of
the Mongolia–Okhotsk ocean between the Angara and
North China cratons (Fig. 3a, c).
The distribution of Variscan and Yanshanian plutons
differs across the northern China gold province, and this
highlights the varied locations of tectonothermal events
that are also associated with orogenic gold formation.
Variscan granites trend parallel to and across the entire
E–W-striking fold belt, and are generally no farther in-
land within the North China craton than 100 km of its
northern margin. Yanshanian granites, however, are
distributed both along E–W- and NNE-striking struc-
tures from the craton border to as far south as Beijing,
about 350 km into the craton. They are concentrated in
the more easterly of the basement uplifts within the
northern part of the craton. Compositions of both the
Variscan and Yanshanian granites vary from calc-alka-
line to alkalic, but are mainly the former. Pinkish K-
feldspar phenocrysts, a few centimeters in length, are
common in felsic rocks from both intrusion generations
(Miller et al. 1998).
From west to east, gold deposits in the northern
China gold province occur discretely in the Daqingshan
(e.g., Hadamengou[24], Saiyinwusu[23]), Yanliao (e.g.,
Dongping[21], Xiaoyingpian[22], Jinchangyu[20], Hon-
ghuagou[16], Jinchanggouliang[15] and Paishanlou[14]),
and Changbaishan (e.g., Jiapigou[12]) areas (Figs. 2 and
4, and Fig. 1 of Miller et al. 1998). Whereas a few de-
posits (e.g., Shihu[25], Fig. 4) occur as far inland as the
area southwest of Beijing, most of the major deposits are
located within 100 km of the northern edge of the North
China craton. Most deposits are associated with large
east–west structures, but exceptions include the Jin-
changyu[20] deposit controlled by regional NNE-striking
structures, and the Shihu deposit related to the NNW-
trending faults. Generally, orogenic gold deposits are of
Variscan age to the west, both Variscan and Yanshanian
in the center, and solely Yanshanian in the eastern side
of the gold province (Hart et al. 2002, this volume). In
all areas, most gold is in quartz- and quartz–K feldspar
veins, although disseminated gold in altered wall rock
makes up a significant part of the resource at many of
the deposits.
In the Daqingshan Mountain area (Fig. 2) in the
western side of the gold province, mineralization, such as
at the Hadamengou deposit[24] (Table 2 and Fig. 4), is
controlled by secondary structures in Archean basement
rocks. These structures are related to the regional E–W-
striking folds and faults. The deposits are hosted in high-
grade metamorphic rocks, but commonly are only a few
kilometers from Variscan granites. No significant gold, so
far, has been discovered in the igneous rocks in the area.
Variscan mineralization is prominently characterized by
pinkish K-feldspar–quartz veins, rather than simple
quartz veins that are predominant in many of the other
vein-type gold deposits of the province. Telluride minerals
are common in deposits of the Daqingshan area, and
proximal alteration zones may contain in excess of 6%
K2O. The largest deposit in the Daqingshan area is Ha-
damengou, which is located 20 km west of the city of

Baotou. The deposit contains over 60 t Au grading 8–9
g/t. An E–W-striking, 10-km-long and 100- to 400-m-
wide mylonite zone is exposed in the mine area (Gan et al.
1994). K-feldspar–quartz veins, quartz veins, and altered
rocks parallel the zone and the more regional E–
W-trending structures. Individual veins normally are 200–
500 m long, but some extend for 3 km. They average
2–3 m in width, and have been mined to a depth of 400 m,
with little change in ore grades. In the west, the Sayin-
wusu[23] deposit is only a few kilometers south of the
northern edge of the North China craton. A few tens of
kilometers north of Hademengou[24], within Proterozoic
metamorphic rocks, the combined resource of the Sai-
yinwusu[23] (Table 2 and Fig. 4) and nearby Bayan Obo
gold deposits (close to the large Bayan Obo REE–Nb–Fe
mine) is >20 t Au. Variscan gold mineralization, in as-
sociation with abundant arsenic- and antimony-bearing
sulfide phases, occurs in quartz veins and, less commonly,
is disseminated in mylonitic volcanic rocks, along a series
of E–W- and NE-trending, steeply-dipping shear zones.
Most of the major orogenic gold deposits in the
northern China gold province are concentrated in the
Yanshan Mountain area (Fig. 2), where regional struc-
tures include both NNE-striking faults and shear zones,
and E–W-trending folds and faults. Potassic alteration
in the area is generally dominated by white mica, al-
though quartz–K feldspar veins are abundant at a few of
the larger deposits. Both Variscan (e.g., Xiaoyinpan[22]
(Table 2 and Fig. 4) and Yanshanian (Dongping[21])
gold deposits and granites are sited in the western part of
the Yanshan area, but only Yanshanian gold ores (e.g.,
Jinchangyu[20], Honghuagou[16], Jinchanggouliang[15],
and Paishanlou[14]) are present to the east. The larger
deposits are typically associated with the younger
Yanshanian hydrothermal systems. The >100-t Au
Jinchangyu[20] deposit, about 180 km ENE of Beijing,
has been mined for more than 1,000 years. Jinchangyu,
and a few associated deposits, are localized within a 6-
km-long by 1-km-wide, NNE-trending fault in Archean
metamorphic rocks. Clusters of quartz veins and quartz–
albite veins are a few tens of meters wide, as much as
300 m long, and continue to a depth of 550 m. The veins
mainly contain pyrite, lesser gold, electrum, chalcopy-
rite, galena, pyrrhotite, magnetite, molybdenite, and
trace amount of telluride minerals.
Many other deposits in the Yanshan area show a
spatial association with granites of both orogenies.
These include the Dongping[21], Yuerya[17], Niuxin-
shan[19], Baizhangzi[18], Wulong[9], and Haigou[11] (Ta-
ble 2 and Fig. 4) deposits, which all contain >20 t Au
and are all at least partly hosted by granites. As with the
deposits hosted in metamorphic rocks of the Yanshan
area, the granite-hosted deposits also are structurally
controlled, and commonly localized by secondary
structures related to the major regional fault or shear
zones. The >100-t Au Dongping[21] deposit, about
140 km northwest of Beijing, is the largest of these de-
posits. Yanshanian gold mineralization occurs in the
327 Ma Shuiquangou syenite to monzonite batholith
263
complex (Zhao et al. 1994). The batholith intruded
along a group of E–W-trending structures that are
parallel to, and about 10 km south of, the trans-crustal
Shangyi–Chungli–Chicheng deep fault zone, which di-
vides the Archean and Proterozoic rocks on the south
and north, respectively. Gold mineralization occurs
in pinkish, K-feldspar–quartz veins, quartz veins, and
altered wall rock, and is localized by NE- and
NNE-trending, west-dipping shear zones. The individual
gold-bearing veins may be as much as a few kilometers
long, continue to a 600-m depth, and average 3 m in
width (Zhang and Mao 1995; Miller et al. 1998). The
K-feldspar–quartz veins and quartz veins contain pyrite,
calaverite, galena, chalcopyrite, gold, and abundant
hematite. Less voluminous mineralization continues into
the Archean country rocks.
In the Changbaishan Mountains area (Fig. 2), within
the eastern part of the northern China gold province,
regional structures are dominated by NNE-striking
faults or shear zones, although E–W-trending folds and
faults may be locally recognized. Yanshanian granites
dominate, but Variscan granites are also present in some
mining districts. Jiapigou[12] (Table 2 and Fig. 4) is the
most important deposit (>60 t) in the Changbaishan
mountain area, and was responsible for almost half of
China’s gold production during the 1960s. Gold min-
eralization is hosted in ca. 2.6 Ga plagioclase–amphi-
bole gneiss, which underwent high-grade metamorphism
at 2.27 Ga (Chen and Zhu 1993). A group of subverti-
cal, NW-striking thrust faults and shear zones control
the gold ore zones. Late(?)- to post-Variscan biotite–
granites (268–201 Ma, Chen and Zhu 1993), Yansha-
nian syenite (168–149 Ma) and many mafic to felsic
dyke systems are present near the Jiapigou deposit. The
orebodies are 450–770 m long, 2–17 m wide, and con-
tinue to depths of at least 670 m. Early stage quartz
veins contain scheelite, magnetite, and less abundant
sulfide minerals with minor gold; the younger, main
stage quartz veins contain pyrite, gold, and Bi-bearing
minerals; and the late stage quartz veinlets and stock-
works contain sulfide minerals with local enrichment of
gold and rezbanyite (Cu–Pb–Bi sulfide). The gangue
minerals are quartz, siderite, ankerite, calcite, muscovite,
and chlorite. The Maoling[8] and Caocuo[10] (Table 2
and Fig. 4) deposits are hosted in schist, phyllite, and
slate of the Proterozoic Liaohe Formation. Orebodies
are localized by NE-trending shear zones, and intersec-
tions with secondary faults and folds. Ores contain a
high proportion of arsenopyrite, pyrite, lesser pyrrho-
tite, galena chalcopyrite, and sphalerite (Yang and Liu
1994).
Xiao Qinling and Qinling gold provinces
The Xiao Qinling gold province, located between
Tongguan in Shaanxi and Lingbao in Henan province
(Fig. 2), is currently the second largest gold producing
area in China (Mao et al. 2002a, this volume). Annual
264
production is about 15–23 t Au. The Xiao Qinling area
is underlain by gneiss, marble, quartzite, migmatite, and
amphibolite of the Late Archean Taihua Group. Indo-
sinian alkalic porphyries and dykes (213–202 Ma) and
Yanshanian granites are widespread. The Wenyu granite
(just west of Tongguan, Fig 2; 130–106 Ma, K–Ar, Chen
and Fu 1992) intruded the central part of the gold-rich
area, and is exposed over an area of about 20 km2.
Regional structures are dominated by the E–W-trend-
ing, north-dipping, >60-km-long Maxundao deep fault
zone (from Tongguan to Lingbao, Fig. 2). It was origi-
nally a compressional feature, but shows evidence for
late extension. A series of large gold deposits, with total
resources of 300–450 t Au, occur at intersections of
second-order WNW–EW-striking faults with NE- and
NW-striking faults to the north of the first-order Max-
undao fault zone (Fig. 11.1.1 of Xie et al. 1994).
From west to east in the Xiao Qinling gold province,
gold deposits hosted in rocks of the Taihua Group are
concentrated in three goldfields within a 60·15 km
corridor, 2–15 km north of the Maxundao fault: i.e., the
Tongyu (e.g., the Tongyu[35] and Yanzhihe deposits),
Wenyu (e.g., the Wenyu[34], Dongchuang[33], Sifan-
gou[31], and Yangzhaiyu[32] deposits) and Dahu (e.g., the
Dahu[30] and Linghu deposits) goldfields (Table 2 and
Fig. 4). A series of 4- to 20-m-wide and >4-km-long
quartz veins lie within second-order faults. Lesser
amounts of gold occur in altered rocks along ductile–
brittle shear zones and in breccia bodies. More than
1,200 gold-bearing quartz veins have been discovered in
this part of the Qinling gold province. Ores are noted to
contain pyrite, galena, sphalerite, and minor magnetite,
scheelite, wolframite, molybdenite, stibnite, pyrrhotite,
and gold. The gangue minerals comprise quartz, calcite,
ankerite, minor rutile, barite, siderite, and fluorite. The
alteration halos around quartz veins or shear zones
comprise mainly quartz, sulfide minerals, white mica,
and carbonate minerals, with lesser chlorite, epidote,
and biotite (Chen and Zhu 1993; Xie et al. 1994).
A few large gold deposits in areas of Proterozoic
basement in the Xiao Qinling area, i.e., Kangshan[28],
Shanggong[29], and Qiyugou[67] (Table 2 and Fig. 4), are
controlled by a group of NE-striking faults and shear
zones, which are the second-order structures to another
major E–W-striking fault zone. The Shanggong[29]
(>30 t Au) and Kangshan[28] (>20 t Au) deposits are
located in the 33-km-long, NE-trending Kangshan–Qil-
iping ductile–brittle shear. Mineralization is hosted in
Mesoproterozoic felsic to intermediate volcanic rocks.
The steeply dipping orebodies are 250- to 750-m-long
and 1- to 2.8-m-wide veins filling brittle structures, lenses
in tension gashes, alteration bands along shear zones,
and brecciated country rock. The ores commonly
contain anomalous Ag, Te, and Pb concentrations.
Alteration halos around the orebodies are characterized
by a 1- to 3-m-wide proximal sulfide–ankerite–muscovite
zone, a 1- to 20-m-wide pyrite–ankerite–muscovite–
chlorite transitional zone, and a 50-m-wide distal
chlorite–calcite zone.
In the Qinling gold province, to the west of the Xiao
Qinling gold province, many recently discovered
orogenic gold deposits occur in the Qinling Mountain
(Figs. 2, 3, and 4). The ores are confined to an ENE-
trending belt of Devonian and Carboniferous flysch,
which was highly-deformed and regionally-metamor-
phosed during Indosinian collision between the North
China and Yangtze cratons (Mao et al. 2002b, this
volume). Granites, mainly granodiorites and monzog-
ranites, also were intruded throughout the western
Qinling province between 240 and 180 Ma. The belt
extends from near Lixian in Gansu Province to Zhenan
in Shaanxi Province (Fig. 11.2.1 of Yu et al. 1994), over
an area 600 km long and 3 km wide. A resource ex-
ceeding 300 t Au has been identified in the Liba[40],
Pangjiahe[39], Baguamiao[38], Shuangwang[37], and Ma-
anqiao[36] orogenic gold deposits (Table 2 and Fig. 4), as
well as in the many smaller deposits. The major ore-
bodies are localized by the intersection of NE and NW
structures with the regional EW–WNW-striking fold
and shear zones, mostly dipping 50–70N. Gold occurs
in small quartz stockworks and veinlets along major
ductile shear zones (e.g., Baguamiao[38]), disseminated in
wall rocks along brittle fractures in hornfels zones (e.g.,
Liba[40]), or in large breccia zones (e.g., Shuangwang[37]).
In some literature, Baguamiao[38] and other gold de-
posits within the deformed late Paleozoic clastic rocks in
the western part of the Qinling gold province are clas-
sified as Carlin-like gold deposits (Li and Peters 1998),
but the features of these ores (e.g., Mao et al. 2002b, this
volume) are more typical of orogenic gold lodes.
Baguamiao[38] (Table 2 and Fig. 4) is the largest
orogenic gold deposit in this part of the Qinling gold
province with a resource of approximately 80 t Au, and
with a main ore zone about 1.7 km long, 50–160 m wide,
and a 0.5 km down-dip. The major ore minerals, com-
prising about 5% of the hydrothermal phases, are pyr-
rhotite, pyrite, and secondary pyrite (marcasite) with
lesser sphalerite, galena, tellurobismuth, and gold. Al-
teration halos around the orebodies are characterized by
a broad bleaching zone of white mica and ankerite, and
a proximal zone of silicification and abundant sulfide
minerals. Biotite, albite, and tourmaline are locally de-
veloped (Yu et al. 1994; Zhong and Zhang 1997).
Southeastern China gold province
Hetai[52] and a few associated orogenic gold deposits in
the southeastern China fold belt are located about 100 km
northwest of the Guangzhou city (Figs. 2 and 4). Min-
eralization is distributed along the NE-trending regional
structures, which are parallel to the Pacific margin sub-
duction zone. Hetai[52] is one of the largest gold deposits in
southeastern China, containing 50 t Au. Regional rock
units comprise Neoproterozoic schist, phyllite, and gne-
iss, Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, and Mesozoic tuff and
sedimentary rocks. Caledonian, Indosinian, and early
Yanshanian (186 Ma, Rb–Sr, Wu 1994) granites are

widespread in this region. The Hetai deposit is located at
the intersection of the NE-trending Luoding–Guangning
and N-trending Wuchuan–Sihui faults. The Indosinian
Yunlougang biotite granodiorite (241 Ma) and Wucun
biotite granite (210 Ma, Wu 1994) are exposed to the
northwest and northeast of the deposit, respectively. Gold
mineralization is hosted in the mylonitic Neoproterozoic
metamorphic rocks. The ore zones contain gold, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and minor galena and sphalerite.
The main gangue minerals are quartz and muscovite, with
lesser carbonate minerals and feldspar (Wu 1994). The
area underwent multiple tectonism and magmatism dur-
ing the late Paleozoic to late Mesozoic. There are no direct
age data on gold mineralization, although it is suggested
that at least some of the gold was formed during the early
Yanshanian (Wu 1994).
Northern Xinjiang gold province
The northern part of Xinjiang province has become one
of the most significant exploration targets for gold in
China because of the recognition of many large Variscan
orogenic gold systems in the stratigraphically similar
Paleozoic marine sedimentary rocks to the west in the
Central Asian republics. As a result, a series of new
discoveries have been made in western China in the last
decade. Most of these are hosted in Devonian and
Carboniferous sedimentary and volcanoclastic rocks.
They occur in the Altayshan (e.g., Duolanasaiyi[44]),
Junggar (e.g., Hatu[45]) and Tianshan (e.g., Sawuyaer-
dun[46]) fold belts (Table 2 and Fig. 4), which underwent
intensive tectonism as a result of the convergence be-
tween the Angara and Tarim cratons and the Yili-
Junggar blocks (Fig. 3a; Rui et al. 2002, this volume).
The Sawuyaerdun[46] (Table 2 and Fig. 4) deposit in
the southwestern part of China’s Tianshan orogen con-
tains more than 100 t Au, and has an inferred resource
exceeding 300 t Au. The orebodies are hosted in Late
Silurian slate and carbonaceous phyllite, along two re-
gional faults that form a 70-km-long and 50- to 600-m-
wide shear zone, which is part of the south Tianshan
fold belt. Disseminated gold mineralization in mylonite
includes pyrite, arsenopyrite, and pyrrhotite, as well as
lesser stibnite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena. The
main gangue minerals are quartz, white mica, siderite,
calcite, and chlorite. Gold ores in, or immediately north
of, the south Tianshan orogenic belt continue westwards
into Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, where they include the
large Kumtor, Zarmitan, and Muruntau deposits (Rui
et al. 2002, this volume).
In northernmost Xinjiang Autonomous Region,
orogenic gold deposits occur within the accreted terr-
anes of the Altayshan along the seaward side of the
Angara craton (Figs. 2, 3, and 4). Most of the late
Paleozoic orogenic gold deposits are recognized in the
lower elevations of the southern Altayshan region
(Figs 2 and 4); deposits in the more northern part of
the accretionary complex appear to have been highly
265
eroded (Rui et al. 2002, this volume; see below dis-
cussion on placer gold). Many of the deposits (e.g.,
Duolanasayi[44], Saidu, Taerde, Kabenbulake to the
northwest; Akexibe, Shaerbulake, Kelasayi to the
southeast) are located along second-order faults within
5 to 10 km of the NW-trending Irtysh fault zone (Rui
et al. 2002, this volume). The gold-hosting faults cut
greenschist facies Devonian and Early Carboniferous
clastic rocks and Variscan granites. Gold is present
both in quartz veins and disseminations in wall rocks.
Some deposits (e.g., Duolanasayi[44], Table 2 and
Fig. 4) also show skarn-like mineralization along thin
carbonate layers in parts of the Paleozoic sedimentary
rock sequence.
Similar late Paleozoic orogenic gold deposits are sited
farther south in the western Junggar area, mainly along
the NE-striking Dalabute fault zone approximately
20 km north of Karamay (Fig. 4). These include the
deposits of the Hatu[45] (Table 2 and Fig. 4) and Saer-
tuohai districts, which are located on the northern side of
the fault zone. The deposits in the Hatu district have been
mined since the 1300s and still contain a resource of
>30 t Au. Country rocks that host ore at Hatu include
Early Carboniferous metasedimentary rocks and tholei-
itic basalts. In addition, a 300–250-Ma alkalic batholith
is located about 5 km from the gold ores (Jin and Zhang
1993), and could have been emplaced coevally with the
orogenic gold veins. Saddle-reef structures characterize
many of the ore zones in the Hatu district. Gold occur-
rences in the Saourtuhai district, 60 km to the northeast,
are hosted in NE-trending shear zones within mafic and
ultramafic rocks that outcrop along the Dalabute fault
zone (Rui et al. 2002, this volume).
Other orogenic gold deposit districts
Orogenic gold deposits in the N- to NNW-trending
Sanjiang fold belt mainly occur in secondary structures
related to the major sutures formed in the accretionary
belt between the colliding Yangtze craton and Gondw-
ana supercontinent (Dong et al. 1994), with the fold belt
commonly referred to as the eastern Tethyan orogeny
(e.g., Yang 1996). Most of the gold deposits are present
east of the Jinshajiang (suture) and northeast of the
Ailaoshan suture (Figs. 2 and 4), with the later perhaps
a southern extension of the former (Metcalfe 1996), al-
though some of the largest deposits are very close to the
main fault zones (e.g., no. 48-51 in Fig. 4). Much of the
Sanjiang fold belt (Fig. 4) is composed of a Triassic
melange of late Paleozoic sedimentary rocks and oceanic
crust. Gold deposits, of probable early Mesozoic age,
are hosted in the Triassic melange (e.g., Jinchang[51] and
Qiuluo[48] deposits), often within serpentinized ultra-
mafic bodies along major N-trending fault zones. Most
of these deposits are small, but a few contain >20 t Au,
such as the Zhenyuan[50], Jinchang[51], Gala[49], and
Qiuluo[48] deposits (Table 2 and Fig. 4). The latter two
are defined as Carlin-like deposits by some workers
266
(Yang and Dong 1994; Li and Peters 1998) because of
their disseminated, fine-grained nature and the common
occurrence of stibnite with minor cinnabar. A detailed
mineralogical and geochemical study (Dong et al. 1994),
however, suggests that both of the deposits are more like
‘‘metamorphic type’’ gold (i.e., orogenic gold model).
The Qiuluo[48] and Gala[490 deposits are hosted in ul-
tramafic rocks and/or carbonaceous sedimentary and
volcanic clastics, and are very typical of shear zone-
hosted lodes. Pyrite is the predominant sulfide mineral
within the deposits of the Sanjiang fold belt, with also
common stibnite, arsenopyrite, and chalcopyrite, plus
minor pyrrhotite, sphalerite, and cinnabar. Extensive
alteration halos with quartz, white mica, carbonate
minerals, and chlorite are common surrounding the
orebodies.
The NW-striking Qilianshan fold belt (Fig. 4) is in-
terpreted as the eastern part of a latest Proterozoic
through late Paleozoic, southerly growing convergent
margin (Sengör and Natal’in 1996), thus spanning Cal-
edonian and Variscan tectonic episodes (Wang and Mo
1995; Zhou 1998). High-grade metamorphic Mesopro-
terozoic to Neoproterozoic basement is overlain by less-
metamorphosed marine strata and amalgamated with
terrane fragments rifted from approaching Gondwana-
land to the south. Paleozoic granites are widespread
throughout the Qilianshan fold belt, with ages younging
southward. Although favorable for the existence of
orogenic gold lodes, only a few large deposits (e.g.,
Hanshan[42] and Tanjianshan[41], in Table 2 and Fig. 4)
in Ordovician metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks
have been discovered because of the high relief of the
mountain range and the severe weather conditions.
These deposits contain gold ore in both quartz veins and
as disseminations in wall rocks.
The Tanjianshan[41] deposit (Fig. 4) is located about
200 km northwest of the city of Golmud, between the
Qaidam basin (Fig. 2) to the southwest and Qilianshan
Mt. (Fig. 2) to the northeast. Tanjianshan, and numer-
ous surrounding prospects, were discovered in the mid-
dle 1990s, and the former is now recognized as
containing over 20 t Au. Gold mineralization is hosted
in mylonitized and carbonaceous schists and phyllites.
The orebodies, controlled by both NW- and NE-striking
ductile–brittle structures, are exposed over an area of
about 300·30 m, and continue to a depth below 200 m.
Gold is associated with pyrite and arsenopyrite, with
minor pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, galena, and tennantite.
The Hanshan[42] gold deposit (Table 2 and Fig. 4) is
situated on the northwestern margin of the Qilianshan
fold belt in a WNW-trending shear zone that is a 15-km-
long and 400-m-wide subsidiary structure of the
Altunshan strike-slip fault system (Figs. 3a and 4).
Mineralized zones, within mafic volcanic rocks, are
1,500 m long and as much as 1–15 m thick, with a
WNW trend and dip 50–70N. Pyrite is the dominant
sulfide mineral, with most of the gangue being quartz,
calcite, and muscovite. Oxidized ore comprises the upper
50 m of the ore deposit. Age determinations on two
samples of muscovite (K–Ar) from the disseminated ores
are about 214 and 224 Ma (Mao et al. 2000). Therefore,
if these are actual dates for ore formation, and not
cooling ages, orogenic gold formation was extremely late
in the tectonic evolution of the Qilianshan.
Distribution of Carlin-like gold deposits in China
Identified Carlin-like gold deposits in China contain
more than 450 t Au, making China second to the USA
in importance for this type of gold deposit. Although
one of us (GNP) would suggest that the Carlin deposits
themselves may be genetically linked to the broad crustal
hydrothermal systems that form the orogenic gold de-
posits (e.g., see Phillips and Powell 1993; Phillips et al.
1998), most workers define Carlin-like ores as a separate
gold deposit type, and a similar approach is followed
here.
Carlin-like deposits in China are concentrated along
the southwestern and northwestern margins of the
Yangtze craton, i.e., the Dian–Gui–Qian and Chuan–
Shaan–Gan areas. Along the former, deposits occur at
the boundaries of Yunnan (i.e., Dian), Guangxi (i.e.,
Gui) and Guizhou (i.e., Qian) provinces (Figs. 2 and 4).
This area contains more than two-thirds of the gold
resource in Carlin-like deposits in China. Along the
latter, and extending into the Songpan-Ganzi block,
Carlin-like gold occurs at the boundaries of Sichuan
(i.e., Chuan), Shaanxi (i.e., Shaan), and Gansu (i.e.,
Gan) provinces, i.e., the Chuan–Shaan–Gan area.
Small Carlin-like deposits are also reported from east-
ern Hebei in northern China (Y. Qiu and W. Yang,
1997 unpublished data) and from a few other areas of
China. Both the Dian–Gui–Qian and Chuan–Shaan–
Gan areas are believed to have undergone regional
rifting during gold deposition, a tectonic feature that
may have been important in the Carlin trend in
Nevada, USA (Roberts 1960; Berger and Bagby 1991;
Li and Peters 1998).
Most of the Carlin-like gold deposits in China are
related to short-axial folds or domes, which are inter-
sected by high angle faults, particularly in the Dian–
Gui–Qian area. For example, the Banqi deposit is re-
lated to the Naban fold, the Lannigou[57] deposit occurs
in the Laiziashan dome, and the Zimudang[56] deposit
(Table 2 and Fig. 4) is controlled by the Huijiapu anti-
cline (Li and Peters 1998). These short-axial anticlines
are generated by the intersection of two fold systems.
High-angle brittle fault zones with extensive brecciation
and detachment faults commonly host gold deposits on
the axes of the domes and are similar to features
described in the Carlin trend of Nevada (Poole 1991;
Prihar et al 1996). In both the Dian–Gui–Qian and
Chuan–Shaan–Gan areas, gold ores commonly are
hosted by carbonate, siliciclastic, and tuffaceous sedi-
mentary rocks, particularly argillaceous limestone,
calcareous siltstone, and silty argillite of early Paleozoic
to Triassic age (Li and Peters 1998; Hu et al. 2002, this

volume). Pyrite, arsenopyrite, realgar, orpiment,
stibnite, cinnabar, quartz, barite, calcite, and clay min-
erals are the most common minerals associated with the
gold, the latter occurring as submicroscopic inclusions in
arsenic-bearing pyrite. Alteration is characterized by
pervasive silicification, carbonate dissolution, and
kaolinitization. An important difference between the
Chinese and Nevada Carlin gold deposits is that the
oxidized zones are much more developed in Nevada
than in China (Li and Peters 1998). Therefore, the
Chinese examples are economically less favorable be-
cause of the lesser proportions of free-milling oxide ores.
Dian–Gui–Qian gold province
In the Dian–Gui–Qian area, Carlin-like gold mineral-
ization occurs along a NW-striking rift fault system.
This Indosinian to Yanshanian Youjiang rift (Figs. 14
and 15 of Li and Peters 1998) is interpreted as a post-
compression, extensional structure, which crosses the
ENE–NNE-striking boundary between the Yangtze
craton and Youjiang orogenic belt (Ye et al. 1994; Li
and Peters 1998), both of which host the gold deposits.
The contact between the two tectonic units is a series of
large-scale thrust faults (see Figs. 11–15 of Li and Peters
1998). From northwest to southeast, the major deposits
(>20 t Au) include Getang[60], Zimudang[56], Lanni-
gou57], Jinya[58], and Gaolong[59] (Table 2 and Fig. 4).
Lannigou[57] is currently the largest Carlin-like deposit
in China with resources >60 t Au. The regional struc-
ture around Dian–Gui–Qian is characterized by large
thrust blocks and folds within the Youjiang rift fault
zone. Gold mineralization is present along a high-angle,
NNW-trending and steeply-dipping fault, which tran-
sects the eastern limb of a major anticline. The host
rocks are Triassic clastic rocks and limestones, well-
exposed in oxidized zones along the surface. The few-
meter-wide zones typically contain 30 g/t Au, but may
locally contain as much as 200 g/t Au and 40 ppm Hg to
depths of more than 30 m (K. McQueen, 1992 unpub-
lished report). Hypogene mineralization occurs in vein-
lets or is disseminated in highly-faulted, calcareous
Triassic clastic rocks. The main orebody is >700 m
long, averages 10 m in width (locally 40 m), and con-
tinues to a depth of >540 m. The gold ores contain
pyrite, arsenopyrite, marcasite, cinnabar, and realgar,
with gangue minerals including ankerite, muscovite, and
quartz. Gold is associated with, or occurs as submicro-
scopic inclusions within arsenic-bearing pyrite rims of
earlier pyrite. Alteration is characterized by silicification,
carbonization, and sulfidization. Ages for these Carlin-
like deposits are uncertain, but they are possibly late
Yanshanian (Hu et al. 2001, this volume) to early
Himalayan.
Gold in the weathered zone, or regolith, is extensively
developed in fine-grained clastic rocks within this karst
terrane of the Dian–Gui–Qian gold province, and was
first identified as an important resource in the 1990s
267
(Zhou et al. 1998). This supergene type of gold deposit is
characterized by high recovery at very low cost and in-
dividual resources are as large as 20 t Au. It is called
‘‘red earth/soil gold’’ by the Chinese geologists because
of the reddish color of the oxidized sulfide material. The
surface to near-surface orebodies range from a few me-
ters to more than 50 m in thickness. The main exposures
occupy an elongate belt about 80 km long and 20 km
wide within Guizhou and Yunnan (Zhou et al. 1998;
McQueen et al. 1999). Exploration of more than 30
geochemical anomalies in the early to middle 1990s
identified ten ‘‘red soil’’ regolith gold deposits and
prospects, including the Shengjingguan, Qincaiping,
Shachang, Shaguochang, Shuiyantang, and Laowan-
chang[122] areas (Zhou et al. 1998). Laowanchang[122]
(Fig. 6), located approximately 180 km southwest of the
city of Guiyang, is the largest of these with about 20 t
Au. The deposit occurs in a 2-km-long and 1-km-wide
hilly karst zone within the Early Permian Maokou
limestone. Ores are localized in the red soils and clays,
which occur in the karst depressions, and on the north
slopes of the karst hills. Five orebodies, mined during
the 1990s, range from 200 to 300 m in length 20–100 m
in width, and extend to 50 m below surface. The size and
shapes of the orebodies vary depending on the charac-
teristics of the underlying karst topography. The soils
consist of red, yellow, brown with minor gray and pallid
silty clays, clayey silts, and soils with fragments of tu-
ffaceous mudstone, tuff breccia, sandstone, limestone,
and some intensively oxidized ferruginous pebbles. Most
of the fragments are angular and unsorted, and appear
to be locally derived. Detailed XRD analysis of the soils
and clays from the orebodies indicates that the soils and
clays are mainly composed of quartz, kaolinite, illite,
lesser gold, goethite, anatase, and some chlorite (Zhou
et al. 1998; McQueen et al. 1999).
Chuan–Shaan–Gan gold province
The Chuan–Shaan–Gan area is a triangle-shaped region
of relatively low relief surrounded by the Yangtze
craton, Qinling fold belt, and Sanjiang fold belt (Fig. 4).
The lowland is interpreted to have been formed during
Late(?) Triassic extension, subsequent to the amalgam-
ation of the three tectonic units during the earlier
Variscan to Indosinian collisions (Yang and Dong
1994). Many Carlin-like deposits have been discovered
in this area with the largest being the Dongbeizhai de-
posit (>50 t Au). The Carlin-like deposits cluster in two
locations: within the western Qinling belt (e.g., La’erma,
Manaoke[61], Jiuyuan, Pingding, Shijiba) and northeast
of the Songpan-Ganzi basin (Fig. 2) e.g., Dashui,
Dongbeizhai[62] (Table 2 and Fig. 4), and Qiaqiaoshang
(Mao et al. 2002b, this volume). Most of these contain
<20 t Au.
The Carlin-like gold deposits in the western Qinling
belt are hosted by early Paleozoic, Devonian, and Tri-
assic clastic and carbonate sedimentary rock sequences
268
Fig. 6. Distribution of the main placer gold and regolith gold
deposits in China. The tectonic framework is modified from Wang
and Mo (1995). Data sources and deposit numbers are listed in
Table 4. Large, primary lode gold deposits are also shown for
comparison of locations
(Mao et al. 2002b, this volume). Most of the ores occur
along a large fault zone located between the Lixian-
Shanyang and Mianlue fault systems. Although pos-
sessing many Carlin-like features, this cluster of gold
deposits are also distributed along brittle–ductile shear
zones and thus possess some affinity to the above dis-
cussed orogenic type gold deposits. The La’erma de-
posit, which is the largest resource with approximately
20 t Au, lies in a large anticline within early Paleozoic
carbonaceous clastic rocks. Gold occurs with barite and
stibnite in zones of pervasive silica as large as 1 km in
length, 35 m in width, and 150 m in depth (Mao et al.
2002b, this volume).
Triassic clastic and carbonate rocks host all Carlin-
like gold deposits in the Songpan-Ganzi basin (Figs. 2
and 4). Gold mineralization at Dongbeizhai[62], known
since the late 1970s, is localized in the 6-km·100-m, N-
trending and W-dipping Kuashiya thrust fault. The
hanging wall of the fault is composed of the folded
Carboniferous and Early Permian carbonate rocks,
whereas the footwall comprises brecciated and faulted
carbonaceous and calcareous Middle Triassic clastic
rocks. The major orebodies are hosted in the footwall,
are more than 5 m thick and 1 km long, and are typi-
cally distributed parallel to the strike of the thrust in
brecciated mudstone. The ores contain pyrite, realgar,
arsenic pyrite, and stibnite, with lesser scheelite,
sphalerite, marcasite, chalcopyrite, and cinnabar. The
main gangue minerals are quartz (jasperoid), ankerite,
calcite, barite, kaolinite, white mica, illite, and leucox-
ene. The more recently discovered Dashui deposit con-
tains oxidized ores to depths of more than 300 m (Mao
et al. 2002b, this volume) and is hosted along a fault in
limestone, rather than in clastic rocks.
Distribution of epithermal gold deposits in China
Epithermal gold deposits collectively contain at least
200–250 t Au in China, although individual deposits are
relatively small. The epithermal deposits are spatially
scattered and do not form an important gold province
within China. They are most commonly distributed in
Table 3. Some characteristics of the major gold enriched deposits (i.e., gold as by-product) in China. Deposit numbers are continued from Table 2. Abbreviations and data sources as
in Table 2
Gold Deposit Commodity Tectonic Orogeny Host Igneous Resource Grade Major ore Alteration
province setting rock/age age (Ma) (t Au) (g/t) minerals minerals

Skarn deposits
Yangtze River
75 Qixiashan Pb–Zn–Au Craton Indo/ g-dol-lim/T q-do/Yanshan 21 1.0 py, cp, mt, co, kf, di, gar, phl
margin Yanshan hem, serp, ch, cb
76 Tongguanshan Cu–Au Craton Indo/ g+lim/P-C q-do/Yanshan 33 1.4 po, py, mt, cp, Mo gt, di, wo, serp,
margin Yanshan co, ga, sp, apy, sb ep, wm, q, ch, tc
77 Fenghuangshan Cu–Au Craton Indo/ 20 0.7
margin Yanshan
78 Shizishan Cu–Au Craton Indo/ g-lime/C gd-q-d/Yanshan 46.3 0.3 po, py, cp, sk, q, wm, ch, ep
margin Yanshan mt, sp, ga
79 Xinqiao-b S–Au Craton Indo/ 105 0.3?
margin Yanshan
80 Chengmenshan Cu–Au Craton Indo/ g+lim/P gd/1532–1183 69.7 0.4 cp, py, hem, sp, mo gar, di, sid, cc
margin Yanshan
81 Wushan Cu–Au Craton Indo/ 40 0.3
margin Yanshan
82 Tonglushan Cu–Au–Fe Craton Indo/ g+dol- q-do/157–137 69 1.2 mt, hem, cp, bn, q, dio, gar, phl,
margin Yanshan lim/T mo, py tre, ac, cb
Cu: 1 Mt+ >1%
83 Qibaoshan Cu–Pb– Craton g+dol- g-por/Indo 26.3 cp, py, ga, sp, mt wm, q, cb, sk
Zn–Au margin lime/C
84 Tianpashan Cu–Au 22.3 0.1
Porphyry deposits
Yangtze River
85 Yingshan Pb–Zn– Craton Indo/ phyll-vol-gp gp/Yanshan 48 0.87 ga, sp, py, cp, apy wm, ch, q
Cu–Au margin Yanshan
Cu: 0.45 Mt 0.79%
86 Tongchang Cu–Au Craton Indo/ phyll-tuff-gd gd/168/1122 190 0.16 py, cp, Mo, bn q, wm, il, ch, cb
margin Yanshan
Cu: 5.2 Mt 0.5% (Tongchang +
Fujiawu)
87 Fujiawu Cu–Au Craton Indo/ phyll-tuff-gd gd/157/ 27 0.1 py, cp, mo, bn q, wm, il, ch, cb
margin Yanshan 1212
88 Lengshuikeng Ag–Pb– Craton Cale/ g-por/vol/J gp/136.5 50 0.2 py, sp, ga, ag, mt wm, ch, cb
Zn–Au margin Yanshan
Sanjiang belt
89 Yulong Cu–Au Fold belt Himalayan shale-lim/T q-mz-g/ 28.6 0.2 py, hem, kf, sk, wm, q
38–552 co, mo
Cu: 6.5 Mt 1% bn, mt
Mo: 0.15 Mt 0.028%
Mo: 0.15 Mt 0.028%
Xinanling
90 Duobaoshan Cu–Mo–Au Block Variscan gd-porphyry gd-por/ 73 0.14
margin 292–2832
269
Table 3. (Contd.)
270

Gold Deposit Commodity Tectonic Orogeny Host Igneous Resource Grade Major ore Alteration
province setting rock/age age (Ma) (t Au) (g/t) minerals minerals

Epithermal deposits
SE China
91 11.Zijinshan Cu–Au Craton Yanshanian dacitic por, 125–1053 10 5.0
margin vol/K
Cu: 1 Mt 1%
VMS deposits
North Xinjiang
92 Ashele Cu–Au–Zn Back-arc Hercynain 14.3 1.0
basin
Cu: 0.7 Mt 0.7%
Qilianshan
93 Baiyinchang Cu–Pb– Rift Caledonian vol/Cm-O bi-ab-g/Cale 14.6 1.0 py, cp, sp, ga, mt q, wm, ch, ba, ep
Zn–Au zone
Cu: 4 Mt 1.17–2.84%
94 Xiaotieshan Cu–Pb– Rift Caledonian vol/Cm-O bi-ab-g/Cale 19 2.3 py, cp, sp, ga, mt q, wm, ch, ba, ep
Zn–Au zone
North China
95 Hongtoushan Cu–Zn–Au Back-arc Archaean vol-gneissss/ 15.2 0.8 py, po, sp, cp q, tre, wm, ch
basin Ar
Cu: 0.36 Mt 1.8%
Zn: 0.47 Mt 2.4%
Sanjiang belt
96 Dahongshan Cu–Au Rift Proterozoic vol-vol. 17 0.12 py, cp, mt, ab, sid, q, ank
clast/Pt bn, Au
Ni–Cu–Au deposits
North China
97 Jinchuan Ni–Cu–Au Rift zone Caledonian Ultramafic/Pt 15006 75+ 0.1–0.6
Ni: 5.46 Mt 1.06%
Cu: 3.49 Mt 0.24–2.37%

four tectonic belts: in the late Paleozoic island-arc terr-
anes within the northern Xinjiang gold province (e.g.,
Axi[64] and Xitan[63]), in the Mesozoic continental mar-
gin belt of the southeastern China gold province (e.g.,
Zijinshan[91]; Table 3 and Fig. 5; and Babaoshan),
within the Mesozoic continental margin belt in north-
eastern China (e.g., Wufeng and Ciweigou), and in the
Cenozoic island-arc belt along eastern Taiwan (e.g.,
Chinkuashih or Jinguashi[65]; Table 2 and Fig. 4). There
are many small epithermal Au–Ag deposits especially in
the former two areas. In addition, the Dian–Gui–Qian
gold province contains some small epithermal Au–Hg–
Sb deposits that are spatially associated with Carlin-like
deposits and epithermal veins associated with shoshon-
itic igneous systems occur in the western Shandong
province (Qiu et al. 1999). Most of the epithermal de-
posits in China are of the low-sulfide type, except for the
Zijinshan(17) (SE China), Chinkuashih[65] (Taiwan), and
Jinshangou (northern Xinjiang) high-sulfidation depos-
its. Epithermal gold mineralization, transitional to
deeper porphyry copper mineralization, is described at
the Zijinshan(17) Cu–Au deposit (Zhang et al. 1992; So
et al. 1998).
Northern Xinjiang gold province
A few epithermal deposits are scattered in northern
Xinjiang, and include the Jinshangou deposit in east
Junggar, the Xitan[63] deposit in the eastern Tianshan,
and the Axi[64] deposit in the Yili block (Table 2 and
Fig. 4). All the deposits are spatially associated with
extensional features, commonly including calderas, and
are hosted in volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. Axi[64] is
the most important epithermal deposit in the province,
with a reserve of 42 t Au and inferred resources of >70 t
Au (Rui et al. 2002, this volume). The deposit is located
along the northern side of the regional Keshi River fault
zone within Early Carboniferous dacitic to basaltic
volcanic rocks. Mineralization is controlled by radiating
and circular faults of a caldera and the orebodies are
localized by regional NWW- and N-striking faults. Gold
occurs in quartz veins, altered volcanic rocks and breccia
zones, with pyrite, marcasite, arsenopyrite, minor chal-
copyrite, galena, and sphalerite. The gangue minerals
are quartz, chalcedony, calcite, white mica, chlorite,
alunite, and adularia.
The Xitan[63] (or Shiyingtan) deposit in the eastern
Tianshan is located within a 200·40 km E-trending zone
between the first-order Aqikkuduk and Kanggur (or
East Tianshan, Fig. 2) faults. The latter is interpreted as
the Variscan suture between the Junggar and Tarim
blocks. It encloses Carboniferous felsic to mafic volcanic
and volcaniclastic rocks, which are intruded by Variscan
granites (287–272 Ma, Ji et al. 1997) and overlain by co-
magmatic Permian andesites. The Xitan deposit is con-
trolled by the intersection of the regional faults and a
caldera in the andesite. The orebodies are localized by
the ring structures surrounding the caldera. The ore
271
contains high silver grades, chalcedony, adularia, and
alunite gangue minerals. This part of the mountain belt
appears to represent a region of relatively limited un-
roofing since late Paleozoic collisional tectonism.
Along the eastern part of the Tianshan, Kanggur[43]
(Table 2 and Fig. 4) and a few nearby deposits are lo-
cated about 60 km east of the Xitan[63] epithermal de-
posit. Gold mineralization is present on both sides of the
Yamansu fault, which is a regional fault, located 10–
40 km S of, and subparallel to the Kanggur fault. The
Kanggur[43] deposit, which herein also includes the ad-
jacent Matoutan deposit about 5 km along strike, is
located on the south side of the Yamansu fault and has a
resource of about 30 t Au. Mineralization occurs in
three E-striking, subvertical shear zones, which are 100’s
to 1,000 m long, 10–100 m wide, and continue to a
depth of 400 m. The orebodies are hosted in volcanic
and clastic rocks along mylonitic shear zones. Gold
mineralization is associated with sulfide minerals, and is
either disseminated in the altered rocks, or occurs in
quartz veins. The ores contain 5–25% pyrite (Pirajno
et al. 1997) and lesser magnetite, chalcopyrite, pyrrho-
tite, galena, sphalerite, and gold. The main gangue
minerals include quartz, chlorite, white mica, calcite,
ankerite, barite, and siderite. Although there has been
some debate as to the classification of the Kanggur de-
posit (Shen et al. 1994; Ji et al. 1997; Pirajno et al. 1997),
its features are most consistent with those of an Fe–Cu–
Au replacement deposit that was emplaced at deeper
crustal levels than nearby epithermal deposits such as
Xitan (Rui et al. 2002, this volume).
Northeastern China
There are a few small epithermal gold deposits in the
Mesozoic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks to the
northeast of the North China craton (e.g., the Ciweigou
and Xiangluwanzi deposits). The Ciweigou deposit, and
a few nearby deposits (e.g., Wufeng and Naozi), are
hosted in late Jurassic felsic volcanic units, with gold
occurring in calcite–quartz veins and disseminated in
altered rocks along NE-striking faults. The ores contain
pyrite, argentite, electrum, chalcopyrite, and galena, and
the alteration is characterized by quartz, white mica,
adularia, and calcite. Most of the epithermal deposits in
northeastern China have resources less than 5 t Au.
One rare large deposit, Tuanjiegou[66] (60 t Au,
Table 2 and Fig. 4), has been classified as a subvolcanic
porphyry (Xu et al. 1992; Chen and Zhu 1993). How-
ever, its mineral assemblages, alteration styles and ore
textures are all characteristic of typical epithermal
systems. Tuanjiegou is located about 400 km NNE of
the city of Harbin, only 40 km from the Russian bor-
der. The deposit is situated between a local Mesozoic
graben and a Proterozoic basement uplift. Mineraliza-
tion is hosted in a subvolcanic granitic porphyry that
was emplaced into a Mesozoic caldera, which is local-
ized by the intersection of NNE- and EW-trending
272
structures. Gold mineralization is mainly disseminated
in breccia within the porphyry or along its margin. The
major orebodies strike WNW and dip 40–50 to the
north. They are 250–725 m long, 11–68 m thick, and
continue to depths of 110–375 m. The main ore min-
erals are pyrite and marcasite with lesser stibnite,
chalcopyrite, galena, cinnabar, realgar and orpiment.
Alteration minerals are characterized by low tempera-
ture assemblages of chalcedony, adularia, opal, anke-
rite, calcite, and kaolinite. Gold mainly is associated
with pyrite and chalcedony.
Southeastern China gold province
Many epithermal gold deposits are present in the
Mesozoic volcanic and intrusive rocks in the south-
eastern China fold belt. Most, however, are very small,
with Zijinshan[91] (Table 3 and Fig. 5) being the largest
(10 t Au and 1 Mt Cu). The Zijinshan deposit is one
of the few known high-sulfide type epithermal gold
deposits recognized in China. Mineralization occurs
mainly in a subvolcanic pipe and, partly, in a 140-Ma
biotite granite that intrudes Proterozoic and Paleozoic
strata along the axis of a NE-trending anticlinorium.
The subvolcanic pipe, about 700 m in diameter, occurs
in the center of a 125-Ma calc-alkaline trachydacitic–
dacitic porphyry, which was emplaced along regional
NW-striking extensional structures that cut the biotite
granite (Chen and Zhu 1993; So et al. 1998). Circular
and radial structures surrounding the pipe are now filled
with copper- and gold-rich hydrothermal breccias and
veins. The breccias consist of fragments of altered and
mineralized wall rocks, which are normally less than
5 mm in diameter. The matrix is mainly composed of
very fine-grained quartz, alunite and minor pyrite, cov-
ellite, enargite, digenite, gold, and hematite (Zhang et al.
1992; So et al 1998). Between depths of 400 and 650 m,
gold grades decrease and copper-bearing sulfide miner-
als become more abundant. At about 800 m depth, the
pipe merges downward into a potassically-altered 105-
Ma granodiorite with porphyry-type copper mineral-
ization (Zhang et al. 1992; So et al. 1998).
Western Shandong province
Early Jurassic gold–tellurium breccias and stockworks
within alkalic, shoshonitic intrusive bodies are impor-
tant recent exploration targets in the western Shandong
province (Qiu et al. 1999). The igneous rocks were em-
placed into lower Paleozoic carbonates and sandstones
that overly rocks of the North China craton. The most
important of these discovered to date is the low-sulfi-
dation epithermal deposit at Guilaizhuang, which has
been producing about 30,000–40,000 oz Au/year, for the
last 5 years, and has a total resource of about 35 t Au at
an average grade of 8.2 g/t (World Wide Minerals Ltd.,
press release). The deposit is hosted in a crytobreccia
zone along a series of E–W-trending faults, which extend
east from the Tongshi subvolcanic alkalic intrusive
complex (Chen and Zhao 1998). The cause for local-
ization of alkalic magmatism and associated shallow
hydrothermal events is uncertain, but most likely relates,
to some degree, to a period of transtension along the
major Tan-Lu fault system located a few tens of kilo-
meters to the east.
Taiwan
The largest epithermal gold deposit in China is
Chinkuashih (or Jinguashi)[65] (Table 2 and Fig. 4),
located in Cenozoic island arc rocks on eastern Tai-
wan. The deposit has had a long mining history, and
from 1935 to 1941 it produced 2–2.5 t Au and 6,000–
7,000 t Cu annually (Tu and Jin 1994). Total gold
production and remaining resources may be about
100 t. Gold mineralization is hosted in a 1-km diameter
subvolcanic dacite pipe, which intruded Cenozoic
sandstone and shale. The orebodies are localized by a
large, N-striking, normal fault and secondary faults,
which also trend north–south, dip subvertically to the
east, and continue to 700 m depth. Mineralization
shows a zonation from gold to copper with depth. The
ores contain mainly pyrite and enargite, lesser chal-
copyrite, chalcocite, sphalerite, and gold, and traces of
marcasite and cinnabar. The main alteration minerals
are quartz, alunite, kaolinite, barite, and carbonate
minerals (Tan 1991).
Distribution of gold-bearing skarn and porphyry
deposits in China
Total resources exceeding 1,200 t Au are contained in
China’s porphyry and skarn deposits. Most of the gold is
defined as a byproduct from mining of base metal
resources, but a few small copper skarns are economic
primarily as gold deposits. The majority of these deposits
are located in eastern China, particularly along the
northeastern and southeastern margins of the Yangtze
craton, i.e., the Yangtze River gold province (Pan and
Dong 1999). A few deposits occur to the northeast of the
North China craton (e.g., Xinancha[74] and Laozhai-
shan[73]; Table 3 and Fig. 5). Some large and gold-en-
riched copper porphyry and related skarn deposits occur
in the Sanjiang fold belt (e.g., Yulong[89] and Mala-
songduo). Additionally, small deposits also are scattered
in other areas including the Qinling gold province, Qil-
ianshan gold district, and northern Xinjiang gold prov-
ince (Fig. 4). Apart from a few gold-dominated skarn
and porphyry deposits, most of the byproduct gold
deposits are of low grade, normally less than 1 g/t Au.
Some of the gold grades are as low as 0.1–0.2 g/t
(Table 3), and recovering such gold remains difficult.
Most of the gold-enriched skarn and porphyry de-
posits in China formed during the Yanshanian (Guo
1987; Zhai and Deng 1996), and are mainly related to

the subduction of the Pacific ocean basin plates. There
are, however, some exceptions. The large Duobao-
shan[90] (Table 3 and Fig. 5) Cu–Mo–Au deposit (73 t
Au as a byproduct from copper production) in the
Xinganling block of northeastern China occurs in a
290-Ma granodiorite porphyry (Rui et al. 1984). In
northwestern China, most of the small gold-enriched
skarn and porphyry deposits formed in migrating is-
land-arcs or in the continental margin during, or just
subsequent to, collisions between the Tarim, Yili, and
Angara cratonic blocks. In southwestern China, the
major gold-enriched porphyry and skarn deposits
formed during the Himalayan orogeny (<90 Ma) as a
result of the collision between the Indian and South
China cratons.
Yangtze River gold province
More than 80% of the recognized gold resource in
skarn-porphyry deposits (i.e., >1,000 t Au) is concen-
trated in the Yangtze River gold province. The province
extends for more than 600 km between Wuhan and
Shanghai (Fig. 5) in the Yangtze River trough (Fig. 5)
located in the eastern part of the Yangtze craton (Pan
and Dong 1999). The trough is composed of a few
Mesozoic fault-bounded volcanic basins, with mainly ca.
135–127 Ma felsic to intermediate lower crustal melts
(Yangtze Igneous Group of Chen and Jahn 1998) em-
placed along the basin margins and as zones of uplift
within the basin. This tectonism may be the result of
back-arc, post-collisional extension that occurred sub-
sequent to amalgamation of the North and South China
cratons, and during subduction of oceanic plates un-
derneath eastern China. The gold-bearing skarns are
concentrated on the northeastern margin of the Yangtze
craton, whereas the gold-enriched porphyries, with some
skarns, occur along the southeastern cratonic margin
(Fig. 5). This may be largely controlled by distribution
of different country rock types and regional erosion
processes.
Most of the deposits are copper-dominated with
varying gold grades. However, a few skarn deposits, with
gold as the main economic commodity, each contain
>20 t Au (i.e., the Jilongshan[69], Jiguanzui[68], Xin-
qiao[70], and Mashan[71] deposits; Table 2 and Fig. 4).
Jilongshan[69], located in the Fengshandong mining dis-
trict in the western part of the gold province, is best
classified as a gold–copper–molybdenum skarn. Mining
activities in the area started more than 1,000 years ago.
In the early 1960s, three Cu–Mo skarn deposits, i.e.,
Fengshandong (0.67 Mt Cu), Jilongshan (0.28 Mt Cu),
and Lijiawan (0.15 Mt Cu), and a few prospects, were
discovered within a 4-km2 area (Zhou 1982, 1984; Zhang
1984; Ge et al. 1992; Z. Rui 1999, personal communi-
cation). Since the late 1980s, significant gold resources
were discovered in association with these skarns includ-
ing at the Jilongshan[69] (30 t Au), Fengshandong (16.1 t
Au), and Lijiawan (6.5 t Au) deposits (both only a couple
273
of kilometers from the Jilongsang deposit; Zhou 1995,
1998). The Jilongshan porphyritic granodiorite (138 Ma,
U–Pb; 113 Ma, K–Ar) was emplaced into Triassic lime-
stone and argillaceous dolomite along the axis of a syn-
cline. Irregularly-shaped orebodies are concentrated
along contacts between granodiorite and country rock.
The ores contain chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, chalcocite,
molybdenite, magnetite, hematite, and falkenhaynite
(Sb–Cu sulfide), with minor galena, sphalerite, gold,
electrum, orpiment, and realgar. The gangue minerals
comprise garnet, diopside, wollastonite, actinolite, epi-
dote, carbonate, quartz, feldspar, and lesser chlorite,
white mica, fluorite, and orthoclase (Daye Nonferrous
Corporation, 1981 unpublished company report; Zhou
1982; Ge et al. 1992).
There are about 30 gold-rich copper skarn deposits
known in the Yangtze River gold province, with
Tonglushan[82] (Table 3 and Fig. 5) being the largest
with 1.1 Mt Cu and 70 t Au. Tonglushan is located at
the westernmost end of the gold province. Well-pre-
served underground mining tunnels and equipment,
more than 3,000 years old, were discovered during
mining in 1981. The 157–137-Ma Tonglushan porphy-
ritic quartz–monzodiorite (Ge et al. 1992) was emplaced
into Triassic dolomitic limestones within the southern
limb of an anticlinorium. Mineralization is localized by
the intersections of NW-, NNE- and ENE-striking faults
with the fold, which forms three ore zones. The major
ore zone dips subvertically, is about 2.1 km long and
300–350 m wide. Mineralization occurs as massive or
disseminated sulfides associated with retrograde altera-
tion mainly within skarn, with minor mineralization
along the intrusion margins and in the surrounding
marbles. More than 130 different minerals were reported
in the ores and skarns (Ge et al. 1992), with the main ore
phases being chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite, magnetite,
hematite, chalcocite, molybdenite, sphalerite, gold, and
tennantite. The major gangue minerals include diopside,
garnet, calcite, dolomite, quartz, phlogopite, epidote,
white mica, chlorite, serpentine, tremolite, actinolite,
and plagioclase. Gold is associated with sulfide minerals
and quartz, commonly occurring as inclusions in pyrite
and chalcopyrite.
Gold-rich copper porphyries are low grade compared
with the gold-rich skarns in the Yangtze craton, and
most porphyries are located within the southeastern
margin of the craton. The majority are concentrated in
the Dexing area of Jiangxi province (i.e., the Yinshan[85],
Tongchang[86], and Fujiawu[87] deposits; Table 3 and
Fig. 5). Dexing is the largest copper mining district in
China, and the Tongchang[86] porphyry deposit contains
5.2 Mt of Cu in rocks grading 0.45% Cu, and 190 t Au
in rocks that average 0.16 g/t Au. The nearby Yin-
shan[85] deposit contains much less copper, but the gold
grade is much higher (0.44 Mt Cu at 0.79%, and 48 t Au
at 0.87 g/t). Characteristics of these porphyries are de-
tailed by Rui et al. (1984).
The copper- and gold-rich skarn and porphyry de-
posits apparently continue as far north as the western
274

Table 4. Major placer gold deposits in China. Deposit numbers are continued from Table 3. Abbreviations same as Table 2
Gold province Deposit Tectonic setting Orogeny Resource Grade
(t Au) (g/t)

Placer
Heilongjiang
98 Xikouzi Arguna block Va/Caledonian 10 0.5
99 Gulianhe Arguna block Va/Caledonian 11 0.6
100 Dalahan Xinganling Hercunian 8.3 0.3
101 Hanjiayuanzi Xinganling Hercunian 8 0.3
102 Jilonggou Xinganling Hercunian 10.3 0.3
103 Xinglonggou Xinganling Variscan 15.6 0.3
104 Niqiuhe Xinganling Variscan 17.5 0.2–0.3
105 Huanan Jiahusi block Hercunian 30.3 0.3
North China
106 Liushuhezi Fold belt Variscan 10 0.2
107 Jinpen Craton margin Variscan 22 1.4–14.2
Yangtze River
108 Niluo Craton margin Caledonian 8.8 0.2
Dian–Gui–Qian
109 Shuitai Fold belt Va/Indosinian 8.2 0.2
Qinling
110 Henghe Fold belt Va/Indosinian 14.8 0.1
Chuan–Shaan–Gan
111 Xiaojia Craton margin Va/Indosinian 9.7 0.3
112 Baishui Craton margin Va/Indosinian 8.7 0.4
113 Zhangla Craton margin Va/Indosinian 10.4 0.6
114 Jialing Craton margin Va/Indosinian 10.2 0.2
115 Hongyan Craton margin Va/Indosinian 12 0.3
116 Hutiao Craton margin Va/Indosinian 8 0.2
117 Longfeng Craton margin Va/Indosinian 8 0.2
118 Liuying Craton margin Va/Indosinian 12.5 0.3
119 Panlong Craton margin Va/Indosinian 9 0.2
Snajiang
120 Zhaduo Fold belt Va/Indosinian 8.6 0.6
North Xinjiang
121 Laojinggou Altay fold belt Variscan 2.7 0.4
Regolith
Dian–Gui–Qian
122 Laowanchang Craton margin Her/Indosinian 20 3–6
123 Kangwan Craton margin 20+ 3–5
124 Shwushan 20+ 3–5

Data sources: CAGS 1992; Chen 1994; Guo 1987; Wang and Mo 1995; Zhou 1998; Zhou et al. 1998; Gold Geology Institute, unpublished
data; and personal communication with Jianquan Mao and Wanjun Shen, Guowei Xu

Shandong province. These deposits are associated with
Jurassic and Early Cretaceous shoshonitic volcanic and
intrusive rocks along, and immediately west of, the Tan-
Lu fault system (Qiu et al. 1999).
Other areas
A series of fault-bounded Mesozoic basins (Rui et al.
1984; Zhou 1995) were formed by the late Variscan
closing of the Solonkar Ocean (Fig. 3b) at the northern
boundary of the North China craton (Rui et al. 1984;
Miller et al. 1998) and Yanshanian subduction of the
Pacific Ocean plates under eastern China (Fig. 3c).
These host several gold-rich copper skarn deposits. A
few of the copper skarn deposits in the Yan-Liao
trough (Fig. 5) along the northern margin of the North
China craton contain small enrichments of gold (Zhou
1995). The Xinancha deposit[74] (Fig. 4), a large gold–
copper porphyry in the Yanji depression, to the
northeast of the North China craton, contains 38 t Au
and 0.18 Mt Cu (Table 2). The major orebodies are
hosted in early Yanshanian dioritic and granitic por-
phyries. To the north, the Laozhaishan copper–gold
skarn deposit[73] (Table 2 and Fig. 4) occurs in the
Jiamusi block.
In the Sanjiang fold belt, a series of large, gold-
enriched, copper ± molybdenum porphyry and skarn
deposits (e.g., Yulong[89] and Malasongduo) (Table 3
and Fig. 5) formed along the edges of a few Tertiary
basins (Rui et al. 1984) during Himalayan tectonism.
Yulong[89] is the largest copper porphyry-skarn deposit
in China and contains 6.5 Mt Cu, 0.15 Mt Mo, and
28.6 t Au grading 0.2 g/t (Table 3). In 1966, local resi-
dents reported an extensive gossan on a hill near Yu-
long, and the deposit was subsequently discovered
during the 1970s. The Yulong deposit is located in a
15- to 40-km-wide and 200-km-long, NNW-trending
corridor of a series of folds and faults. More than ten
Cu–Mo–(±) Au porphyry and skarn deposits have been

discovered in the belt, and they include the Yulong,
Duoxiasongduo, and Malasongduo deposits (Fig. 5), at
elevations between 4,600 and 4,900 m. The Yulong in-
trusion is a 40-Ma (Rui et al. 1984) biotite monzogranite
porphyry that intruded Triassic clastic rocks and lime-
stones along the axis of an anticline. The porphyry is
about 0.64 km2 on the surface, and is a mushroom-
shaped, subvertical stock in cross-section. It has been
intensively faulted and brecciated with intensive K-
feldspar alteration in the center, and quartz and mica at
the peripheries. Skarns, and propylitic and argillic al-
teration, are common distally. Disseminated and stock-
work mineralization occurs in much of the porphyry.
The major ore minerals are pyrite, hematite, chalcopy-
rite, molybdenite, and lesser chacocite, bornite, magne-
tite, and gold.
Gold in regolith is extensively developed in some
skarn belts of southern China. Individual deposits, with
resources of over 20 t Au, are associated with gold-rich
skarns in Hubei (e.g., Shewushan[124]) and Hunan (e.g.,
Kanjiawan[123]) provinces. At the Shewushan[124] deposit
(Table 4 and Fig. 6), gold, absorbed on to clays, occurs
in reddish silty clays and soils overlying Cambrian and
Ordovician limestone. The main orebody is 1,300 m
long, 350 m wide, and 4–40 m thick, with a total re-
source of 20 t Au (Xu et al. 1992; G. Xu 1999, personal
communication).
Distribution of gold-enriched VMS deposits in China
There are many base metal-rich VMS (volcanogenic
massive sulfide) deposits in China (Rui et al. 1984; Ge
et al. 1992), but most do not carry economic concen-
trations of gold. The few recognized gold-enriched VMS
deposits, which are widely distributed in various oro-
genic belts of China, are very small in terms of gold
resource. Only a few deposits contain 15 t Au and these
are of very low grade (Table 3). They include the Early
to Middle Devonian Ashele[92] deposit in the northern
Xinjiang gold province, the early Paleozoic Baiyin-
chang[93] and Xiaotieshan[94] deposits in the Qilianshan
fold belt, the Archean Hongtoushan deposits[95] along
the northern margin of the North China craton, and the
Proterozoic Dahongshan deposit[96] in the Sanjiang fold
belt (Table 3 and Fig. 5).
The Ashele[92] Fe–Cu–Zn VMS deposit (Table 3 and
Fig. 5) is located near the border of China and Ka-
zakhstan, approximately 500 km NNW of Urumqi. It is
part of a belt of similar ores that continue to the
northwest into adjacent Russia and Kazakhstan. Ashele
is the largest VMS deposit in Xinjiang, containing about
1 Mt of 2% combined Cu–Zn, and precious metal
grades of about 55 g/t Ag and 1 g/t Au (Table 3). The
deposit occurs in felsic to intermediate volcanic rocks of
an Early to Middle Devonian back-arc basin now ac-
creted within the southern Altayshan (Wang et al.
1998b). It is structurally controlled by the regional, NW-
tending Maerkakuli and Sareshuoke faults. The ore-
275
bodies vary from massive to laminated and stockworks
in the core of an anticline underlain by a dolerite stock.
The north-trending ore zone is 1,000 m long, 30–150 m
wide, and continues to a depth of about 500 m. Major
ore minerals include pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
galena, bornite and chalcocite, lesser pyrrhotite, arsen-
opyrite, jalpaite (Cu–Ag sulfide), tennantite, magnetite,
and gold. The brecciated and faulted volcanic host rocks
are intensively altered with quartz, white mica, alunite,
chlorite, carbonate minerals, pyrite, and pyrophyllite.
The ores contain high Ga, Ge, In, and Se (Rui et al.
2002, this volume).
Baiyinchang[93] is the largest copper VMS deposit in
China, containing 1.14 Mt Cu, with grades of the ores
varying between 1.17–2.84% Cu (Table 3 and Fig. 5).
Significant gold resources were first recognized in the
VMS ores in the late 1980s, and now are estimated at
14.6 t Au grading 1 g/t at Baiyinchang, and 19 t Au
grading 2.3 g/t at the nearby Xiaotieshan deposit[94]
(Table 3 and Fig. 5). The Baiyingchang deposit is lo-
cated in an anticlinorium within the Qilianshan fold belt.
The host rocks are early Paleozoic mafic to felsic vol-
canic rocks and associated marine sedimentary rocks
deposited along a seafloor rift zone. The highly-faulted
deposit is composed of 100 different orebodies, with the
larger NW-striking orebodies being >1,000 m long, a
few tens of meters thick, and continuing to a depth of
100–200 m. The ores show massive, disseminated,
stockworks, breccia, and replacement textures. The main
ore minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyr-
rhotite, magnetite, arsenopyrite, galena, tennantite, and
gold. The main alteration minerals are quartz, white
mica, chlorite, epidote, barite, and carbonate minerals.
Distribution of gold-enriched nickel–copper deposits
China contains a few magmatic nickel–copper deposits
in mafic to ultramafic intrusive rocks, and these mainly
are distributed along the southern (e.g., Jinchuan[97])
and northern margins (e.g., Hongqiling) of the North
China craton, respectively. Only the giant Jinchuan
deposit along the southwestern margin of the North
China craton contains important gold resources. The
Jinchuan deposit[97], currently the third largest nickel
deposit in the world, well behind Noril’sk and Sudbury,
contains 5.46 Mt Ni grading 1.06%, and over 75 t Au
grading 0.1–0.6 g/t (Table 3 and Fig. 5). The deposit
occurs in a series of 1500-Ma mafic–ultramafic intru-
sive bodies, which crystallized along a rift at the margin
of the North China craton (Chai and Naldrett 1992).
The rifted zone consists of Paleoproterozoic migmatite,
gneiss, schist, and marble. The igneous complex of
dunite, lherzolite, olivine, and websterite is 6.5 km in
length, 2 to 500 m in width, and pinches out at a depth
of 500–1,300 m. The ore types include net-textured
sulfides with olivine inclusions, disseminated sulfide
minerals, massive sulfide bodies that are a few hundred
meters long and a few centimeters to 20 m wide, and
276
‘‘contact ores’’ that are along the contact between the
intrusive complex and the country rocks (Naldrett
1997). The major ore minerals are pyrrhotite, nickel-
rich pyrite, chalcopyrite, and Ni–As–Co-bearing min-
erals that contain minor gold.
Distribution of placer gold deposits
Much of China’s 600–750 t Au resource in placer de-
posits is associated with erosion of the orogenic lode gold
deposits. Most individual placer gold deposits contain
<2 t Au. The deposits are typically widespread in China,
but concentrations of these occur in the Xinganling and
Jiamusi areas of the Heilongjiang gold province, the
Chuan–Shaan–Gan gold province, the North China gold
province, the Yangtze River gold province, the Sanjiang
fold belt and the northern Altayshan area of the northern
Xinjiang gold province (Fig. 6).
Heilongjiang gold province
Placer gold in the Xinganling and Jiamusi areas of the
Heilongjiang gold province is mainly distributed along
tributaries of the Heilongjiang River near the border
with Russia (Figs. 2 and 6). It is economically the most
important placer gold region in China, with >200 t Au
mined from these placers since 1860. It is an area of
rolling hills with relief of 20–500 m. Gold placers have
been developed along river valley floors and on adjacent
terraces. Eight placer deposits with >8 t Au, and many
smaller deposits, are presently operating in the Xin-
ganling and Jiamusi areas (Fig. 6).
The Dalahan River[100] (Table 4 and Fig. 6), 45 km
south of the Russian border, is one of the larger placer
fields in the region and contains 8 t Au. Six main placers
are distributed along a 25-km-long stretch of the Dala-
han River, a third-order tributary of the Heilongjiang
River. The area has undergone erosion following late
Paleozoic uplift. The topography is characterized by a
series of 300- to 450-m-high, NW-trending hills, which
rise above a U-shaped valley with three levels of terraces
along both sides. Individual placer accumulations are
100–250 m wide, about 6 m thick, and extend for a few
hundreds meters to >10 km in length. The alluvial gold
particles are mostly tabular-shaped with lesser grains
and flakes, and are typically 0.2–0.5 mm in diameter.
Some of the gold grains are enclosed in galena, or as-
sociated with quartz. The gold fineness ranges from 807
to 848. Other heavy minerals in the placers include
garnet, amphibole, epidote, pyrite, and ilmenite. Garnet
is used as a major pathfinder for alluvial gold in this area
(Xu et al. 1992; Zhang and Zhang 1994).
Chuan–Shaan–Gan gold province
The Chuan–Shaan–Gan is the second largest placer gold
region in China, with an endowment of 150 t Au. Placer
mining has been in operation here for 1,500 years. The
topography is characterized by mountains in excess of
3,000 m high, and deep valleys and basins. Gold placers
are recognized in alluvium, elluvium, and glacial out-
wash along the Hanshui, Minjian, and Jialingjiang
Rivers. Nine large placer operations and many smaller
deposits have been worked in this area (Fig. 6).
Within the Chuan–Shaan–Gan area, Zhangla[113]
(Table 4 and Fig. 6), which is located 240 km north of
the city of Chengdu, was discovered in 1913. Approxi-
mately 30 t Au were mined from there before 1949, and
the remaining resources are about 10 t Au. The main
placer workings occur at the mouth of the Jinhe River,
near its junction with the large Minjiang River. The
high-relief surrounding area, with Carlin-like lode gold
deposits, is part of the easternmost Tibet–Qinghai
Plateau (Fig. 2). Glacial and glaciofluvial sediments are
abundant. The deposit is in a 2-km2 area within a
Quaternary basin, which formed at the intersection of
major fault zones that control flow directions of the two
rivers. The main gold accumulations occur in 5- to 70-m-
thick sequences of sediments within the side terraces of
the valley. Gold occurs mainly as tabular grains and
flakes, with more than 90% of the gold larger than 1 mm
in diameter. Associated heavy minerals include zircon,
rutile, leucoxene, and hematite, with minor tourmaline,
apatite, garnet, chromite, pyrite, and cinnabar (Xu et al.
1992; Institute of Gold Geology, unpublished data).
Other areas
More than 70 t of gold occurs in placer accumulations
across the 1,500-km-long northern China gold province.
However, in the western part of the province, near the
city of Hohot in Inner Mongolia, placers are scarce. The
Jinpen deposit[107] is the most important of these with a
22-t Au resource and some placer workings there
reaching grades of 14 g/t (Table 4 and Fig. 6). Gold
placers have developed mainly along river valley floors
and at the bottom of the adjacent first- to second-order
terraces in Early Cretaceous sandstone and conglomer-
ate. There are 12 to 16 placer orebodies averaging
3,800 m in length, 160 m in width, and 0.5–2.0 m in
thickness. The main associated heavy minerals are he-
matite, ilmenite, and zircon. Gold mainly is present as
tabular grains and flakes, with more than 65% of the
gold larger than 1 mm in diameter. Most of the gold
placers in the Yangtze River gold province, Sanjiang
fold belt, and Qilianshan area (Figs. 2 and 6) are smaller
than 8 t Au. The northern part of the Altayshan in
northern Xinjiang has been mined for placer gold for
more than 100 years. From 1915 to 1942, >10 t Au
were mined in this area, and many more recent discov-
eries [e.g., the Laojingou[121] (Table 4 and Fig. 6) and
Xinjingou areas] now account for another total 30-t
placer Au resource. Most of the Altayshan gold placers
occur along the Kalaerqisi River valley. Their distribu-
tion is controlled by the NW-striking orogenic lode gold

systems in the Altayshan. Topography is also one of the
major controlling factors because over 80% of the placer
gold occurs in the mountain areas located 1,500–
2,700 m above sea level. Most of the gold placers occur
in alluvial sediments, in river valley floors, and at the
bottom of adjacent terraces, whereas a few also occur in
glacial, slope wash and basin sediments. Gold fineness is
normally greater than 900 (Zhang and Zhang 1994; Liu
et al. 1996).
Temporal evolution of Chinese gold deposits
Despite a geological history dating back to the Early
Archean, the oldest, well-recognized, economically
significant gold deposits in China formed at ca.
350–300 Ma (Fig. 3a). A few Precambrian gold-enriched
VMS deposits are scattered throughout China (e.g.,
Hongtoushan[95], Dahongshan[96], Table 3 and Fig. 5),
but these are all minor deposits. The North China,
Yangtze and Tarim cratons underlie about half of Chi-
na, and these cratons include large tracts of Late
Archean and Paleoproterozoic rocks. Such Precambrian
units are important hosts for Precambrian orogenic gold
deposits throughout the world, but, to date, lack such
lodes in China. This reflects, in part, extensive Meso-
proterozoic and younger cover. Furthermore, where the
Precambrian rocks are best-exposed, such as in uplifted
blocks along the North China craton margin, Late
Archean and Paleoproterozoic rocks have been exten-
sively reworked and deeply eroded by Rodinian-age and
younger orogenies. Many of the resultant exposures are
of high-grade metamorphic basement rocks located be-
low crustal levels that are favorable for orogenic and
more shallowly-emplaced types of gold systems (Groves
et al. 1998). These rocks may host gold deposits, but
such deposits are associated with tectonism of younger
Paleozoic orogenies and not Precambrian events.
The three main cratonic blocks in China, subsequent
to Neoproterozoic rifting from Rodinia, occurred as
microcontinents within the Paleo-Tethys Ocean
throughout almost the entirety of the Paleozoic (Li et al.
1996; I. Metcalfe, 1997 unpublished report; Li 1998).
Whereas active margins existed along both sides of the
North China craton, and the southern margin of the
Yangtze craton, there is little evidence of significant
oceanic plate subduction (Li 1998). If gold deposits
formed in these Paleozoic microcontinents, they would
have most likely been shallow level epithermal and
porphyry systems near their margins. It is suggested that
such deposits might resemble those presently scattered
throughout the southwest Pacific basin. Such deposits
would easily be lost to erosion during later accretion of
the North China and Yangtze blocks to the Pangea su-
percontinent.
The oldest important gold deposits in China are the
Variscan ores in northern Xinjiang and along the
northern margin of the North China craton (Fig. 3a).
They represent some of the later stages in a complex
277
series of accretionary events that occurred for more than
200 million years along the southern margin of the
Angara craton during the growth of Pangea (Sengör and
Natal’in 1996). Gold-bearing VMS deposits that formed
in the Early and Middle Devonian along near-shore
spreading centers were added into the growing Altay-
shan accretionary complex within a few tens of millions
of years after their deposition on the sea-floor (e.g.,
Ashele[92], Table 3 and Fig. 5). This period of Late
Devonian to Carboniferous subduction–accretion was
also associated with the widespread formation of oro-
genic gold deposits throughout these accreted terranes
now exposed in northern Xinjiang [e.g., Duolanasaiyi[44]
(Table 2 and Fig. 4), Saidu, Shaerbulake]. Immediately
south of the Altayshan, simultaneous closures of marine
basins, and accretion of the Yili Precambrian block and
Tarim craton, led to additional deformation of marine
sequences and emplacement of gold ores into what is
now the West Junggar region (e.g., Hatu[45]) and Tian-
shan (e.g., Sawuyaerdun[46]; Table 2 and Fig. 4). Less-
unroofed parts of the Tianshan host more shallowly
formed epithermal gold veins (e.g., Axi[64]) and re-
placement style ores (e.g., Kanggur[43]) that also evolved
in the late Paleozoic. Extending to the east of the
Altayshan, Variscan closure of the Solonker Ocean
(Sengör and Natal’in 1996) was accompanied by south-
directed subduction of oceanic crust beneath the
obliquely colliding North China craton. The northern
margin of the craton was reworked such that a series of
orogenic gold systems developed in the Late Archean
and Paleoproterozoic rocks above the subducting plate
(e.g., Hadamengou[16], Xiaoyinpan[22]; Table 2 and
Fig. 4). To the east, within the closing basin, arc-related
magmatism included formation of the gold-rich Duo-
baoshan Cu–Mo porphyry deposit[90] (Table 3 and
Fig. 5) and the emplacement of additional orogenic lode
gold systems may have been significant. The latter are
now mainly eroded to form some of China’s most
productive placer gold fields (e.g., Xikouzi[98], Ni-
qiuhe[104], Huanan[105], Table 4 and Fig. 6).
The Triassic was characterized by collisions along
many of the margins of the Yangtze craton (Sengör et al.
1993) and gold-depositing hydrothermal events occurred
subsequently within the affected regions (Fig. 3b). To
the north, ocean closure between the Yangtze and North
China cratons was associated with the formation of
orogenic gold ores in accreted flysch and arc sequences
of the western part of the Qinling gold province (e.g.,
Baguamiao[38], Liba[40], Table 2 and Fig. 4) soon after
the Jurassic. To the west, accretion of terranes rifted
from the Gondwanan supercontinent on to the Yangtze
craton (I. Metcalfe, 1997 unpublished report), was fol-
lowed by Triassic orogenic gold formation along the
main sutures (e.g., Jinchang[51], Qiuluo[48]; Table 2 and
Fig. 4). At about the same time, continued collision
beneath the Qaidam block and final tectonism in the
Qilianshan resulted in similar ore-forming processes to
the north (e.g., Hanshan[42]). Late Paleozoic–Early Me-
sozoic events along the south-central side of the Yangtze
278
craton are not well understood, but they also suggest
some type of active margin. This would have been
characterized by collision of the Indochina block from
the west and compression and subduction from the east
(Yin and Nie 1996), leading to emplacement of orogenic
gold ores that are now located west of Hong Kong (e.g.,
Hetai[52]; Table 2 and Fig. 4).
The temporal history of Carlin-like gold deposits in
China is poorly understood, but a Jurassic age is favored
here for much of the ore formation. Because host rocks
are as young as Triassic, many of the Carlin-like ores
can be no older than Mesozoic. Structural relationships
and questionable isotope geochronological data have led
Li and Peters (1998) to conclude that these deposits in
the western Qinling and Dian–Gui–Qian provinces may
have formed anytime between Devonian and Tertiary.
Hu et al. (2001, this volume) suggest that they formed in
the Cretaceous. Following Mao et al. (2002b, this vol-
ume), we think the available data appear to be more
consistent with pre-Cretaceous gold-forming events.
Along the northwestern margin of the Yangtze cra-
ton, the most reliable dates are of Jurassic age from the
Dashui deposit, and tectomagmatic events in the adja-
cent Songpan-Ganzi basin are also Early to Middle
Jurassic (Mao et al. 2002b, this volume). There is no
evidence for later extensional tectonism. Therefore, as
Jurassic orogenic lode-gold deposits were being depos-
ited into the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic clastic se-
quences, adjacent carbonate platform rocks of the
northwestern Yangtze craton probably were serving as
selective host units for Carlin-like gold ores. The Early
Mesozoic geologic history of the area is simply not
known in enough detail, and reliable geochronological
data are lacking such that specific genetic relationships,
if any, between the Carlin-like ores and orogenic lodes
cannot be assessed. However, clearly there is a close
spatial and temporal relationship between these ore de-
posit types in southern China. This contrasts with the
western USA, where collision-related orogenic gold de-
posits formed in accreted terranes to the west of the
craton margin at about 130 Ma (Goldfarb et al. 1998)
and extension-related Carlin deposits formed some
100 million years later (Hofstra et al. 1999), and far
inland, in the cratonic-margin carbonate rocks.
Age relationships are even more uncertain for the
Carlin-like gold deposits along the southwestern margin
of the craton, but a middle Mesozoic hydrothermal
event is a distinct possibility. This was a time of exten-
sive folding and mainly thin-skinned thrusting in the
carbonate platform rocks and foreland-basin clastic
rocks (Hsu et al. 1990; Li 1998), which host the deposits
of the Dian–Gui–Qian province deposits. It is uncertain
as to the reliability of a number of Middle Jurassic to
Early Cretaceous isotopic dates reported from these
Carlin-like deposits (Hu et al. 2001, this volume).
A major, mainly Early Cretaceous, mineralizing epi-
sode characterized much of eastern China, with impor-
tant events recorded in rocks of both the Yangtze and
North China cratons (Fig. 3c). An important concen-
tration of metalliferous felsic to intermediate intrusions
occur along both sides of the Tan-Lu fault within the
northeastern corner of the Yangtze craton, between
Wuhan and Shanghai (Fig. 5). The majority of the di-
orite, quartz diorite and granodiorite stocks, which
comprise the Yangtze Igneous Group, were emplaced at
about 135–127 Ma into Proterozoic basement and un-
metamorphosed Paleozoic to Triassic clastic and car-
bonate rocks (Chen and Jahn 1998). The magmatism
was associated with widespread formation of gold-
bearing iron–copper skarn, copper porphyry, and epi-
thermal veins. These have been long considered as I-type
intrusions, but recent radiogenic data indicate a large
crustal component to the ore-related granites (Chen and
Jahn 1998). Whereas the cause of the magmatism re-
mains debatable (Lapierre et al. 1997), the concentration
of igneous activity at the intersection of the southern tip
of the crustal-scale Tan-Lu fault system with the east-
ernmost part of the Qinling-Dabie suture is intriguing.
Early Cretaceous strike-slip motion along the Tan-Lu,
as well as the westerly-directed Kula or Izanaji plate
subduction under southern China, may both have been
critical for the formation of the voluminous melt in this
region (Fig. 3c).
This Early Cretaceous tectonism also was very no-
table along all margins of the eastern half of the North
China craton. Magmatism and gold-bearing zones of
Precambrian basement uplifts formed simultaneously
along the northern (Hart et al. 2002, this volume),
eastern (e.g., Jiaodong Peninsula; Qiu et al 2002, this
volume) and southern margins (e.g., Xiao Qinling; Mao
et al. 2002a, this volume) of the craton. About 2,500 t,
or more than three-quarters of the Chinese gold re-
sources in orogenic quartz veins, occur in the Precam-
brian metamorphic rocks and Phanerozoic granites in
these areas. It is critical to re-emphasize that the younger
ages of the gold in the North China craton than those in
the other Precambrian cratons may be explained by their
different tectonic histories. The North China craton is
not a true craton because its margins have been sub-
jected to multiple tectonic events. This contrasts with
other Precambrian cratons containing abundant late-
Archean gold resources (e.g., the Yilgarn block in Aus-
tralia and the Canada Shield), which have been isolated
from further significant orogeny since the end of the late
Archean.
The ultimate controls responsible for the abundance
of orogenic gold deposits within the eastern North
China craton remain poorly understood. Whereas ages
of veining, styles of mineralization, and ore fluid tem-
perature–pressure–composition are very consistent in
individual areas, the host rocks vary from almost ex-
clusively granite on the Jiaodong Peninsula to a mixture
of basement metamorphic rocks and granite along the
northern craton margin, and to almost all clastic base-
ment sequences in the Xiao Qinling region (Fig. 4). This
suggests that, where granites host the ores, they are
simply slightly older structural traps, and are not the
direct cause of hydrothermal events. Magmatism and

hydrothermal fluid flow could both be products of Pa-
cific plate subduction, but gold ores in Xiao Qinling are
some 1,600 km inland from the Pacific subduction zone
(Figs. 2, 3, and 4). One possibility is a model that in-
vokes the combined effects of the westerly-subducting
Pacific plate and the northerly-subducting Australia–
India plate (Xie et al. 1994), along with some type of
intracratonic slab delamination (Chen and Fu 1992).
A second scenario may relate to Early Cretaceous
lithosphere erosion in eastern China. Griffin et al. (1998)
suggest a possible cause for the high heat flow and a
relatively positive regional Bouger gravity anomaly, lo-
cated between the continental margin and the north–
south gravity lineament (some 1,000–1,500 km inboard)
since the Cretaceous, was the removal of 80 to 140 km of
Archean lithospheric keel. They argue that upwelling
asthenosphere would have caused a rise in the temper-
ature at the Moho from 400 C, which characterized the
pre-Cretaceous, to temperatures at and above those re-
quired for crustal melts. Such an event would have also
produced significant fluid volumes at the mid-crustal
levels and these fluids could have transported the wide-
spread gold. It is puzzling that the better exposures of
Archean crust and most of the gold deposits that rim the
eastern part of the craton and late Mesozoic basins are
found farther inland in zones of highest heat flow. Per-
haps the margins to the craton represent a broad belt of
uplifted blocks adjacent to the widespread, interior re-
gional basin subsidence, and major faults, such as the
Tan-Lu and E–W zones along the northern and south-
ern craton margins, were the focus of uplift and crustal
fluid migration.
Neotectonics along the Taiwan-Luzon volcanic arc
have led to formation of China’s youngest lode-gold
deposits. Important Au–Ag–Cu epithermal veins and
breccia pipes are concentrated in the northeastern corner
of Taiwan, including the largest epithermal deposit in
China at Chinkuashih[65] (Table 2 and Fig. 4). Subvol-
canic and extrusive dacites that are associated with the
ores range in age from 1.3 to 0.9 Ma, and ores are as-
sumed to have formed almost immediately after crys-
tallization of the slightly older (i.e., 1.3–1.1 Ma)
subvolcanic rocks (Tan 1991). This episode of arc for-
mation in the South China Sea reflects the still ongoing
oblique subduction of the Philippine Sea plate below the
eastern margin of the Eurasian plate.
Summary
Orogenic gold deposits occur in reworked Precambrian
metamorphic rocks and Phanerozoic granites, which
intruded the Precambrian rocks on the northern,
southern, and southeastern margins of the North China
craton, Fig. 4). These contain about one half (i.e.,
2,500 t) of the total gold resources in China. In the
northern China gold province, Variscan orogenic gold is
distributed along E–W-striking structures mainly in the
western part of the province, whereas Yanshanian gold
279
systems are more concentrated in the eastern part.
Yanshanian gold also occurs in the Mesozoic granites,
which intruded Archean metamorphic rocks along the
southeastern margin of the North China craton, forming
the largest granite-hosted gold province in the world in
the Jiaodong province. In the Qinling gold province,
Yanshanian gold occurs in the reworked Precambrian
metamorphic rocks along the southern margin of the
North China craton. In all these cases, late Paleozoic
and Mesozoic orogenic gold-lodes are spatially associ-
ated with uplifted basement blocks of Precambrian
metamorphic rocks. In contrast to other auriferous Late
Archean cratons, all the ores are Phanerozoic and no
Precambrian systems have been recognized. A few skarn
and porphyry gold and copper–gold deposits also occur
along the northern and southern margins of the North
China craton. However, most of these are relatively
small.
Post-Triassic, Carlin-like gold deposits occur within
the northwestern (Chuan-Shaan-Gan) and southwestern
(Dian-Gui-Qian) margins of the Yangtze craton, form-
ing the second largest Carlin-type gold province in the
world (Fig. 4). Early Cretaceous gold-enriched skarn
and porphyry copper (± base metals) deposits occur on
the northeastern and southeastern margins of the Yan-
gtze craton, including epithermal veins of the South
China fold belt and the very productive Yangtze River
Cu–Au province, respectively (Figs. 4 and 5). The total
gold resource of the various deposits within the Yangtze
craton is more than 1,500 t. East of the craton, impor-
tant gold-rich epithermal veins, and breccia pipes on
northern Taiwan are associated with modern-day arc
evolution in the South China Sea.
Phanerozoic fold belts in China occur between, or
along, the margins of the major Precambrian cratons,
e.g., Yangtze, North China, Tarim, Kazakhstan–Ky-
rgyzstan, and Angara (Figs. 3 and 4). They represent the
subduction and accretion of oceanic complexes and in-
tracratonic collision zones that have been mostly active
in the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic. From the north
to the south, these auriferous belts include the roughly
E–W-trending Variscan Altayshan (extending easterly
through Mongolia and Russia)–Xinganling fold belt; the
Variscan Tianshan–Beishan–Yinshan (Xinjiang and In-
ner Mongolia) fold belt; Caledonian through Indosinian
Qilianshan, Qinling–Kunlunshan and Qinling–Dabie–
Sulu (Yin and Nie 1993) fold belts; and Indosinian
Sanjiang fold belt (Figs. 3 and 4).
Variscan orogenic gold is widespread in the Altayshan
fold belt, but eastwards there are virtually no important
gold-only lode deposits in the Xinganling belt. However,
the latter hosts the main placer gold resource in China
(Fig. 6) indicating probable erosion of such gold types.
Significant Variscan orogenic and epithermal gold oc-
currences are scattered along the Tianshan–Beishan fold
belts (Figs. 3a and 4). Eastwards along the trend, how-
ever, orogenic gold occurs in the uplifted Precambrian
basement of the North China gold province, rather than
in the accreted Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks. Some
280
epithermal and porphyry/skarn deposits do, however,
occur in these metasedimentary terranes to the north of
the North China craton. Indosinian orogenic gold oc-
curring in the western part of the Qinling fold belt forms
the largest orogenic gold province in China that is hosted
within a Phanerozoic fold belt (Figs. 3b and 4). Indo-
sinian orogenic gold deposits are also abundant along the
Sanjiang fold belt developed in front of the approaching
Himalayan orogen. During the Himalayan tectonism,
150-million-year-old younger, gold-rich porphyry and
skarn deposits were formed at shallow levels in the same
fold belt (Figs 3c, 4, and 5). West of the Qinling and
Sanjiang fold belts, almost no lode gold deposits have
been reported in the Kunlunshan fold belt. However,
many small-scale, placer mining operations have been
conducted recently by the local people.
Acknowledgements There are too many scholars from China and
overseas to be listed for acknowledging supporting, discussions, and/
or providing information as well as reference papers. However, we
would like to mention Dexiu Qu, Wenkui Guo, Zongyao Rui, Pin-
glan Zhou, Jingwen Mao, Hongtao Zhang, Jianquan Mao, Yimin
Zhao; Xuchang Xiao, Jishun Ren, Rongfu Pei, Jiqing Liu, Guxian
Lü, Wanjun Shen, Jidong Sun, Menggeng Liu, Lansheng Liu, Longri
Min, Dequan Zhang, Jiashan Wu, Fengjun Nie, Jun Zhou, David
Groves, Ken McQueen, Guoyi Dong, Yumin Qiu, Zhengxiang Li,
Ian Metcalfe, Stephen G. Peters, and Guojian Xu. Critical reviews
from David Groves, Julian Verncombe, Steve Peters, and Mark
Mihalasky are appreciated and have improved this paper.
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