THE SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION (ALBIAN–SANTONIAN OF THE

BASQUE–CANTABRIAN BASIN, NORTHERN SPAIN): STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK,

FACIES, AND SEQUENCES

LUIS M. CASTAÑARES,1 SERGIO ROBLES,1 DOMINGO GIMENO, 2 AND JOSE C. VICENTE BRAVO1
1Departamento de Estratigrafı́a y Paleontologı́a, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Paı́s Vasco, Apartado de Correos 644, 48080-Bilbao, Spain
2 Departament de Petrologia, Geoquı́mica i Prospecció Geològica, Facultat de Geologia, Zona Universitària de Pedralbes, Universitat de Barcelona,

08071-Barcelona, Spain

ABSTRACT: The Errigoiti Formation, located in the central domain of
the Basque–Cantabrian basin, is an Albian to Santonian bathyal sub-
marine volcanic system of alkali basaltic character. These volcanics
occurred in an extensional geodynamic context generated by the drift-
ing of the Iberian plate with respect to the European plate.
Stratigraphic analyses reveal the facies distribution and depositional
architecture of a longitudinal cross section of the Errigoiti volcanic
system. Four facies groups were distinguished: sheet lavas (SL), de-
rived from low-viscosity lava flows at high magma discharge rate; pil-
low lavas (PL), derived from intermediate-viscosity lava flows at mod-
erate discharge rate; pillow breccias (PB), derived either from in situ
fragmentation of lavas (PB1) or rock-falling from pillow-lava slopes
(PB2); and stratified volcaniclastites (VC), derived from volcaniclast
resedimentation through gravity flows, either by early remobilization
(VC1) or post-volcanic reworking (VC2). The facies groups occur in a
predictable repetitive succession, essentially from base to top, an SL–
PL–PB–VC stacking pattern. This is interpreted to reflect an upward
waning in the magma discharge rate.
Five major volcanic sequences make up the Errigoiti Formation.
Each comprises packages tens to hundreds of meters thick, deposited
during short time spans of volcanic activity separated by long time
intervals of volcanic inactivity. Consequently, boundaries between se-
quences are associated with marked hiatuses, reworked volcaniclasts,
and/or turbidite-pelagic sedimentation.
Analysis of lateral and vertical facies evolution enabled us to propose
a depositional model consisting of three depositional environments.
From proximal to distal settings, these are: amalgamated pillow vol-
canoes, scattered pillow volcanoes, and volcanic fringe, basically re-
sponding to a proximal to distal PL/PB, PL/VC, and SL/VC evolution
of facies associations. Contemporaneous fossiliferous turbidite–pelagic
sequences that surround the volcanic succession allow paleobathymetry
to be estimated on the basis of biofacies. Sites with the highest rate of
volcanic emission correspond to an average depth of 900 m; sites with
thinner volcanic pile accumulated at a minimum depth of 1100 m.
The facies sequence established in this work and the processes in-
volved in its formation are comparable with the sequences and pro-
cesses described in other submarine basic volcanic systems. Conse-
quently, the depositional model for the Errigoiti Formation can per-
haps serve as a reference model for this type of volcanic system.
involved detailed facies analysis, correlation of several stratigraphic sec-
tions, and detailed mapping of volcanic bodies and correlative turbidite/
hemipelagic packages. Volcanic episodes were dated biostratigraphically
using the fossils found in surrounding hemipelagic/turbidite units, in order
to help to establish the spatial relationship of volcanic rocks to overall basin
geometry. This required the stratigraphic relationships among all sedimen-
tary and volcanic units to be clearly established in order to determine ba-
thymetry, basin morphology, stratigraphic architecture, and the tectonic
framework of the Errigoiti volcanic system.
Submarine volcanism has been a major area of research since the 1970s
because of its close association with massive sulfide deposits. Although
studies have been made on recent oceanic ridges and seamounts as well as
ancient volcanic successions, most analyses have emphasized non-evolved
basaltic volcanism. Large- and small-scale morphologies of modern basaltic
submarine volcanic deposits have been widely documented (e.g., Bellaiche
et al. 1974; Ballard et al. 1979; Lonsdale and Batiza 1980; Renard et al.
1985; Parson et al. 1993; Bryan et al. 1994; Head et al. 1996). The most
typical facies identified in both modern and ancient basaltic deposits are
sheet lavas, pillow lavas, and pillow breccias/hyaloclastites (e.g., Carlisle
1963; Dimroth et al. 1978; Renard et al. 1985; Schmincke and Sunkel
1987). Much less information is available however, on the internal orga-
nization of the submarine volcanic bodies. Thus, analyses of facies tracts
are scarce (Carlisle 1963; Dimroth et al. 1978) and studies of the architec-
ture of submarine volcanic bodies are very rare indeed (Schmincke and
Sunkel 1987; Cas and Wright 1987; Allen 1992; Allen et al. 1997).
The volcanic rocks studied here form part of the Cretaceous Pyrenean
Magmatism (Fig. 1A), which consists of effusive and intrusive submarine
rocks of alkaline affinity extensively developed in both the Northern Pyr-
enean and Basque–Cantabrian basins (Dubois and Seguin 1978; Montigny
et al. 1986; Rossy 1988). Earlier studies of volcanism in the Basque–Can-
tabrian basin focused on its petrological and geochemical features (Azam-
bre and Rossy 1976; Lago-Labrador et al. 1984; Meschede 1985; Boess
and Hoppe 1986; Rossy 1988; Cabanis and Le Fur-Balouet 1990; Rossy
et al. 1992; Azambre et al. 1992; Ente Vasco de la Energı́a 1995), the
description of volcanic structures (Cuevas et al. 1981; Rossy 1988; Cas-
tañares et al. 1998), geochronological dating (Montigny et al. 1986), and
the biostratigraphy of the encasing units (Lamolda et al. 1983; Castañares
et al. 1997). Castañares and Robles (1995) integrated facies and geometrical
analyses of volcanic bodies into a stratigraphic framework, generating a
preliminary genetic model for these submarine volcanic systems.

INTRODUCTION GEOLOGICAL SETTING

This paper describes the depositional architecture and the facies model The Basque–Cantabrian basin, which is the westward extension of the
of an Albian to Santonian bathyal submarine volcanic system (Errigoiti Pyrenean Chain, developed as a consequence of the kinematic interactions
Formation), which developed on thin continental crust during extensional of the Iberian and European plates during Mesozoic and early Cenozoic
tectonics linked to the spreading of the nearby Bay of Biscay. This study times. The most intense episode of differential subsidence took place during

→
FIG. 1.—A) Regional setting of the Cretaceous alkali magmatism (based on Capdevila et al. 1974, Deregnaucourt and Boillot 1982, Rat 1983, and Montigny et al. 1986).
B) Geological map of the Errigoiti Formation and surrounding units. C) Sketch showing the restoration of the Alpine movements among the three main tectonic units.
Arrows show the displacements of F1 and F2 faults. Double dashed lines show the transect of Figure 3.

JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY RESEARCH, VOL. 71, NO. 2, MARCH, 2001, P. 318–333

Copyright q 2001, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1073-130X/01/071-318/$03.00

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 THE SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION (ALBIAN–SANTONIAN) 319

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 320 CASTAÑARES ET AL.

FIG. 2.—Stratigraphic sections of the Errigoiti Formation. Five main volcanic units (E-1 to E-5) are distinguished. Tracing units is relatively easy for nearby sections
(i.e., 1–2 and 3-4-5-6-7). Correlation of distant sections, however, requires using levels of hemipelagic marls or reworked volcaniclastites (VC2), which indicate volcanic
inactivity, as markers. At upper center: pie diagram with facies percentage extracted from logs and log legend. A map of the Errigoiti Formation with the location of the
eight stratigraphic sections is also shown (F1 fault, see Figure 1). Labels located to the left of logged sections (RP-no.) indicate samples recovered for paleontologic
analyses shown in Figure 5.

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 THE SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION (ALBIAN–SANTONIAN) 321

FIG. 3.—A) Lithostratigraphic cross section of the Errigoiti Formation and contemporary sedimentary units. The panel was constructed projecting the transect Mungia–
Gernika–Fruiz of Figure 1C on a NW–SE vertical plane. B) Chronostratigraphic cross section. Note the distribution of the five eruptive episodes and the periods of
quiescence between them, which are progressively longer, from periods out of the biostratigraphic resolution up to more than 8 My.

Albian time when a two-sided basin, flanking a WNW–ESE trending deep-
sea trough, developed. This embryonic trough was the site of turbidite and
pelagic deposition from Albian to middle Eocene times (Van Vliet 1982;
Mathey 1986; Robles et al. 1989; Pujalte et al. 1993), forming a composite
section 8000 m thick. This thick deep marine succession coexisted with
active submarine volcanism up to Santonian times.
The volcanic units occur as a WNW–ESE belt (Fig. 1A). They display
strong lateral variations in thickness and facies and are complexly interfin-
gered with deep-sea sediments. The Errigoiti and Barinaga formations are
the most widespread and thickest volcanic units (up to 2500 m thick in the
Barinaga Formation). These consist mainly of basalt and minor trachytic
differentiate related to tectomagmatic crustal thinning linked to the Bay of
Biscay sea-floor spreading (Boess and Hoppe 1986; Cabanis and Le Fur-
Balouet 1990; Rossy et al. 1992).
The study area consists of the Errigoiti volcanic field, located in the
central part of the Basque–Cantabrian basin (Fig. 1). This area was greatly
deformed during the Pyrenean compressional episode (middle Eocene to
Miocene). Maximum shortening is in an approximate NNW–SSE direction,
and the main structural lineations are oriented N408 and N1308, indicating
reactivation of Cretaceous faults. A sketch with the tectonic restitution ap-
plied to this area is shown in Figure 1C.
STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION
The Errigoiti Formation occurs as a deformed belt 10 km long by 4 km
wide that consists of volcanic rocks of lava flow and volcaniclastic char-
acter interbedded with upper Albian to Santonian turbidite/hemipelagic sed-
iments (Fig. 1B). The volcanic rocks range from alkali basalt to trachyte,
with a predominance of the former. Lithofacies consist of sheet lavas, pil-
low lavas, pillow breccias, and stratified volcaniclastites (Fig. 2). Shallow
intrusives and peperites also developed in association with hemipelagic
sediments (Castañares et al. 1998). This unit is wedge-shaped along the SE
block of the Bizkaigane Fault, with its center of accumulation close to this
fault; it progressively thins towards the SE (Fig. 3). The center of accu-
mulation is also a paleotopographic high with respect to the surrounding
areas (Fig. 3). Although the Errigoiti Formation is a multiple volcanic sys-
tem with a main feeding zone in the thickest area, and secondary feeding
zones in the middle and outer parts of the wedge, we will use the broader
terms, proximal, medial, and distal settings.
Stratigraphic subdivisions based on the presence of major hiatuses and/or
hemipelagic/turbidite intercalations permit five sub-units, named E-1 through
E-5, to be defined (Table 1). These volcanic subdivisions are surrounded and
enclosed by a suite of sedimentary units (turbidites and hemipelagites), which

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 322
TABLE 1.—Stratigraphic data of the Errigoiti Formation and surrounding units.
Lithostratigraphic units Components
Volcanic units
ERRIGOITI FORMATION Lava and volcaniclastic rocks
of basaltic to trachytic compo-
sition (mainly basaltic).
Pillow lavas (38%)
Stratified volcaniclastites (33%)
Pillow breccias (18%)
Sheet lavas (9%)
Undifferentiated lavas (3%)
E-5 unit Pillow breccias (51%)
Pillow lavas (46%)
Undifferentiated lavas (2%)
Sheet lavas (1%)
E-4 unit Pillow breccias (45%)
Stratified volcaniclastites (42%)
Pillow lavas (11%)
Sheet lavas (2%)
E-3 unit Stratified volcaniclastites (44%)
Pillow lavas (40%)
Sheet lavas (10%)
Pillow breccias (6%)
E-2 unit Pillow lavas (46%)
Stratified volcaniclastites (26%)
Pillow breccias (20%)
Sheet lavas (8%)
E-1 unit Stratified volcaniclastites (26%)
Undifferentiated lavas (25%)
Pillow breccias (18%)
Sheet lavas (17.5%)
Pillow lavas (13.5%)
Turbidite and hemipelagic units
EIBAR FORMATION Siliciclastic turbidites interbed-
ded with hemipelagic marl-
stones and limestones.
Barrika unit Polygenetic breccias, chaotic
gravitational deposits and me-
gaturbidites accompanied by
deposits of low-density turbidi-
ty currents and volcaniclastic
layers.
PLENCIA FORMATION Calciclastic turbidite deposits
interbedded with pelagic/hemi-
pelagic sediments.
DEVA FORMATION Turbidite and related gravita-
tional deposits of mainly silici-
clastic components.
Cabo Villano Sandstones Siliciclastic to calciclastic me-
unit dium to coarse-grained turbidite
sandstones.
Baztegieta Marls unit Marlstones with scattered thin-
bedded turbidites and mollusk-
rich layers.
Utxurrinaga Marls unit Silty marlstones with minor in-
terbeds of thin-bedded turbi-
dites, nodular siderite layers,
and ash layers.
(i) Zonal assemblages of Caron (1985). Data based on Figure 5 and Castan̄ares et al. (1997).
comprise, in chronological order, the Deva Formation, the Plencia Formation,
and the Eibar Formation. Analyses of these units allow us to: (1) establish a
biostratigraphic framework for dating of the interfingered volcanic units; (2)
infer the environment of deposition of the volcanic units, by means of the
sedimentological and faunal analyses of coeval sedimentary units; and (3)
establish the geometry and stratigraphic architecture of volcanic bodies,
through the analysis of the stratal relationships between sedimentary units
and volcanic units. The main characteristics of both the volcanic and sedi-
mentary units are summarized in Table 1.
The wedge shape of the Errigoiti Formation and the intermittent out-
pouring of volcanic materials produced complex stratigraphic relationships
with the surrounding turbidite and hemipelagic deposits (Fig. 4). The main
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CASTAÑARES ET AL.
Biostratigraphic and/or
Thickness Environment chronostratigraphic units (i) Remarks
270 to 950 m Bathyal Ticinensis to Asymetrica Zones Volcanic deposition interrupted
(upper Albian to Santonian) during quiescence periods that
are longer upwards (Fig. 3)
0 to 175 m Bathyal Concavata and Asymetrica Restricted to proximal volcanic
Zones (uppermost Coniacian to settings, but occurring in both
Santonian) sides of Bizkaigane Fault (Fig.
3).
0 to 150 m Middle bathyal Brotzeni Zone (lower Ceno- Restricted to proximal volcanic
manian) settings.
110 to 250 m Middle bathyal Ticinensis Zone (upper Albian) Widespread unit (proximal to
distal settings).
30 to 320 m Middle bathyal Ticinensis Zone (upper Albian) Widespread unit (proximal to
distal settings).
0 to 80 m Middle bathyal Ticinensis Zone (upper Albian) Irregular and widespread unit
(proximal to distal volcanic set-
tings).
up to 2500 m Bathyal Santonian to Maastrichtian
about 200 m Bathyal Concavata and Asymetrica Contemporaneous with volca-
Zones (Santonian) nic unit E-5.
0 to 750 m Middle bathyal (Biofacies Reicheli to Concavata (middle Onlap and wedging features to-
6, Fig. 5) Cenomanian to Coniacian) wards proximal settings of the
Errigoiti Fm. Turbidite paleo-
current structures indicate a di-
rection to the ranging from S to
SW.
300 to 2500 m Bathyal Lower Albian to lower Ceno- Turbidite paleocurrent struc-
manian tures indicate a SW direction.
0 to 500 m Middle bathyal (Biofacies Brotzeni Zone (lower Ceno- Contemporaneous with the vol-
6, Fig. 5) manian) canic unit E-4.
0 to 150 m Middle bathyal (Biofacies Appenninica Zone (upper Al- Onlap features onto unit E-3.
6, Fig. 5) bian)
up to 200 m Middle bathyal (Biofacies Subticinensis and Ticinensis The uppermost part of this unit
6, Fig. 5) Zones (upper Albian) corresponds in time to E-1, E-
2, and the lower part of E-3.
relationships consist of: (1) interbedding between the lower three volcanic
units and turbidite-pelagic systems, (2) marine onlap of turbidite systems
of the Deva Formation onto the volcanic unit E-3, and (3) a marked wedg-
ing of the turbidite-pelagic systems of the Plencia Formation towards prox-
imal volcanic settings, when volcanism was inactive. Both onlap and wedg-
ing features of nonvolcanic deposits highlight the paleotopography of the
Errigoiti Formation, which has been calculated as 7% minimum average
slope during the Vraconian.
PALEOBATHYMETRY
Ambient conditions (mainly external pressure and ambient fluid, i.e.,
sediment, water, air) are one of the most important determinants controlling
 THE SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION (ALBIAN–SANTONIAN)
FIG. 4.—Cross section depicting both the volcanic facies evolution from proximal (left) to distal (right) and the relation of the turbidite-pelagic systems with the volcanic
system. Note differential subsidence between proximal and distal volcanic settings, clearly inferred from wedging and onlap features shown by turbidite-hemipelagic units.
(U.M., Utxurrinaga Marls; B.M., Baztegieta Marls).
the style of eruption (degree of vesiculation, explosivity and, indirectly,
mobility of the flows) and, therefore, the type of volcanic facies generated.
Paleoecological analysis of benthic Foraminifera in the turbidite to hemi-
pelagic marlstones that encase the volcanics provides an index of paleo-
bathymetry of the Errigoiti Formation.
Nineteen samples were collected from the Utxurrinaga Marls unit up
through the lowermost Plencia Formation (Fig. 5). These samples consis-
tently contain benthic foraminiferal assemblages characterized by Ammo-
baculites parvispira, Glomospira charoides, Hyperammina gaultina, Hap-
lophragmoides concavus, Glomospirella gaultina, Marsonella oxycona, and
Arenobulimina macfadyeni. This assemblage, typical of all samples, cor-
relates with Biofacies 6 of the paleoslope model of Sikora and Olsson
(1991). Hyperammina gaultina is a marker species of this biofacies and
one of the most commonly occurring species. Biofacies 6 develops in mid-
dle bathyal environments, at depths ranging from 600 to 2500 m. More
detailed analysis revealed a poorly distributed species, Quinqueloculina an-
tiqua (appearing in two samples; Fig. 5), which according to Sikora and
Olsson (1991) occurs only in water depths greater than 1100 m. Thus, we
can infer a minimum depth of 1100 m at the bottom of the volcanic unit
E-1, in both proximal and distal settings, and the same minimum depth in
distal settings by the end of volcanic unit E-3. The available data for unit
E-4 permit only a general bathymetry range of 600 to 2500 m to be in-
ferred.
The lower Santonian volcanic unit E-5 has not been sampled, though we
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323
estimate similar or deeper bathymetry on the basis of: (1) its occurrence
surrounded by turbidite to hemipelagic deposits, (2) studies in neighboring
areas that show ostracode assemblages with a deepening trend during San-
tonian time (Garcı́a Zarraga and Rodrı́guez Lázaro 1990), and (3) studies
at regional scale that relate the Santonian to a relatively high sea-level
stage, higher than the preceding stages (Floquet 1992).
VOLCANIC FACIES OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION
Facies analysis is based mainly on eight detailed logged sections, with
a total thickness of 4000 m, of which 70% was logged bed by bed. The
depositional structures and textures in both the lava and clastic facies were
studied in detail in each section; correlation between sections is based on
marker beds, biostratigraphic criteria, and the stacking pattern of volcanic
depositional events (Fig. 2).
The Errigoiti Formation consists of four groups of volcanic facies: sheet
lavas, pillow lavas, pillow breccias, and stratified volcaniclastites. These
facies groups, which are comparable to those identified in other basins of
differing ages (Carlisle 1963; Dimroth et al. 1978; Lonsdale and Batiza
1980; Schmincke and Sunkel 1987), are the building blocks of the volcanic
system. The main characteristics of facies groups and their facies are sum-
marized in Table 2.
 324 CASTAÑARES ET AL.

FIG. 5.—Biostratigraphic distribution of planktic and benthic Foraminifera within the turbidite and hemipelagic deposits that encase the volcanics. The benthics that
appear in the paleoslope model of Sikora and Olsson (1991) are keyed to symbols shown in Panel A. We include the paleobathymetries estimated by these authors. All
the samples fit in with the Biofacies 6 of Sikora and Olsson (1991), including those samples that show mixing with shallower benthics (reworking stages of platform
materials, Cabo Villano Sandstones). Panel B, based on Figure 3, is a sketch of the sampling location (a, base of Cabo Villano Sandstones; b, base of the Plencia Formation;
c, base of the Eibar Formation).

Sheet Lavas (SL)
This effusive facies group displays planar basal contacts and irregular
tops, occasionally accompanied by surface folds (centimeters in thickness),
brecciated lava tops (up to 2 m thick) and millimeter-scale hyaloclastic
deposits (see Table 2 for a definition of hyaloclast). Internally these de-
posits tend to show three distinctive divisions: (1) a lower vesiculated in-
terval, centimeters to decimeters in scale, whose vesicles tend to appear
elongated with the long axis parallel to the inferred paleoflow, (2) a middle
interval, meters to decameters in scale, composed of massive to columnar
lavas, capped by (3) an upper interval of highly vesiculated lavas, whose
vesicles may develop long axes perpendicular to the flow, probably related
to flow folds. Variations on this ideal sequence, though less representative,
are also present. In some cases, sheet flows appear brecciated throughout,
displaying scoriaceous sheet lavas up to 10 m thick.
Sheet lavas recorded in the Errigoiti Formation are commonly deposited in
the distal setting of the volcanic system, linked to extensive effusive episodes
and associated with the deposits of low-density turbidity currents and hemi-
pelagic facies. These characteristics and the environmental interpretation sup-
port the conclusion that these deposits reflect high magma discharge rates (Bal-
lard et al. 1979; Dimroth et al. 1978; Schmincke and Sunkel 1987; Griffiths
and Fink 1992; Gregg and Fink 1995) and preferential settling in low-relief
areas (Renard et al. 1985), with source of lavas either from main feeding areas
(proximal volcanic setting) or more local dike feeding.
Pillow Lavas (PL)
This facies group consists of bodies of highly irregular external shape
composed of interlaced lava tubes, elliptical in transverse section (pillows)
with a mean individual diameter of 40 cm. The remaining space (typically
, 5%) among these lava structures is generally occupied by very fine-
grained hyaloclastic deposits. Internally, the pillows are strongly vesicu-
lated.
The genetic mechanism involved in generating individual pillows has
been widely discussed (e.g., Moore et al. 1973; Moore 1975; Dimroth et
al. 1978; Hargreaves and Ayres 1979; Yamagishi 1985). Pillow lavas are
related to moderate values of discharge rate and viscosity (see Fig. 6), this
dependent on temperature, composition, volatile content, and crystallinity
(Bonatti and Harrison 1988). Also, an uneven sea floor favors pillow lavas,
because it allows a rapid increase of the magma-water contact surface area,
thus quickly decreasing the temperature of magma, subsequently generating
this type of facies. The geometric and architectural arrangement of pillow
lava bodies within the Errigoiti volcanic system could generally suggest
planar pillow flows in most outcrops, but locally it is possible to detect

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 THE SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION (ALBIAN–SANTONIAN) 325

TABLE 2.—Facies summary of the Errigoiti Formation.

Facies Components (i)
SL Mainly basalts (rarely tra-
sheet lavas chytes).
Massive lava, vesicular
lava, brecciated lava.
PL Mainly vesicular basalts.
pillow lavas Also trachytes.
Tubes size: 15 to 100 cm.
Average size: 40 cm.
Hyaloclastic ash ,5%.
PB PB1 Blocks and lapilli of ba-
pillow breccias saltic lava (subspherical
to subangular, in cases
with plastic deforma-
tion): 10–50% (3–20
cm).
Hyaloclastic ash: 50–90%
(sand- and silt-size hy-
aloclasts).
PB2 Blocks and lapilli of ba-
saltic lava (mainly su-
bangular): 80–100%
(3–20 cm).
Hyaloclastic ash: 0–20%
(sand- and silt-size hy-
aloclasts).
VC VC1 Basaltic or trachytic lava
stratified volcani- clasts (3 to 40 cm).
clastites Hyaloclastic or vesiculat-
ed hydroclastic ash to
fine lapilli (silt-size to
5 mm).
Clay chips (occasionally).
VC2 Rounded hydroclasts.
very fine-grained matrix
from volcanic alter-
ation.
Nonvolcanic clastics (low
%)
VC3 Basaltic and trachytic
lava clasts.
Marly matrix.
(i) REMARKS ON TERMINOLOGY.
We use hydroclast as a general term for volcanic clasts that show evidences of fragmentation in contact with water, and we use the term hyaloclast, in a more restrictive mode, for fragmentary components that were
produced by nonexplosive spalling and granulation of lavas in contact with water, i.e., hyaloclast would be a single clast of hyaloclastites defined by Honnorez and Kirst (1975).
The term vesiculated hydroclast is used to refer to a hydroclastic fragmentary cluster that is composed of vesicular glass from sand to fine cobble size. Crystals in these juvenile clasts account for less than 10% in volume.
The vesicles account for roughly 50% in volume; they are generally spherical in shape, with a minority of elongated vesicles. The clasts show, in many cases, boundaries with characteristics of hydroclastic fragmentation.
This and evidence in some cases of supercooling textures (skeletal phenocrysts and skeletal microlites) indicate an early contact with cool water.
(ii) Fisher and Schmincke (1984).
Structures and
Thickness (each event) internal features
from 1 to 42 m Base: vesicular lava (with
vesicles elongated sub-
parallel to flow), indu-
rated subjacent by
warming (when it is
mudstone).
Core: massive lava, co-
lumnar jointing, brecci-
ated lava.
Top: very vesicular lava,
brecciated lava and
flow ramps, hyaloclas-
tic cap (mm).
from 1 to 90 m (145 Base: irregular
m?) Core: pillowed lava
Top: irregular
up to 125 m (multi- Ash-rich breccias: chaotic
ple events?) structure, occasionally
weak coarsening- or
fining-upward sequenc-
es.
Volcaniclastics nomencla-
ture (ii): tuff breccia
and lapilli tuff.
up to 35 m (multiple Ash-poor breccias: chaot-
events?) ic structure.
Volcaniclastics nomencla-
ture (ii): lapillistone
(mainly).
up to 25 m (41 m?) Nongraded, graded, strati-
fied and laminated
breccia, lapilli and tuff
showing nongrading,
grading, stratification,
and lamination (see
Fig. 7 for more de-
tails).
up to 5 m Idem.
up to 3.5 m Normally graded mud-
supported lava-clast de-
posits.
Genesis
Lava flow:
- high effusion rate
- smooth relief
Lava flow:
- moderate to low effusion
rate
- high relief
- lateral variation from SL
Lava flow:
- very low effusion rate
PL disruption and rock-fall
deposition adjacent to mar-
gins of PL deposits.
Gravity flow from reworking
of unconsolidated PB de-
posits or transporting vol-
caniclasts freshly generated
by uncertain mechanism.
Gravity flow transporting non-
freshly erupted materials
during volcanic quiescence
stages.
Non-totally cohesive debris-
flow deposits.
Comparisons
Massive lavas (Dimroth et al.
1978)
Pillow lavas, types 1, 2 and 4
(Dimroth et al. 1978)
Isolated and broken pillow
breccia (Carlisle 1963)
Pillow Fragment Breccia (Ya-
magishi 1991)
Hyalotuffs (Dimroth et al.
1978)
Subaqueous pyroclastic flows
(Fiske 1963)
Subaqueous pyroclastic debris
flow deposits (Carey and
Sigurdsson 1980)
Volcaniclastic turbidity cur-
rents (Cas 1992)
Hyperconcentrated flows
(Mutti 1992)

pinchouts of the main pillow flows that might be the border of mound-like
pillow volcanoes. The bulk of pillow lava deposits are interpreted as having
formed directly from central vents of proximal to medial volcanic settings
with development of pillow volcano morphologies. However, a few pillow
lavas might be lateral facies variation from sheet lavas (cf. Dimroth et al.
1978; Hargreaves and Ayres 1979), with development of true planar pillow
flows occurring mainly in a distal volcanic setting.
Pillow Breccias (PB)
This facies consists of highly chaotic, disorganized brecciated deposits
of angular to subspherical lava clasts of various sizes (20 cm to 3 m in
diameter), in some cases, with evidence of ductile to pseudoplastic behavior
at the time of deposition (contorted clasts). They can occur as clast-sup-
ported to matrix-supported structures, with a matrix component consisting
of altered hyaloclastic materials, in most cases initially basaltic in com-
position, and therefore composed of sideromelane (Rossy 1988), ranging
from 0 to 90%. Two facies, PB1 and PB2, have been distinguished.
PB1 Facies.—This facies consists of matrix-supported lava clasts scat-
tered in a hyaloclastic sand-size matrix, ranging from 50 to 90% in volume.
Lava clasts rarely exceed 15 cm in diameter and display subspherical to
subangular shapes. When PB1 facies preferentially bear subspherical clasts
they resemble isolated-pillow breccias (Carlisle 1963; Dimroth et al. 1978),
brèches de ‘‘minipillows’’ (Rossy 1988), and pillow fragment breccias (Ya-
magishi 1991), whereas pillow breccias containing dominantly angular
clasts can be ascribed to be broken-pillow breccias (Carlisle 1963; Dimroth
et al. 1978) and brèches de pillows (Rossy 1988). These end members
appear to be connected by a continuous spectrum of genetic processes
because they generally show varying degrees of subspherical and suban-
gular clast mixtures. These facies occur in the most proximal settings of

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 326
FIG. 6.—Size of pillow volcanoes and factors controlling the type of submarine
volcanism.
the volcanic system and are intimately associated with pillow lava facies.
PB1 may be a result of eruptions of relatively low-temperature, high-vis-
cosity lava associated with very low magma discharge rates (Bonatti and
Harrison 1988). During this kind of eruption, magma-water interaction pro-
duces (by quench fragmentation) a large volume of hyaloclastic material
that forms the bulk of the PB1 facies.
PB2 Facies.—This facies consists of clast-supported breccias composed
mainly of angular pillow fragments with a paucity of sand-size matrix.
Laterally these facies are highly restricted and are associated with pillow
lava deposits. Both the texture and location of PB2 deposits indicate that
they formed as small slope apron deposits produced by a combination of
hydroclastic processes, autobrecciation at pillow volcanoes, rock fall gen-
erated by gravitational unsteadiness, and perhaps other less perceptible phe-
nomena such as synvolcanic seismicity.
Stratified Volcaniclastites (VC)
This facies consists of volcaniclastic rocks stacked in strata, with clasts
ranging from boulder to mud in size, poorly to intermediately vesiculated
(generally spherically vesiculated) and angular clasts, involving generally
hydroclastic fragmentation (in minor cases there are rounded clasts in re-
worked deposits). Textures and structures shown by these deposits reflect
short to moderate transport via sediment gravity flows.
The sedimentological analysis of these deposits permitted us to define a
generalized sequence of sedimentary divisions shown in detail in Figure 7.
This sequence is generated by successive stages of deposition as a hyper-
concentrated flow evolves to a high-density turbidity current and, finally,
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CASTAÑARES ET AL.
a low-density turbidity current. These kinds of deposits have been closely
studied in siliciclastic turbidite systems (e.g., Mutti and Ricci Lucchi 1972;
Walker 1978; Lowe 1982; Mutti et al. 1985; Agirrezabala and Garcı́a-
Mondéjar 1994) and resemble other subaqueous unwelded volcaniclastic
deposits (Fiske and Matsuda 1964; Yamada 1973; Bond 1973; Niem 1977).
The source of the volcaniclastic material is in the proximal setting, as
suggested by the occurrence of coarser and thicker beds in this area. This
rules out any type of external source for the main bulk of volcaniclastic
material, because a hypothetical flow transporting volcaniclasts to the Er-
rigoiti area from elsewhere would have deposited most of it in low areas
but not in high areas (proximal setting).
Most of the VCs are interpreted as the result of early resedimentation
via sediment gravity flows of freshly erupted volcaniclastic materials
(named VC1). A minor volume of VCs corresponds to later remobilization
of volcaniclastic materials before the eruptive stage had finished (VC2).
Another group of VC facies consists of debris-flow deposits composed
mainly of normally graded mud-supported lava clasts (VC3). Their genesis
is related to steep areas of the volcanic system where alternating deposition
of hemipelagic marls and lava flows (sheet or pillow lava deposits) oc-
curred.
The bulk of VCs consists of VC1 facies. In many cases, their fragmen-
tary components are hyaloclastic and are related to the early resedimenta-
tion of pillow breccia deposits (very abundant in the proximal setting).
More problematical, however, is the source of the VCs composed of ve-
siculated hydroclasts. The genesis of hydroclasts at moderately deep to
deep environments is particularly controversial and has been a matter of
discussion (see the compilation of Kokelaar 1986 and references therein).
At least three main processes of clast formation are possible for the Erri-
goiti Formation: (1) hydroclastic fragmentation of submarine primary py-
roclastic gravity flows (sensu Fiske et al. 1998), (2) moderate explosive
activity related to specific vents or calderas similar to those described by
some authors (Batiza et al. 1984; Gill et al. 1990), and (3) direct granulation
by thermal shock related to effusive eruption at localized vents coupled
with a slow rate of emission of viscous magma (Kokelaar 1986). Given
the current state of knowledge of the Errigoiti area, none of these can be
excluded, but initially there is no evidence either of fountaining of magma
(sensu Smith and Batiza 1989) or of pyroclastic flow. Even though the
precise mechanism by which hydroclasts formed is unknown, turbidity
flows that transport and deposit hydroclasts are closely related to bathyal
eruptions at proximal settings of the Errigoiti volcanic system.
DEPOSITIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The stratigraphic architecture of the Errigoiti volcanics is not easily de-
termined, because of the rapid and intricate facies relationships, amalgam-
ation, and sudden variation in thickness, all of which prevent any obvious
correlation based on lithologic criteria alone. Nonetheless, at a macro scale,
the volcanic deposits of the Errigoiti Formation can be objectively divided
into chronostratigraphic units. The most objective basis for chronostrati-
graphic correlation was tracing key stratigraphic surfaces and discontinu-
ities. These markers consist of hemipelagic layers traceable across most
volcanic sections, reworked volcaniclastic beds not directly related to vol-
canism (VC2 facies), and hiatuses resolvable with biostratigraphic data. On
the basis of such markers, a total of five volcanic units, hereafter termed
volcanic macrosequences, were defined (Table 1). These are essentially
bodies of volcanic rocks bounded by significant chronostratigraphic sur-
faces, and therefore represent bodies of volcanic rocks deposited in a time
span comparable with an eruptive epoch in the sense of Fisher and
Schmincke (1984).
These macrosequences range in thickness from less than 100 m up to
320 m. Taking the ratio of magmatic components as a criterion to analyze
vertical trends, the macrosequences typically display an asymmetric cycle.
The lower part of each macrosequence is normally thinner, with the mag-
 THE SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION (ALBIAN–SANTONIAN) 327

FIG. 7.—Sedimentary divisions of stratified volcaniclastites. Sequence of sedimentary structures synthesized from the sedimentological analysis of stratified volcaniclastites
(VC1 and VC2). (*) Note that the first division differs from other works (e.g., Lowe 1982; Mutti 1992) in its lack of clay matrix, but a common feature in volcanic debris
flows is the absence of clay components (Fisher and Schmincke 1984; Smith 1986), especially in debris flows transporting freshly erupted volcanic material. These flows
are less cohesive than nonvolcanic debris flows (Smith and Lowe 1991), but sedimentologic behavior and significance are very similar in both.

matic component rapidly increasing upward; the upper part is typically
thicker, with a progressively decreasing magmatic component.
Laterally, each macrosequence exhibits a conspicuous variation in facies
and thickness from proximal to distal settings (Fig. 4). Facies ratio and
facies thickness were computed across the Errigoiti volcanic system from
each macrosequence in order to determine proximal to distal facies varia-
tion (Fig. 8). The following lateral facies trends occur: (1) the ratio and
overall thickness of the SLs increase towards distal settings; (2) the overall
thickness of PLs decreases progressively from proximal to distal settings;
their ratio is moderate in proximal settings and very small in the most
distal settings; (3) the PBs are deposited almost exclusively in proximal
settings, and become scarce in medial settings and absent in distal settings;
(4) the VCs show the most extensive occurrence and thickness in proximal
settings, with a slight decrease in both abundance and thickness towards
distal settings; and (5) the PL and VC facies are both most abundant and
most homogeneously distributed.
A statistical analysis was used to determine the internal cyclicity of ma-
crosequences. SL and PL were taken as preferential starting facies of cycles
because of their close relationship with high to moderate magma discharge
rates. VC2 deposits were considered to be the tops of cycles, inasmuch as
they indicate post-volcanic reworking. Levels of hemipelagic marls were
taken as boundaries of cycles. Using these assumptions, the analysis
showed macrosequences as stacked by cycles of two or three facies (Fig.
9). The modal cycle resulted PL–VC, while other frequent cycles were PL–
PB, SL–VC, SL–PL–VC, PB–VC, PL–PB–VC. From these cycles or pri-
mary sequences, a generalized succession SL–PL–PB-VC can be estab-
lished as the composite sequence (Fig. 10), which serves as the essential
building unit of the Errigoiti Formation. This succession of volcanic rocks
closely agrees with the logical development of submarine eruptions gen-
erally (Bonatti and Harrison 1988) and with submarine sequences described
elsewhere (e.g., Carlisle 1963; Dimroth et al. 1978).
The primary sequences display a thickness between 3 and 155 m, av-
eraging 45 m. Up to nine cycles can form a macrosequence; however, the
number of these cycles typically varies from one locality to another. This
variation can be attributed to wedging up of some primary sequences or
amalgamation of two or more sequences through poor vertical variation of
facies. Though there is not enough chronostratigraphic resolution to estab-
lish the periodic or nonperiodic character of these short-term cycles, pri-
mary sequences are expected to be episodic rather than periodic, in the
same way as macrosequences, whose time distribution is very irregular
(Fig. 3). We believe that the primary sequences are related to short-term
volcanic events, such as eruptions, eruptive phases, and/or eruptive pulses
of Fisher and Schmincke (1984).
The established genetic sequence (Fig. 10) and the facies ratio and facies
thickness variations from proximal to distal settings (Fig. 8) permit us to
propose a model of lateral and vertical facies distribution for the Errigoiti

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 328 CASTAÑARES ET AL.

FIG. 8.—Relative abundance and thickness of facies constructed from measured sections in a proximal to distal order (see Figure 2 for reference numbers of the sections).
Two representative macrosequences (E-2 and E-3) and the entire Errigoiti Formation are shown.

volcanic system, shown in Figure 11. This model of facies distribution
reflects the set of eruptive processes summarized in Table 3 (stages A, B,
and C).
FACIES MODEL OF THE ERRIGOITI VOLCANIC SYSTEM
The lateral and vertical distribution of facies reflect the succession of
processes that took place during the consecutive stages of active volcanism
(Table 3). The volcanic products reflect the physicochemical properties of
magma, the tectonosedimentary environment, the rate of magma emission,
and water depth (Fig. 6). Lithofacies are distributed across the volcanic
system in a way strongly controlled by the tectonosedimentary conditions.
The main feeding zone is elongated NE–SW, parallel to the Bizkaigane
Fault, which separates two major tectonic blocks, the Sollube Block, with
only weak volcanism, and the Gernika Block, marked by strong volcanism
(Fig. 12). Within the Gernika Block, the outpouring of volcanic rocks de-
creases away from Bizkaigane Fault. Because this block is cut by minor
NE–SW faults creating sub-blocks that subsided progressively towards the
SE, together with their own volcanic buildup, a pronounced slope was
produced, which controlled the flow direction of lava and volcaniclastic
gravity movements.
Taking into account the facies distribution, three depositional environments
have been distinguished in the Errigoiti volcanic system: amalgamated pillow
volcanoes, scattered pillow volcanoes, and volcanic fringe (Fig. 12).
Amalgamated Pillow Volcanoes (APV).—This depositional environ-
ment, which occurs in the innermost areas of the volcanic system within
the northwestern part of the Gernika Block, is characterized by amalgam-
ation of pillow volcanoes (each individual volcano shows a moderate size;

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 THE SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION (ALBIAN–SANTONIAN)
FIG. 9.—Histogram showing frequency distribution of cycle types in the Errigoiti
Formation. 63 cycles (primary sequences) were established with the following as-
sumptions: (1) hemipelagic marls mark cycle boundaries, (2) SLs and PLs prefer-
entially start cycles because of their relation with high to moderate magma discharge
rates, (3) VC2s are cycle tops, and (4) cycles with only one component were not
considered. Only in cases with gradual transitions between PBs and PLs were com-
plex sequences considered.
Fig. 6), and is interpreted to be an area of abundant points of effusion,
high effusion rate, and long-lived continuity. Two areas within APV can
be distinguished: APV-1 and APV-2. The former shows high amalgamation
of pillow volcanoes associated with large accumulations of pillow breccias.
The characteristic facies association of this environment consists of PL and
PB1. More than one APV-1 zone can be developed along the APV. APV-
1 zones are interpreted as areas with the highest effusion rate and the
longest continuity in time. APV-2 zone is composed mainly of pillow vol-
canoes that are partially or totally capped by hydroclastic gravity-flow de-
posits (VC1), which comes from APV-1 zones. The characteristic facies
association is PL and VC1.
Scattered Pillow Volcanoes (SPV).—This depositional environment is
considered as the middle area of the volcanic system, where the vents are
statistically less important, both in number and in volume of magma emit-
ted. Pillow volcanoes developed in the SPV are isolated and dispersed. In
association with the slope, asymmetrical pillow volcanoes through true pil-
low lobes occur. This depositional environment is characterized mainly by
decameter-scale packages of pillow lavas that pinch out at hectometer scale.
The pillow lavas may be underlain by thin sheet lavas and/or associated
with PB2 and/or VC.
Volcanic Fringe (VF).—This depositional environment occurs in the
most distal areas of the volcanic system. This zone is characterized by
smooth relief and very scattered occurrence of vents, mainly with deposi-
tion of expansive lava flows coming both through local feeding dikes and
from the SPV zone and, in very favorable cases, from the APV zone.
Conversely, volcaniclastic material mainly comes from APV-1 zones. This
depositional environment is characterized by deposits of SL and VC. The
scarce pillow lavas of these zones are due to marginal and frontal evolution
of sheet lavas, with development of intermediate facies between sheet lava
and pillow lava (cf. Hargreaves and Ayres 1979). VC3 facies occur in the
vicinity of the talus area of the middle settings.
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329
FIG. 10.—Genetic composite sequence model for Errigoiti-type eruptions.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The Errigoiti volcanic system developed in an extensional tectonic set-
ting linked to the counterclockwise rotation of the Iberian microplate with
respect to the European plate. This extensional episode is related to sea-
floor spreading in the Bay of Biscay. In spite of the large number of studies
of plate kinematics between the European and Iberian plates, the precise
tectonic evolution of the Basque–Cantabrian basin remains controversial.
The paucity of magnetostratigraphic events within the Cretaceous Magnetic
Quiet Zone does not allow reconstruction of plate motion during the most
critical stages of Bay of Biscay spreading. Although some studies defend
a scissors-type opening, with a pole of rotation along or nearby the Pyre-
nean Chain (e.g., Masson and Miles 1984; Sibuet and Collette 1991), most
plate kinematic models point to left-lateral strike-slip movements between
the Iberian and European plates along the North Pyrenean Fault, with a
pole of rotation situated in northern France (e.g., Le Pichon et al. 1971;
Choukroune et al. 1972; Olivet 1996). This model implies the development
of WNW–ESE left-lateral transform faults leading to a NW–SE extensional
stress field and the development of pull-apart basins (Peybernès and Sou-
quet 1984; Garcı́a-Mondéjar 1989).
Volcanic modern analogs to Errigoiti volcanic system, developed in
comparable paleogeographic and geodynamic settings, are not well docu-
mented. Despite some dissimilarities, the ancient Errigoiti volcanics and
the modern Gulf of California volcanism (i.e., the last 10 Ma; Gastil et al.
1979) might have occurred in a similar geodynamic context and environ-
mental setting. The Gulf of California is associated with the lateral dis-
placement of a detached continental microplate (Baja California peninsula)
with respect to the North American plate. Relative motion between both
plates leads to oblique divergence, and eventually to intracontinental incip-
ient sea-floor spreading in pull-apart basins at the center of the Gulf of
California (Guaymas basin type; Einsele 1986). In the axial part of these
pull-apart basins (20 to 80 km wide), tholeiitic basalts form at depths rang-
ing from 2000 to 3000 m (Einsele 1986), while alkali basalts occur on the
Baja California peninsula (San Borja-Jaraguay sector; Gastil et al. 1979,
Paz Moreno and Demant 1999). The Errigoiti volcanics are of alkali com-
position and formed at moderate depths (ca. 1000 m depth), over a thinned
continental crust, so they can be considered, petrologically, submarine
equivalents of the San Borja-Jaraguay alkali basalts, and are probably sim-
ilar to some of the volcanoes detected on thinned continental crust of the
Gulf of California (offshore Santa Rosalı́a; Fabriol et al. 1999). Thus, dif-
ferences between the tholeiitic basalts of Guaymas basin and the alkali
basalts of Errigoiti might be related to differences in the stage of basin
evolution. The Errigoiti volcanism might correspond to an earlier, initial
rifting stage, whereas modern Guaymas basin volcanism represents a later,
more evolved rifting stage, when oceanization is occurring and tholeiitic
character starts to prevail.
 330 CASTAÑARES ET AL.

FIG. 11.—Lateral and vertical facies

distribution model for the Errigoiti Formation. It
is represented a standard short-term volcanic
event. Note the lateral variation of different
vertical facies evolutions from proximal (left) to
distal (right); PL–PB and PL–PB–VC in
proximal settings, evolving to SL–PL–PB–VC,
SL–PL–VC and PL–VC in medials and, finally,
to SL–VC and PL–VC in distals. Certainly,
complete SL–PL–PB–VC sequences would
develop only in very favorable cases.

TABLE 3.—Syn- and post-volcanic processes of an Errigoiti-type eruption.

Stages Processes Conditions Products

Stage 0 Magma rises within the sedimentary pile. Basement fractures that allow (under local disten- Intrusives
Occasionally, development of shallow irregular in- sive conditions) the ascent of magma; these Peperites
trusions with associated domed morphologies in faults have their prolongations in the sedimenta- Debrites
the sea floor. Peperitization associated with local ry pile to channel the magma towards the sea Slides
removal (slump, slide, erosion) of the thin sedi- floor. VC3
mentary cover, concluding with the opening of Shallow intrusions and peperitization require an
the vent. This opening can be triggered by a uppermost part of sedimentary pile to be uncon-
synvolcanic distensive tectonic pulsation. solidated, as it occurred at lower parts of the
macrosequences E-1 and E-5 (Castañares et al.
1998).
Stage A Onset of the submarine effusive eruption with de- Low viscosity, high temperature and high magma SL
velopment of SL flows. discharge rate, extrusion through an abundant Minor PL
Development of an efficient downslope transport network of wide and active vents and/or fis-
along depositional slopes, locally providing: sures.
- Formation of pillow lava deposits in the front The longitudinal expansion can eventually be ac-
and marginal zones of sheet flows. centuated if extrusion occurs in a topographical-
- Megapillow tubes that feed relatively distal pil- ly elevated area.
low volcanoes.
Stage B Substitution of SL flows by PL flows, with wide- Lower emission rate, arrival of more porphyric PL
spread development. and, therefore, more viscous magma, gradual PB2
PB facies also occur, preferentially along the steep closing of the vents.
slopes of pillow lava bodies (PB2 facies). The widespread development of PL facies (up to 4
km) and the occurrence of thick PL bodies (up
to 90 m) suggest a ubiquitous distensive behav-
ior in the study area, more efficient in the prox-
imal settings.
Stage C In the vicinity of the vents, very thick hydroclastic High viscosity and a low magma discharge rate, PB1
deposits (i.e., hyaloclasts and vesiculated hydro- perhaps through few active vents. VC1
clasts) are developed by strong magma-water
interaction, essentially forming PB1 facies.
These hydroclastic accumulations are very un-
steady, which favors early reworking by sedi-
ment gravity flows driven by slope instability,
yielding VC1 facies. It is envisaged that VC1
occurs as new PB1 facies are simultaneously
developed.
Volcanic quiescence VC2 and VC3 deposition related to the reworking No volcanic activity. VC2
by gravity flows of the preceding deposits, both VC3
volcanic and non-volcanic. Turbidites
Turbidite and hemipelagic sedimentation overlaps Pelagites
the volcanic deposits. This replacement is pro- Hiatus
gressive from deeper areas where volcanic bod-
ies pinch out, to more elevated areas, i.e., proxi-
mal volcanic settings, displaying onlap features.
In many cases, the stages of volcanic quies-
cence are represented by nondeposition in the
more proximal volcanic settings, spanning in
some cases hiatuses resolvable with biostrati-
graphic data.

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 THE SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SYSTEM OF THE ERRIGOITI FORMATION (ALBIAN–SANTONIAN) 331

FIG. 12.—Facies model of the Errigoiti volcanic system. A) Depositional environments (circled numbers: related roughly to locations of the sections; see Figure 2 for
reference of the numbers). B) Facies distribution, illustrating an intermediate stage of an eruptive episode, when the sheet and pillow flows have formed and the hyaloclastic
and hydroclastic materials are being produced (Table 3). At the end of the eruptive episode, the PB facies has accumulated in the main-vent flanks and the hydroclastic/
hyaloclastic gravity flow deposits (VC1) are being spread over all volcanic settings. C) Sketch map showing the paleogeographic setting of the Errigoiti Formation for late
Albian (modified from Vicente Bravo and Robles 1995). D) Three main possibilities for the generation of the vesiculated hydroclastites of the Errigoiti Formation.

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 332 CASTAÑARES ET AL.
In this scenario, the Errigoiti volcanic system was active during five
short, irregularly distributed eruptive epochs (Fisher and Schmincke 1984)
that occurred between longer periods of quiescence from late Albian to
Santonian. Each eruptive epoch produced volcanic macrosequences tens to
hundreds of meters thick composed of shorter-term volcanic episodes rep-
resented by primary sequences. These sequences exhibit a stacking pattern
represented by the facies succession: sheet lavas (SL), pillow lavas (PL),
pillow breccias (PB), and volcaniclast gravity-flow deposits (VC). This
genetic sequence reflects an upward waning of magma discharge associated
with gradual closing of the vents.
The Errigoiti volcanic system shows three depositional environments,
amalgamated pillow volcanoes, scattered pillow volcanoes, and volcanic
fringe, which reflect a proximal-to-distal evolution from a PL/PB facies
association to a PL/VC facies association and, finally, to a SL/VC facies
association.
Facies types and size of pillow volcanoes of the Errigoiti Formation are
comparable to other submarine volcanic systems located in oceanic spread-
ing ridges and seamounts, strengthening our proposal that this model of
facies distribution be used as a reference model for those submarine vol-
canic environments generally. The Errigoiti Formation is somewhat unusu-
al, however, because it contains a larger amount of unconsolidated hemi-
pelagic and turbidite sediments. This uniqueness favored the development
of shallow intrusives and associated peperites at the initial stage of some
eruptive episodes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Funding for this research was provided by the Basque Government research pro-
jects 97/11 and 99/8 (jointly financed with the Sociedad de Hidrocarburos de Eus-
kadi, SHESA) and was also developed through the project 2178 of the Fundació
Bosch i Gimpera (Universitat de Barcelona). P. Ballance and F.L. Schwab are
thanked for their constructive reviews.
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Received 19 April 1999; accepted 7 August 2000.