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A Review of Wave
• Waves
▫  Disturbances propagating in a medium or in
vacuum
Let There Be Light ▫  Carry energy
Chapter 8 ▫  Mechanical waves and electromagnetic wave

A Review of Waves A Review of Waves

• Mechanical Wave
▫  Wave that needs a medium to propagate
▫  Sound, ripples, earthquake, tsunamis, waves
through the strings of guitar
• Electromagnetic Wave
▫  Waves that can propagate in vacuum
• Transverse Wave
▫  the particles of the medium vibrate
perpendicularly to the direction of wave
propagation
• Longitudinal Wave
▫  The particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the
direction of wave propagation

The Basic Wave Equation

• Frequency (f) Frequency vs Period
▫  The number of waves it produces in a given amount of
time • Frequency refers to how often something
▫  Unit: Hertz (1cycle/s) happens. Period refers to the time it takes
• Period (T) something to happen.
▫  Reciprocal of frequency • Frequency is a rate quantity. Period is a time
▫  The time for the source to produce one complete wave quantity.
• Frequency is the cycles/second. Period is the
seconds/cycle.

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Frequency vs Period
If the woodpecker drums upon a tree 2 times in one
second, then the frequency is 2 Hz. Each drum must
endure for one-half a second, so the period is 0.5 s. A tennis coach paces back and forth along the sideline 10 times in 2 minutes.
The frequency of her pacing is ________ Hz.
If the woodpecker drums upon a tree 4 times in one
second, then the frequency is 4 Hz; each drum must
endure for one-fourth a second, so the period is 0.25 s. Frieda the fly flaps its wings back and forth 121 times each second. The period
of the wing flapping is ____ sec.

If the woodpecker drums upon a tree 5 times in one

second, then the frequency is 5 Hz; each drum must
endure for one-fifth a second, so the period is 0.2 s.

Energy and Amplitude

• A high energy wave is characterized by a high
amplitude; a low energy wave is characterized by a low
amplitude.
• Wavelength(λ)
▫  Distance between any 2 successive points in a
wave that are in phase with each other

• The energy transported by a wave is directly

proportional to the square of the amplitude of the
wave. This energy-amplitude relationship is
sometimes expressed in the following manner.

The Basic Wave Equation The Nature of Light

• Speed of wave(ν) • Wave Theory
▫  Distance the wave travels per unit time • Corpuscular Theory
▫  ν=fλ • Electromagnetic Theory
• Quantum Theory

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Wave Theory
• Christaan Huygens
• Light is longitudinal wave propagating in all
directions at constant velocity in homogeneous
medium
• Each color of light has a different wavelength
• Reflected light does not change its speed because
it propagates in the same medium; reversed
image only
Drawbacks
• Failed to account for the rectilinear propagation
of light
• Diffraction – bending of light around a corner of
an obstacle
• Only wave fronts move in straight line
• Polarization effect
Corpuscular Theory
• “To the same degree of refrangibility ever
belongs to the same color, and to the same color
ever belongs the same degree of refrangibility”
• The ray that is most refrangible exhibits the
violet color, and the least exhibits red color
• In the absence of forces, light travels in a
straight line
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Wave Theory
• In refracted light, there’s change in the speed of
light as they pass from one medium to another.
• Bend of light
• Principle of least time
▫  When light travels from one medium to another, it
will take the path that requires the shortest time
Intensity of reflected light + intensity of transmitted
light = Intensity of original light
Corpuscular Theory
• Isaac Newton
• Light consists of tiny particles or corpuscles
coming from a luminous object
• Different colors of light are attributed to the
different sizes and masses of the particles that
have different refrangibility
• Refrangibility
▫  Capability of a light ray to be refracted
Corpuscular Theory
• The reflection is elastic collision of light particles
with a smooth wall
• If the wall is rough, the particles would scatter in
random direction
• Refraction-change in speed of light when it
travels from one medium to another
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However… Electromagnetic Wave

• Simultaneous phenomenon of reflection and
refraction could not be explained
• Failed to explain polarization, interference and
diffraction
• Experiments contradicted the the speed of light
in a denser medium is greater
• Different sizes and masses of particles making
up light was not proven
• James Maxwell
• Light is a transverse wave having electrical and
magnetic properties
• Light is a wave that can propagate in a vacuum
• Explains rectilinear propagation
• Polarization

Quantum Theory
• Max Planck
• Discrete packets of energy called quanta
• Each quantum of energy is referred to as
photons(Einstein)
• Light has a dual nature – particle and wave
Light
• Wave property
▫  Davisson-Germer Experiment
▫  Light reflects in the same manner that any wave would reflect.
▫  Light refracts in the same manner that any wave would refract.
▫  Light diffracts in the same manner that any wave would diffract.
▫  Light undergoes interference in the same manner that any wave
would interfere. L
▫  ight exhibits the Doppler effect just as any wave would exhibit the
Doppler effect.

• Particle
▫  Photoelectric effect
▫  the energy of the ejected electrons was proportional to the
frequency of the illuminating light.

Geometric Optics(Light as a ray) Reflection

• Reflection • Turning back of light to the original medium
• Refraction • The ray that strikes the surface is the incident
• Total Internal Refelction ray
• The ray that rebounds from the surface is
reflected ray

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Law of Reflection
The I, R, N lie on the same plane
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Concave vs Convex Mirrors
• Concave surface converges reflected light and
may produced inverted or upright images
depending on the distance
• Convex diverges reflected light and always forms
an image that is upright and smaller than the
object
Concave
• The focal point is the point in space at which
light incident towards the mirror and traveling
parallel to the principal axis will meet after
reflection.
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Specular vs Diffuse Reflection
• Reflection off of smooth surfaces such as mirrors
or a calm body of water leads to a type of
reflection known as specular reflection.
• Reflection off of rough surfaces such as clothing,
paper, and the asphalt roadway leads to a type of
reflection known as diffuse reflection.
•  A line passing through the center of the sphere and attaching to the mirror
in the exact center of the mirror is known as the principal axis.
•  The point in the center of the sphere from which the mirror was sliced is
known as the center of curvature(C)
•  The point on the mirror's surface where the principal axis meets the mirror
is known as the vertex (A)
•  Midway between the vertex and the center of curvature is a point known as
the focal point (F)
•  The distance from the vertex to the center of curvature is known as the
radius of curvature (R)
•  the distance from the mirror to the focal point is known as the focal length
(f)
• 
Convex
•  Light rays originating at the object location are shown approaching
and subsequently reflecting from the mirror surface. Each observer
must sight along the line of a reflected ray to view the image of the
object. Each ray is extended backwards to a point of intersection -
this point of intersection of all extended reflected rays is the image
location of the object.
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Convex
•  Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis on the way to
a convex mirror will reflect in such a manner that its extension will
pass through the focal point.
Concave vs Convex
•  Any incident ray traveling towards a convex mirror such that its
extension passes through the focal point will reflect and travel
parallel to the principal axis.

Refraction
• Light travel at different speed at different media
• Law of Refraction
Snell’s Law
▫  I,R,N lie in the same plane • The relationship between the angles of incidence
▫  When light speeds up in passing from one medium and refraction and the indices of refraction of
to another, it is bent away from the normal; when the two media
slows down, it bents toward the normal
▫  The Snell’s Law
• where Θi ("theta i") = angle of incidence
• Θr ("theta r") = angle of refraction
• ni = index of refraction of the incident medium
• nr = index of refraction of the refractive medium
• 

Index of refraction or refractive index Total Internal Reflection

▫  The ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed • The reflection of the total amount of incident
of light in a medium light at the boundary between two media.
▫  n=c/v • Requirements
▫  c = speed of light in vacuum (3.0x 108m/s) ▫  the light is in the more dense medium and
▫  v = speed of light in the medium approaching the less dense medium.
▫  the angle of incidence is greater than the so-called
▫  The higher the index of refraction, the lower is the critical angle.
speed of light in the medium

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Optic Fibers
•  The use of a long strand of plastic (or
other material such as glass) to pipe
light from one end of the medium to the
other

•  Used in communication systems and

micro-surgeries.

•  Since total internal reflection takes place

within the fibers, no incident energy is
ever lost due to the transmission of light
across the boundary.

Physical Optic (Light as a wave)

• Electromagnetic wave • Red is least energetic, lowest freq. while Violet is
• Frequency range: 4x 1014 to 7.9 x 1014 Hz the most energetic, highest freq in visible light
• Wavelength range: 380 nm to 750nm
• Visible Light
▫  ROYGBIV (inc frequency)
▫  E=hf, where h is Planck’s constant 6.63 x 10-34 J*s • Sun’s radiation
▫  1eV=1.6x10-19 J ▫  Visible light
▫  h=4.136x10-15 eV*s ▫  Infrared
▫  UV (highest freq)

Dispersion
• Visible light is separated into its component • When all the wavelengths of the visible light
colors spectrum strike your eye at the same time, white
• A prism is a piece of glass or transparent is perceived.
material • Thus, visible light - the mix of ROYGBIV - is
• Each component is refracted twice sometimes referred to as white light.
▫  Once it enters the prism • Also, black is not actually a color. Technically
▫  When it leaves the prism speaking, black is merely the absence of the
wavelengths of the visible light spectrum.

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Rainbow
•  A phenomenon that is caused by reflection, refraction and
dispersion of light in water droplets resulting in a spectrum of light
appearing in the sky.

•  Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the section of sky

directly opposite the sun.

•  In a primary rainbow, the arc shows red on the outer part and violet
on the inner side. This rainbow is caused by light being refracted
when entering a droplet of water, then reflected inside on the back
of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it.
•  In a double rainbow, a second arc is seen outside the primary arc,
and has the order of its colours reversed, with red on the inner side
of the arc.

Light scattering Rayleigh Scattering- Blue Sky

• Scatterers are particles in the sky that are •  Gas molecules are most effective in scattering the higher frequency
and shorter wavelength portions of the visible light spectrum.
capable of redirecting light •  Atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen scatter violet light most easily,
• Two types followed by blue light, green light, etc.
•  As white light (ROYGBIV) from the sun passes through our
▫  Rayleigh Scattering
atmosphere, the high frequencies (BIV) become scattered by
! Accounts for blue sky and red orange sunrise/sunset atmospheric particles while the lower frequencies (ROY) are most
! Caused by atmospheric gases likely to pass through the atmosphere without a significant
alteration in their direction.
▫  Mie Scattering
•  our eyes are more sensitive to light with blue frequencies. Thus, we
! Caused by dust, pollen, vapor, smoke view the skies as being blue in color.
! Accounts for white color of clouds

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Rayleigh Scattering – Red Orange
•  As the sun approaches the horizon line, sunlight must traverse a
greater distance through our atmosphere
•  the light passing through our atmosphere to our eyes tends to be
most concentrated with red and orange frequencies of light.
Absorption and Transmission
• Opaque – objects that absorb incident light
• Transparent – objects that allow an EMW to
pass through
• Object may be opaque to some EMW but
transparent to others
Absorption
• The color of an object depends on
▫  The color of light that is shone on the object
▫  The color of light it reflects
▫  When an object is illuminated with white light and
appears red, it reflects the red component and
absorbs other colors.
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Mie Scaterring
• Clouds contain water droplets and ice crystals
w/c are large enough to scatter all components
almost equally, thus, the white color
• If clouds are heavier, more water droplets, light
cannot penetrate all the way, thus, darker color
Absorption
• If a light wave of a given frequency strikes a
material with electrons having the same
vibrational frequencies, then those electrons will
absorb the energy of the light wave and
transform it into vibrational motion.
• light wave with that given frequency is absorbed
by the object, never again to be released in the
form of light.
Transmission
• Transparent objects absorb one or more freq of
light and transmit what is not absorb on the
opposite side of the object
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Primary Colors of Light Complementary Colors

• Any three colors (or frequencies) of light that • Any two colors of light that when mixed together
produce white light when combined with the in equal intensities produce white are said to be
correct intensity complementary colors
• R + G + B = W • Red and Cyan
• Secondary colors • Green and Magenta
▫  R + B = Magenta • Blue and Yellow
▫  R + G = Yellow
▫  B + G = Cyan • R + C = R + (B + G) = White

Color Subtraction Practice

• In this process, the ultimate color appearance of
an object is determined by beginning with a
single color or mixture of colors and identifying
which color or colors of light are subtracted from
the original set.
▫  W - B = (R + G + B) - B = R + G = Y

Attenuation of light Emission

• The decrease in intensity of light as it passes
through a medium
• I =I0 e-(µa +µs)χ
▫  I – transmitted light
▫  I0 – Original intensity of light
▫  µ a – Absorption coefficient
▫  µs – Scattering coefficient
▫  χ – Thickness of the medium
• When absorbing energy, electron may transfer
from lower energy level to higher energy level
• When electron returns to its original state, it
emits energy in the form of light of different
colors/wavelength

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Diffraction
•  A bending of light around an obstacle and
Interference subsequent spreading of light waves into the region
behind the obstacle
•  Combination of waves traveling in the same medium at the same •  Obstacle – slit, wire, hole, strings, etc
time
•  principle of superposition of waves states that when two or more
propagating waves of same type are incident on the same point, the
resultant amplitude at that point is equal to the vector sum of the
amplitudes of the individual waves.

Constructive and Destructive

•  Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can

cause a bright ring to be visible around a bright light
source like the sun or the moon.

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