Summary Psychology For Allied Health Lecture 1 12 Tutorial Work 1 12 PDF

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Summary - Psychology for Allied Health - lecture 1-12, tutorial

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Psychology for Allied Health (Australian Catholic University)
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ALHT106 NOTES: PSCYCHOLOGY FOR ALLIED HEALTH EXAM PREP
WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

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Introduction to Psychology:
 Psychology Definition: A science dedicated to the study of the human mind,
behaviour and mental processes.
 Understanding a person requires attention to the individual’s:
o Biology
o Psychological Experience
o Cultural Context
 Three particular concepts: Science, behaviour (actions that we can directly
observe) and mental processes (the experiences that we can’t directly
observe - thoughts and feelings)
 Psychologists use scientific methods to observe, describe, predict (based on
interventions) and explain behaviours and mental processes.
 William Wundt - first psychological laboratory in 1879
o Hoped to use scientific methods to uncover elementary units of
human consciousness that form more complex ideas.
o Foremost method - Introspection
 Structuralism and Functionalism - Two schools of thought that dominated
psychology in its earliest years.
o Structuralism (Theoretical) - emphasising conscious thought and
classification of the mind structurally. (Edward Titchener 1847-1927)
 Attempted to uncover basic elements of consciousness
through introspection.
o Functionalism (Applied) - what is the function of the mind, why do we
have these thought processes (William James 1842-1910)
 Attempted to explain psychological processes interns of the
role or function they serve.
Contemporary Psychology Perspectives:
There are 5 contemporary psychology perspectives:

 Psychodynamic
 Behaviourist
 Humanistic
 Cognitive
 Evolutionary
Psychodynamic Perspective: Freud

 Proposes that people’s actions reflect the way thoughts, feelings and wishes
are associated in their minds; that many of these processes are unconscious
and that mental processes can conflict with one another, leading to
compromises among competing motives.
 It explores the role of unconscious influences on how we think and act.
 I.e. Early life experiences were considered important determinants in adult
psychology.
Key ideas:

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 People’s actions are determined by the way thoughts, feelings and wishes are
connected in their mind.
 Many mental events occur outside conscious awareness
 Mental processes may conflict with one another, leading to compromises
among competing motives.
 Freud emphasised unconscious mental forces in his psychoanalytic theory.
 According to psychoanalytic theory, many of the associations between
feelings and behaviours or situations that guide out behaviours are expressed
unconsciously/
Methodology:
 Case Study
 Observe thoughts
 feeling and actions
Behaviourist Perspective:
Focus: The way objects or event in the environment come to control behaviour
through learning.
 Focuses on the relationship between external (environmental) events and
observable behaviours.
 Skinner observed that the behaviour of organisms can be controlled by
environmental consequences that increase (reinforce) or decrease (punish)
their likelihood of occurring.
Some key figures:

 Pavlov
 Watson
 Skinner
Methodology:
 Experimental
o Entails framing a hypothesis about the way certain environmental
events will affect behaviour and then creating a laboratory situation
to test that hypothesis.
 Empiricism
o The belief that the path to scientific knowledge is systematic
observation and ideally experimental observation - used to study the
relationship between environmental events and behaviour.
Humanistic Perspective:
Focus: whole person, uniqueness of each individual - it assumes that people are
innately good and will almost always choose adaptive, goal-directed and self-
actualising behaviours.
 Emphasise the central role of consciousness in shaping our behaviours,
assuming personal experience is a powerful medium for people to become

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more self-aware and self-directed.
Key figures:
 **Maslow
 **Rogers
o Both emphasised the importance of self-actualisation: the idea that
people are motivated to reach their full potential
Methodology:
 Client Centred Therapy
o Relies on the therapist showing empathy.
o Behaviour can be modified by helping people to consciously and
deliberately set self-actualising goals
 Rejected rigorous scientific approach
Cognitive Perspective:
Focus: how people perceive, process and retrieve information and how this leads to
responses.
 Interested in how memory works, how people solve problems and make
decisions and similar questions
 Thinking is information processing: the environment provides input, which
are transformed, stored and retrieved using various mental “programs”,
leading to specific response outputs.
Example Researchers:
 Baddeley: working memory model

 McCelland J.L. & Rumelhart, D.E. (1981) - word recognition model
 Methodology: Experimental.
Evolutionary Perspective:
Focus: the adaptive aspects of our psychology, how adapting to our environment has
shaped behaviours and mental processes.
 Argues that many behavioural tendencies in humans evolved as they helped
our ancestors survive and rear health offspring.
Basis: Darwin, natural selection, adaptive traits.
Methodology:
 Deductive
o Begin with an observation of something that already exists in nature
and arty to explain it with logical arguments.
 Comparison
 Increasingly using Experimental Method

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Subdisciplines in Psychology:
• Biopsychology: Physical basis of psychological phenomena such as memory,
emotion and stress. Aim to link mind and body and psyche and brain.
• Developmental Psych: Studies the way that thought, feeling and behaviour
develop through across life span, from infancy to death
• Social Psychology: examines interactions of individual psychology and group
phenomena, examines the influences of real or imagined others on the way
people behave.
• Clinical Psychology: Focuses on the nature land treatment of psychological
processes that lead to emotional distress.
• Cognitive Psychology: examines the nature of though, memory, sensation
perception and language.
• Personality Psychology: examines people;s enduring ways of responding in
different kinds of situations and how individuals differ in the way they tend to
think, feel and behave.
• Industrial/Organisation Psychology: examines behaviour of individual’s in
organisations and their attempts to solve organisation problems.
• Educational Psychology: examines Psychology processes in learning and
applies psychological knowledge in education settings.
• Health Psychology: examines Psychology factors involved in health and
disease.
• Counselling Psychology: provides Diagnosis, assessment, short and long term
counselling and therapy to individual’s, couples, families, groups and
organisations.
• Sport Psychology: focuses on ways to enhance Performance in athletes.
• Forensic Psychology: provides services in criminal, civil and family legal
matters relevant to Prevention and treatment of criminal behaviour.

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• Conservation Psychology: studying the Reciprocal relationships between

humans and nature, with a focus on changing attitudes and behaviours to
encourage conservation of the environment.
Research:
Characteristics of Scientific Psychological Research

◦ Theoretical framework:
o A Systematic way of organising and explain observations
o Hypothesis that flows form the theory or from an important question.
o A Theory: is a systematic way of organising or explaining
observations, which includes a set of propositions or statements
about the relationships among various phenomena
◦ Standardised procedures
o Procedure that expose all participants in a study to as similar
procedures as possible except there variation is introduced to test a
hypothesis.
◦ Generalisability
o a study must be both internal validity ( a valid design) and external
validity (applicability to situations outside the laboratory)
o Must have a sample that is representative of the population.
◦ Objective Measurement
o Reliability - produces consistent results
o Validity - accurately assesses the construct it is intended to measure.
o Repetition
Evidenced Based Practice - Different Research Methods

o Using empirical methodology to gain knowledge
o Three types of broad research:
 Experimental
 manipulate some aspect of a situation (independent
variable) and examine the impact on the way
participants response (the dependent variable) to
assess cause and effect.
 Descriptive
 describes phenomena as they already exist rather than
manipulating variables. Cannot unambiguously
establish causation
 Correlational
 assesses the degree to which two variables are related
(does not necessarily imply causation)

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WEEK 2: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOURAL ANALYSIS #1
Learning: A durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience. The

acquisition and modification of knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, attitudes and
behaviours. Includes linguistic, social and motor skills.
Learning theories: Provide a conceptual framework to explain what is known about

learning. These can assist with practical problems to solutions.
Theories:
Constructivist paradigm: One constructs ones own learning. Whether this is through
day-to-day experiences, further reading
Humanistic: “Whole person” approach. Involves both objective observation and self-
report.
Social: Observation of societal norms.
Experiential: Learning through action. Similar to constructivist but is solely action
based, learning through experiences.
Blended: Mixed modality of learning.
Connectivism: Emphasises the role of social and cultural context in which learning
takes place and the connections between them. EG. Connection of theoretical work
and practical work.
Multiple intelligences: Everyone has different weaknesses and strengths of learning
ability in different areas, e.g. Verbal/ linguistic VS numerical VS ‘logic smart’….
Technology: Using technology for learning.
Main two theories:
Behaviourist paradigm & Cognitive paradigm
PAVLOV:
Classical Conditioning: “A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity
to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.” Based on
Pavlov’s work around 1900. Pavlov demonstrated that dogs would salivate pre-
emptively when tones consistent with food presentation were played. Eventually
food was removed and only tone played and dogs would still salivate.
NB: UCS - unconditioned stimulus, I.E. a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned

response w/o previous conditioning
UCR - unconditioned response, an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus
that occurs without previous conditioning
CS - conditioned stimulus, a previously neutral stimulus that has through
conditioning acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
CR- conditioned response, learned reaction due to conditioning.
NS- neutral stimulus
Conditioned responses are often weaker or less intense.

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Implications: Conditioned and unconditioned stimuli can pair to obtain a conditioned

response. This can be used to change behaviour.
Extinction: Extinction of a CS can occur if the CS is presented w/o US, the CR will
gradually disappear.
Implication: Behaviour can be changed by ceasing the pairing of CS and US.
Spontaneous Recovery: A CR will reappear after a rest period even after CS (no US)
pairings.
Implications: Think behaviour has ceased but it can return- this is not unusual. It is
important to warn clients that this isn’t a set back/ unusual in terms of therapy.
Stimulus generalisation: A CR to one CS seems to generalise to closely related

stimuli. EG. Pavlov was able to use similar bells to illicit salivation.
Implication: Not every skill/behaviour necessarily needs to be taught.
Discrimination to CS: After teaching a CR subsequent pairings of different CS can

result in specific CR. So only CS matching the original CS elicit response.
Implication: Specific responses can be taught.
2nd order conditioning: Add a 2nd CS to 1st CS and eventually CS2 can be used as a
single stimulus.
Counter conditioning: Pair a stimulus that elicits fear w a stimulus that elicits
positive emotion. Eg giving kids lollipops when they need injections, produces overall
positive emotional response.
Implication: Can replace one response to a stimulus with another.
WATSON: Expanded on Pavlov’s work to demonstrate that emotional reactions

could be classically conditioned in people. ( subject was a child called ‘little albert’
and conditioned fear)
Implication: Negative responses can be conditioned in people to previously neutral
or positive stimuli (therefore counterconditioning may be required in allied health)

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OPERANT CONDITIONING:
SKINNER: very much believed in ‘nurture’ (rather than nature).
Learner is passive, skills are acquired via influences of the environment. And all
behaviour is learned behaviour. (EG. language is on the same level as learning to ride
a bike)
Antecedent -> behaviour -> consequence.
Consequences drive behaviour
Changing behaviour
Reinforcement: An event, which strengthens or maintains behaviour that it

consistently follows.
Positive reinforcement: applies a stimulus, adding something to increase behaviour

eg giving stickers for goo behaviour.
Negative reinforcement: Removal of a stimulus, taking something away to increase
behaviour I.E. taking away a negative stimulus to increase good behaviour. Eg if
nagging stops once desired behaviour is demonstrated.
Punishment: decreases the frequency of undesirable behaviour.

Positive punishment: Adding a stimulus to decrease behaviour, eg a dog growls to
stop a person touching it.
Negative punishment: Loss of something for particular behaviours, this can lead to
extinction. Eg child’s dessert is taken away for bad behaviour.
Types of reinforcement:
Intrinsic VS extrinsic: IE - self fulfillment VS reinforcement outside the activity. Eg

being pleased with having a clean room, so room is cleaned VS getting paid to clean
room to achieve clean room.
Primary VS secondary: 1er are unconditioned eg sleep, food, air, water. 2eme are
arbitrary and the concept of reward must be introduced. Eg. Asking for food and
getting it VS introducing stickers as a reward system.
Artificial VS naturally occurring: Eg praise every time a good behaviour occurs

(unnatural) VS praise normally used.
Natural, logical and arbitrary: Eg Natural- read a book for the good story and enjoy
reading. Arbitrary- read book despite aversion to reading to get paid for reading.
Logical- small reinforcements.
Categories of reinforces:
Tangible
Consumable
Social- high5, smile, hug, praise

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Activity - engage in an activity after less preferred activity is completed (work before
play)
Token - receive tokens as reward
Intrinsic - self-reward
Factors Influencing Reinforcer Effectiveness:
Deprivation: 1 will work harder for reward if it hasn’t been given for a while
Satiation: If same reward always given consistently, no need to work for it.
Immediacy: reinforcement needs to happen straight away, not effective after the
fact.
Amount: How often
Schedule and concurrent schedule.
Reinforcement Schedules:
Continuous- reinforce all correct responses
Extinction- reinforce no instances of response
Intermittent - reinforce some correct responses
Fixed response- eg reinforcement every 5th time or every 12th time
Fixed interval- e.g. after every 5 or 10 or 15 minutes
Variable ratio - every 5th, then 3rd then 6th then….
Variable interval- every5 mins then every 3 then every 6..
**Variable often more effective**
Shaping:
1. Specify behavioural objective
2. Specify starting behaviour
3. Sequence of learning steps
4. Find a reinforcer
5. Start training on first step
6. Decide when to advance
7. Backtrack if necessary
8. Repeat step 6 & & until behavioural objective is achieved
9. Intermittent reinforcement
Prompting and fading:

Prompting- presenting prompts to induce behaviour
Fading- weaning an individual off prompts by gradually reducing strength and
frequency of prompts
Prompts can be physical, visual, auditory or a combination.
Chaining: Linking behaviours together to achieve whole skill. I.E. breaking skills down
into small steps. Can be forward or backward. I.E. starting at 1st step or starting at
last. Backward chaining can be more rewarding intrinsically.

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Weakening behaviour:
Extinction: withholding a reinforcer for a previously reinforced response to cause a

decline in the level of that response. Eg ignoring a child’s bad behaviour
• There is often and initial temporary increase in the level and intensity of the
undesired behaviour
• Increased frequency of emotional behaviours such as aggression and annoyance.
NB parents/carers need to be warned of this expected response
Differential reinforcement:
• Incompatible behaviour: reinforce behaviours that are physically incompatible

with undesired target behaviour. Eg reinforce sitting down if standing is
undesired.
• Alternative behaviour: an alternative behaviour that isn’t necessarily incompatible.
• Other behaviour: reinforce anything but the undesired behaviour. Reinforcement
is only given when the undesired behaviour is not shown for a specified
period of time
• Low rates: Reinforcer given after specified period of time where undesired
behaviour occurred at a specified low rate.
Punishment:
• Simple correction: results of inappropriate behaviour must be corrected.

• Overcorrection: results of inappropriate behaviour must be corrected and correct
behaviour must be practiced again.
• Restitution: required to restore situation to vastly improved state.
• Time out from positive reinforcement eg time out can be exclusionary or non
exclusionary eg in another room or time out within the same room.
• Response cost: withhold already held reinforces
Allied health
Workers can manipulate a stimulus, an individual’s response and their own response
(reinforcement)
Premack response: The opportunity to engage in high probability behaviour

(Preferred activity) may be used to reinforce lower probability behaviour (less
preferred activity)
Thorndike: (pre skinner) Stimulus -> response

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Law of effect - pleasant consequences lead to repetition unpleasant to cessation of

behaviours
Law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained to achieve goal.
Law of exercise - connections are strengthened with practice, and weakened w/o
practice.
NB - Taste aversion to stimuli is a visceral response and doesn’t fit within the realms
of classical conditioning.
We are more susceptible to certain phobias as we are ‘prepared’ for them as they
posed legitimate threats to ancestors eg snakes, spiders, heights, darkness, whereas
arguable more dangerous things eg guns, electrical shock etc. are harder to
condition fear to as we are not predisposed to this.

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WEEK 3: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOURAL ANALYSIS #2
Social Learning Theory
Three concepts are at the centre of social learning theory:

 Learning through observation
 Internal mental states (essential part of process)
 Learning does not necessarily result in a behaviour change
Albert Bandura (1977) states that: behaviour is learned from the environment through the
process of observational learning. Bandura believed humans are actively processing
information in relation to their behaviour and the consequences. The models within a child’s
environment (masculine, feminine, pro, anti-social) provide examples of behaviour which
the child will then observe and imitate.
1. Children encode the behaviour they observe and later imitate this behaviour.
However due to their stage of cognition they are often unable to evaluate the
appropriateness of their behaviour – eg gender appropriate. A child is more likely to
imitate those which it perceives are similar to itself, this is why they tend to model
those of the same sex.
2. The individuals around the child will respond to their behaviour by either punishing
or reinforcing it. If behaviour is rewarded, a child is more likely to continue this
behaviour and thus her behaviour has been reinforced, or strengthened. However if
the response is negative, the child will be less likely to continue in this behaviour
3. The child will observe the results of other’s behaviour in their cognitive process
when deciding whether or not to copy this behaviour. This is viscarious
reinforcement
Reinforcement may be internal (intrinsic), external (extrinsic), positive, or negative.

Internal – from within the individual eg postitive self talk
External – from outside the individual eg response from parents
Definitions:
Models - Individuals who are observed (parents, TV, peers, teachers etc)
Imitation - Copying a single behaviour
Identification - Observing many different behaviour patterns
Broader View – Learning occurs within the social sphere and context of:
 Family and experience – positive or negative, will influence their view on family life and
normality
 Peer Groups – individual’s ability to interact in a group in a socially acceptable manner
 Community groups – such as churches, political groups, charity groups, interests
Bandura – Bobo Doll Experiment

 A study to investigate is social behaviours can be acquired through imitation
Method:
 24 Children watched an adult behave aggressively towards a blow up toy
 Another 24 children were exposed to non aggressive behaviour towards the doll
 A further 24 were not exposed to ay model at all

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Stage 1
The children were showed their specific model
Stage 2
All children were subjected to ‘mild arousal’  A child was taken into a room with toys, as
they began to play with them the experimenter told the child that these toys were the best
ones and had to be reserved for other children
Stage 3
 The next rooms had some aggressive toys (blow up mallet, dart guns, bobo doll) and
some non aggressive toys (tea set, plastic farm, crayons).
 The child was left for 20 mins and their behaviour was observed through a one way
mirror. Observations were taken every 5 seconds
Results
 Children observed aggressive models acted far more aggressively towards the toys
than those in the non aggressive groups
 Girls in the aggressive model conditions also showed more physical aggression if
their model was male. If their model was female the aggression was more verbal
 Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls
 Boys acted more physically aggressive than girls
 Verbal aggression was similar between groups
Conclusion:
 The findings support Bandura’a Social Learning Theory
 Children learn social behaviour such as aggression through observational learning –
watching someone else
 Implications for the effect of media violence on children
Implications for health professionals

 Promoting positive roles in families
 Give family members active, positive roles
 Use small groups to encourage participation
 Use mixed ability groups
 Protect from public failure
 Treat errors as learning opportunities

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Cognitive Learning
Cognitism is a theory which attempts to answer how and why people learn by attributing the
process to cognitive activity. The conflict between cognitivists and behaviouralists that
observable behaviour does not take into account what is happening in an individual’s mind
at the time of the action.
 Focuses on perception, memory and concept formation
Implications for health professions

 Think of WHY someone cannot complete a task
o Cognitive factors – language, expression, understanding
 Memory issues
o Short or long term, working memory
 Processing speed
 Literacy issues
 Numeracy issues
 Motivation
 Personality
Definitions:
Experiential – learning through action, learning by doing, or experience
Constructivism – Explains how people might acquire knowledge
Piaget – origin of intelligence

 Intelligence is seen to evolve with physical maturity and experience
 3 Fundamental principles
o Equilibrium
o Organisation
o Adaptation
 Implications:
o Create disequilibrium to challenge the client
o Encourage problem solving skills
o Provide physical, interactive materials to work with

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Vygotsky – zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Implication:
 Guided learning
 Scaffolding – provide appropriate
support
Personal Learning Theories

Learning Style Description
Deep Learning Develop real
understanding
Surface Learning Learning just enough to
pass task
Strategic Learning Deliberate surface
learning – learn for
exam eg
Behaviour Change
5 Stages of behaviour change:
1. Precontemplation
2. Contemplation
3. Preparation
4. Actiong
5. Maintenance or termination

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WEEK 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Sensation - process by which body gathers information from environment &

transmits to brain for initial processing
3 basic principles across all senses

1. No one-to-one correspondence physical:psychological reality (think optical
illusions)
2. Active processes – external energy conversion into internal representation
3. Adaptive – facilitate survival/reproduction
5 common features to sensory systems

1. Detection of environment energy (sound waves, light waves, vibrations)
2. Transduction – receptors convert environmental energy → neural impulse
3. Threshold – min energy of physical stimulus for detection – sensitivity to
stimulus & decision process
4. Decision – did I hear/feel/see something?
5. Sensitivity to changes in stimulation level – constant stimuli ignored (no new
information)
Light – electromagnetic energy – visible light 400-700 nanometres

Vision. Light enters through pupil, is focused by cornea & lens to form sharp image
of object on retina
Eye anatomy:
Pupil: The opening through which reflected light enters the eye
Cornea: Transparent focusing element of the eye – the first structure light passes
through
Lens: Transparent focusing element of the eye which light passes through
Retina: Network of cells covering the inside back of the eye, including receptors
Where the image falls on the

retina
when we look at an object
Visual receptors:
Cones – small and tapered – sensitive to colour – found in fovea (6 million)

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Rods – large and cylindrical – motion sensitive - found in periphery along with cones
– (approx. 120 million).
Neural pathway
Rods & cones → bipolar cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve → LGN → Primary
Visual Cortex
LGN = Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of THALAMUS
Primary Visual Cortex in Occipital Lobe
2 processing streams
What (ventral) – object identification
Where (dorsal) – position, movement
Colour vision – 3 types of cones – respond to different wavelengths
Theories – trichromatic – retina receptors stimulated to different degrees by
different colours
Opponent-process – visual cortex derives colour from contrasting colour-pairs
Hearing
Sound caused by pressure waves – has pitch (frequency in Hertz), complexity (multi
frequency) & amplitude (loudness in decibels)
Ear anatomy
Outer ear – pinna & auditory canal – collects and magnifies sounds
Middle ear – tympanic membrane (eardrum) & ossicles (hammer/anvil/stirrup) –
converted to mechanical vibration
Inner ear – cochlea & semicircular canals – transduction of vibration to neural signal.
Transduction in hearing
Movement in stirrup creates pressure change in cochlea which leads to movement
which results in cilia of inner hair cells (inside cochlea) bending on their basilar
membrane which triggers action potentials in sensory neurons in the auditory nerve.

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Neural pathway
Transmitted along auditory nerve to auditory cortex of temporal lobe.
Sound localisation – time delay between ears, and different loudness at each ear.
Head = sound barrier
Other senses
Olfaction
Function: identify danger (smoke, bad food)
Stimulus: gas molecules
Receptors: in olfactory epithelium in nose
Pathway: olf. receptor → olf. nerve → olf. bulb → primary olf. cortex (deep in frontal
lobe)
Taste
Function: avoid toxic substances, regulate nutrient intake
Stimulus: saliva-soluble chemicals
Receptors: papillae (tastebuds)
Pathway: to Medulla & Pons then to gustatory complex (identification:
sweet/sour/salty/bitter) or limbic system (memory, emotion, perception)
Touch
Function: avoid injury, identify objects, social interaction, temp regulation
Stimulus: temperature, pressure, pain
Pain influenced by cultural beliefs, emotions, personality
Proprioception
Vestibular – position of body by sensing gravity and movement
Kinesthesia – where limbs are in relation to other body parts
Perception
Perception – organising sensations into meaningful patterns

Gestalt psychologists – perception not directly from sensations but by grouping
Perceptual Organisation
• Figure-ground perception (determining foreground and background)
• Similarity – group objects that are similar
• Proximity – group objects close to one another
• Good continuation – continuous lines (ie. . . . . . perceived as ______)
• Simplicity – perceive simplest pattern possible
• Closure – perceive incomplete figures as complete
Depth Perception
Binocular cues – slightly different image from each eye.
Monocular cues:
• Interposition – object obscuring another
• Elevation – objects further away appear higher up toward horizon

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• Texture gradient – coarser at close range, densely packed at distance

• Linear perspective - || lines appear to converge in distance
• Aerial perspective – further away appears fuzzier
• Familiar size – assume object usual size – small = distant
• Relative size – two people similar size – smaller image is further away
Perceptual Constancy
• Colour – perceived as stable even under different light levels
• Shape – perceive same shape even if viewed from diff angle
• Size – perceive same size even if view from diff distances
Bottom-up processing: based on incoming stimuli from environment vs

Top-down processing: based on perceiver’s knowledge.

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WEEK 5: INTELLIGENCE AND MEMORY
Three Key Process of Memory

1. Encoding – forming a memory cod
2. Storage – maintaining encoded information over time
3. Retrieval – recovering information from memory stores
Encoding: Forming a Memory Code

 Active encoding plays a crucial role in memory
 Core aspects of memory – paying attention to information in order to encode it (no
attention no memory)
 Attention: focusing awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or events
 Attention is likened to a filter that screens out most stimuli Cognitive load influences
location of attention filter – depends on what you’re engaged in depends on what
sort of information you will pick up on
 Divided attention reduces memory performance (Craik)
Levels of Processing
 Structural Encoding: Minimal level - Looking at a word and determining if it is in
capital letters
 Phonemic Encoding: Middle level - Does the word rhyme?
 Semantic Encoding: Deepest level - Can the word fit in the sentence?
Levels of Processing
 The deeper you process information, the longer the memory encodes (longer lasting
memory codes) Craik
 Semantic encoding, have to encode the meaning of the word which requires a
deeper level of processing, influences capacity to remember it
Improving Encoding and Memory

 Semantic encoding can be enhanced by elaboration – linking stimulus to other
information at the time of encoding
 The creation of visual images to represent words can enrich encoding
 Memory greater for material that is self-relevant
 The higher the motivation to remember at the time of encoding, the greater the
recall
Storage: maintaining coded information over time

Different memory stores:
1. Sensory Memory – memory for sensory stimuli
2. Short term memory - processed
3. Long term memory - storage
Sensory Memory
 Preserves information in it’s original memory form
 For a brief time <1 second
 Iconic memory – a momentary sensory memory of visual information
 Echoic memory – a momentary sensory memory of auditory information
 Can remember 4-5 of 12 items
Short Term Memory

 Limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for 10-20 seconds

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 Rehearsal, the proves of repetitively verbalising, or thinking about information

maintains information in short term memory
Working Memory
 Alan Baddeley has proposed a more complex model of STM, which characterised
short term memory as working memory
Baddeley’s Model
Phonological Loop
 Equivalent to STM in previous models
 Essentially about rehearsing information
Visuospatial Sketchpad
 Enables people to hold and manipulate visual images
 E.g. map out a route to travel home in your mind
Central Executive
 Controls allocation, switching and dividing of attention
 Coordinated action of other components
Episodic Buffer
 Temporary, limited capacity store that allows components of working memory to
integrate information
 Serves as an interface between working memory and long term memory
 The concept of working memory still contains the two characteristics that defined
short tern memory – limited capacity and storage duration
Long Term Memory

 Long term memory is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information
indefinitely
Flashbulb Memory
 Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of the circumstances in which people
learned about momentous, newsworthy events
 ‘Do you remember where you were when this occurred’
Issues with Permanency of LTM

Remarkable memories activated by EBS
 Involved major distortions or factual impossibilities
Flashbulb memories
 Become less detailed overtime and often inaccurate
 Distinct from other memories as people subjectively feel they are vivid and attach
more emotional intensity to them
 No conclusive evidence that memories are stored forever and forgetting is merely a
retrieval failure
Knowledge in Memory
How is knowledge represented in memory?
 Clustering - People spontaneously organise information into categories for storage
in memory (Bousfield, 1953)
 Conceptual hierarchies - Factual information is thought to be organised into
conceptual hierarchies
 Schemas - an organised cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event
abstracted fro previous experience with the object or event

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 Semantic networks - A semantic network consists of nodes representing concepts,

jointed together by pathways that link related concepts
Retrieval: recovering information from memory store

Retrieval Cues
 Retrieval cues are stimuli that helps you gain access to memories
 The richer the retrieval cue, the easier it is to remember
Context Effect
 Recall better when encoding and retrieval have the same context
 Mood-dependent memory
 Same mood when info was encoded, it is considered easier to retrieve
Forgetting
Why do we forget?
Ineffective coding
 Failure of encoding typically due to lack of attention (pseudoforgetting)
 Level of processing influences the extent to which material if forgotten
Decay
 Decay theory attributes forgetting to the impermanence of memory storage
 Memory traces fade overtime
Interference
 Interference theory proposes that people forget information because of competition
from other material
 2 Kinds
1. Retroactive interference – occurs when new information impairs the
retention of previously learned information
2. Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes
with the retention of new information
Retrieval Failure
Why does an effort to retrieve something fail on one occasion and succeed on another?
 Encoding specificity principle – the value of retrieval cue depends on how well it
corresponds to the memory code
 Transfer appropriate processing – occurs when the initial processing of information
is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention
Intelligence
 Functional – directed at solving problems or accomplishing a task
 Capacity for goal directed behaviour
 Involved application of cognitive skills and knowledge to learn, solve problems and
obtains ends that are valued by an individual or culture
Binet’s Scale
 Believed that intelligence is an individual’s performance on complex tasks of
memory, judgement and comprehension
 Mental age over chronological age x 100
Wechsler Intelligence Scales

 Attempted to remove the bias
 Distinguishes between verbal intelligence and non-verbal

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WEEK 6: MOTIVATION
Motives are the needs, wants, interests and desires that push people in certain
directions. It involves goal-directed behaviour.
 Distinguish among the different theoretical perspectives on motivation
Motivation has 2 components; what people want to do (the goals they pursue) and
how strongly they want to do it.
Psychodynamic Perspective
 Emphasises the biological basis of motivation
 Freud argued that we are motivated by internal tension states (drives) that
build up until satisfied
 Two basic drives:
1. Sex (love, lust, intimacy)
2. Aggression (control, mastery)
 Subsequent psychodynamic theorists argue for:
 Need for relatedness to others
 Need for self-esteem
Unconscious  Freud argued that a person can be unaware of their

motivation own motives for their behaviours
 Motivation can be unconscious (implicit) and
conscious (explicit) at the same time
 Unconscious motivation can be assessed using
projective tests in which a person is asked to
describe an ambiguous stimulus = Thematic
Apperception Test
Thematic Participants are shown a series of ambiguous images and
Apperception Test asked to create a story about each picture
 Current situation
 Thoughts and feelings of the characters
 Preceding events
 Outcome
Scoring
 The hero – the central character
 Need of the hero – needs, motives and desires of
the hero
 Identifying the Presses – environmental factors
influencing the needs of the hero (may be a person
or something inanimate)
 Themes – nature of interplay between the needs
and the presses, the emotion evoked and the
resolution
 Outcome – assessing whether the ending is happy
or unhappy and how it’s controlled by strengths of

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the hero and forces of the environment
Interpretation  Content is thought to reveal fantasies, wishes, inner

conflicts and view of the outside world
 Structure typically reflects the subjects feelings,
assumptions about the world, and underlying
attitude of optimism or pessimism
 The TAT is thought to measure psychological needs,
such as the need for:
 Power
 Achievement
 Affiliation
Thematic Apperception Test
 Motives coded from TAT are highly protective of
long-term behaviour patterns
 E.g number of times an individual’s stories express
themes of achievement is predictive long term
business success
Implicit and Explicit  The correlation between conscious, self-reported
Motives motives and those inferred from the TAT is typically
zero
 TAT taps implicit (unconscious) motives
 Self-report taps explicit (conscious) motives
 Implicit motivation is expressed over time without
conscious effort or awareness
 Explicit motivation becomes activated when people
focus conscious attention on tasks and goals
Behaviourist Perspective
 Behaviours are governed by the environment
 Motivational forces viewed as drives – states of arousal that accompany an
unfulfilled need (e.g hunger, thirst)
 Hull (1943)
 A drive is an internal state of tension that motivates one to engage in
activities to reduce tension
 Concept was derived from the observation that organisms seek to
maintain homeostasis – state of physiological equilibrium or stability
e.g temperature
Incentive  Propose that external stimuli regulate motivational states

theories (e.g Bolles)
 An incentive is an external goal that has the capacity to
motivate behaviour
 Incentive theories stress environmental factors and

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downplay biological factors

 Drive and incentive theories are contracted as push
versus pull theories
 Drives push people in certain directions
 Incentives pull people in certain directions
Drive Reduction Argues that we behave in order to satisfy needs and reduce
theory: drives
 Drives can be primary (innate) or secondary (learned)
 Primary drives – hunger, thirst, sex
 Secondary drives – initially neutral stimulus that
through learning becomes motivating (e.g
money)
 Drive theories are unable to explain all motivation
(Berridge, 2004) E.g eating
Cognitive Perspective
 Cognitive theories provide an alternative approach to motivation
 Expectancy – value theory argues that motivation is a function of:
 The value people place on an outcome
 The extent to which they think they can achieve it
 Children’s beliefs about their abilities influence their motivation and
subsequent achievement in school
 Accounts for different performance of student with comparable
ability levels
Goal setting theories  Conscious goals regulate much of human

 Cognitive approaches to behaviour, particularly relating to work
motivation focus on  Goals represent desired outcomes that
goals – desired differ in some way from a person’s current
outcomes established situation

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through social learning  Maximising job performance

e.g getting good marks o Discrepancy between what one has
and wants
o Define specific goals
o Receive continuing feedback that
allows one to assess progress
towards goal
o Believe one has the ability to
achieve the goal
o Set a high enough goal to remain
motivated
o Have a high degree of commitment
to the goal
Intrinsic motivation refers to the employment of
an interest in a behaviour for its own sake
Self-determination theory Proposes there are 3 innate needs:
1. Competence
2. Autonomy
3. Relatedness
Intrinsic motivation flourishes when these needs
are fulfilled
Rewards tend to compromise autonomy and
reduce intrinsic motivation
Implicit motives are those which are activated and
expressed outside of conscious awareness
Arousal theory  People are motivated to maintain an
Arousal can be defined as: optimum level of arousal – neither too
 A state of readiness to high or too low
perform that helps  We need the appropriate level of arousal/
motivate performer’s activation for the action we are to perform
 The energised state, or (known as optimal arousal) – whether it is
the readiness for action digesting a meal or catching a cricket ball
that motivates a  The effects of arousal can be either
performer to behave in positive or negative:
a particular way o High arousal can cause us to worry
 Physiological state of and become anxious, which is
alertness and negative if it isn’t controlled
anticipation which o Raising arousal level can also cause
prepares the body for a state of ‘readiness’ to perform –
action this is largely a positive aspect and
can enhance performance
Humanistic Perspective
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Proposes that lower level needs must be fulfilled before higher level needs
guide behaviour

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Evolutionary Perspective
 Early theorists suggested behaviour was governed by instincts – fixed
patterns of behaviour produced without learning
 Instinct theory was abandoned because of the diversity of behaviour across
cultures and human flexibility
 Key assumption is that motivational systems serve functions that may have
evolved independently in response to particular evolutionary pressures
 Contemporary theorists argue that there are multiple motivational systems –
innate response tendencies related to:
o Survival
o Reproduction
 Motives considered products of natural selection (Durrant & Ellis, 2003)
o Power – dominate rivals, establish status, protect territory
o Love – caring for offspring, mates, kin and friends
o Mating – sexual motivation, competition for desirable partners,
jealousy
Motivation of Hunger and Eating
 Describe how eating behaviours are regulated
Eating
 Eating is a behaviour in which we consume food to supply energy, minerals
and vitamins
 Metabolism refers to the processes by which the body transforms food into
energy
Metabolism involves 2 phases:

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1. Absorptive phase – food is ingested, energy is extracted and stored as either

glycogen or fat
2. Fasting phase – when not eating, glycogen is converted to glucose for use by
the body
Homeostasis
 Homeostasis is the tendency of the body to maintain constancy of the
internal environment
 Biological functions such as eating, drinking and sleeping are regulated by
homeostasis
 Requires mechanisms for detecting the state of the system and correcting the
system to restore it to the desire state
Eating is part of a complex homeostatic process with:

 Set points
o Biologically optimal level system tries to maintain
 Feedback mechanisms
o Receptors to monitor level of sugar in blood
 Corrective mechanisms
o Restore system back to set point when needed
What turns hunger on?

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Physiological hunger is caused by dropping levels of glucose and lipids in the

bloodstream (detected by brain and liver)
Brain regulation
 Lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the ventromedial nucleus of the
hypothalamus (VMH) were initially thought to be the brain’s on-off switches
for the control of hunger (Stellar, 1954)
 Nowadays, the arcuate nucleus and the paraventricular nucleus are thought
to play a larger role in the modulation of hunger (Scott, Mc-Dade, & Luckman,
2007)
Glucose
 Much of the food taken into the body is converted into glucose, which
circulates in the blood
 Glucose is a simple sugar that is an important source of energy
o Actions that decrease blood glucose level can increase hunger
o Actions that increase glucose level can make people feel satiated (full)
 The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus is sensitive to glucostatic
fluctuations that contribute to the modulation of eating (Woods & Stricker,
2008)
External cues in eating

 Hunger is a biological need
 However, eating is not regulated by biological factors alone
 Social and environmental factors govern eating to a considerable extent
o Palatability
o Availability
o Variety – sensory specific satiety
o Presence of others
o Other cues (e.g adverts)

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Learned Preferences
 Large cultural differences in food preferences (Rozin, 2007)
 Taste preferences are partly a function of learned associations (Appleton et
al., 2006)
 Eating habits are also shaped by observational learning (Cooke, 2007)
Obesity
 A BMI of over 30 is generally considered obese
 Sharp increases in the incidence of obesity in recent decades (ABS, 2012)
o 25% of adults obese
o 6% children obese
 Consequences of obesity
o Physical; heart disease, diabetes or stroke, early mortality
o Psychological; negative stereotypes about the obese, discrimination,
difficulty in relationships, low self-esteem
Evolutionary explanations
 Humans have evolved a propensity to consume more food than immediately
necessary
 Excess calories were stored in the body (as fat) to prepare for future food
shortages
 Today, the majority of humans live in environments that provide an
abundant, reliable supply of food
 The tendency to overeat when food is plentiful leads to overeating
 However, because of variations in genetics, metabolism, and other factors,
only some people become overweight
Genetic Predisposition

Overweight
people
eat too
much in
relation to
their level
of
exercise
(Wing and Polley, 2001)
 Availability of tasty, high-calorie, high-fat foods

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 Serving size, restaurant portions has increased steadily (Wansink, 2010)

 Distort cues about what represents “normal” food consumption
 Paralleled by a decline in physical activity (Hill & Peters, 1998)
External Cues
Schacter’s (1968) Externality Hypothesis
o Obese people are extrasensitive to external cues that affect hunger
and are relatively insensitive to internal physiological signals
 Herman and Polivy (2008) introduced a distinction between normative as
opposed to sensory external cues
 Normative cues are indicators of socially appropriate food intake
 Sensory cues are characteristics of the food itself
 It is sensory external cues that obese people are especially sensitive to
 Describe how sexual motivation involves hormones and social and cultural
factors
Sexual Motivation
 People are also driven to gain sexual gratification
 Differs amongst cultures and within cultures
Evolutionary Perspective
Trivers’s (1972) Parental Investment Theory
 Parental investment refers to what each sex has to invest to produce and
nurture offspring
 Members of the sex that makes the smaller investment will pursue mating
opportunities vigorously
 Members of the sex that makes the larger investment will tend to be more
conservative and discriminating

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Patterns of sexual activity

 Males generally show a greater interest in sex than females do
 Men think about sex more often than women
 They also initiate sex more often
 Males have more frequent and varied sexual fantasies
 Subjective ratings of their sex drive tend to be higher than females’
 Male partners are more likely than their female counterparts to report that
they would like to have sex more frequently
Patterns of sexual activity

Clark and Hatfield (1989)
 Men approached female strangers and asked whether they would go back to
the man’s apartment to have sex with him
 None of the women agreed to this proposition
 When women approached males with the same proposition, 75% of the men
eagerly agreed
Male preferences
 Women place a higher value on potential partners’ status, ambition, and
financial prospects (Buss, 1989)
 Men show more interest in potential partners’ youthfulness and physical
attractiveness (Buss 1989)
 Men who are perceived to be favourably disposed to investing in children are
judged to be more attractive by women (Brase, 2006)
Culture and Sexual Motivation

 Anthropological studies show wide cultural variation in sexual acts and what
behaviour is considered appropriate

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 For example; Western cultures view the male as having greater sexual needs
whereas other cultures hold the opposite view
Sexual Orientation
 Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual
relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, or either sex
 Heterosexuality and homosexuality are viewed as falling on a continuum
rather than an all-or-none distinction
Early markers
 Children prefer to dress or act in ways typically associated with the opposite
sex are more likely to become homosexual than other children (Bailey &
Zucker, 1995)
Twin studies document a biological basis for homosexuality
Biology and Sexual Motivation

Hormones have 2 effects on the nervous system and behaviour:
1. Organisational effects: prenatal exposure to androgens alters the neural
circuits in brain and spinal cord
2. Activational effects: alteration of adult levels of hormones can alter the
intensity of a behaviour that is modulated by that hormone

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Biological Theories
 The roots of homosexuality may lie in the organising effects of parental
hormones on neurological development (James, 2005)
 Hormonal secretions during critical periods of prenatal development may
shape sexual development, organise the brain in a lasting manner, and
influence subsequent sexual orientation (Berenbaum & Snyder, 1995)
o Elevated rates of homosexuality are evident among women exposed
to abnormally high androgen levels during prenatal development
 Abnormalities in prenatal hormonal secretions may foster a predisposition to
homosexuality (Mustanski, Chivers, & Bailey, 2002)
 Distinguish between the two clusters of psychological motives: relatedness

and agency needs
Motives for achievement, power, self-esteem, affiliation and intimacy (amongst

others) are less obviously biological
Relatedness
 The earliest interpersonal needs to arise in children are related to
attachment
 Attachment motivation refers to the desire for physical and psychological
proximity to another (comfort and pleasure)
 Intimacy is closeness characterised by self-disclosure, warmth and mutual
caring (adult relationships)
 Affiliation is interaction with friends or acquaintances (communication and
support)
Achievement and Agency

 Need for achievement refers to the need to do well, to succeed, and to avoid
failure
 Persons who have a high level of need for achievement tend to:
o Choose moderately difficult tasks
o Enjoy being challenged
o Avoid failure
o Work more persistently
o Enjoy success
Performance Goals
 Performance goals are motives to achieve a particular outcome
o Performance-approach goals: motivated to attain goal
o Performance-avoidance goals: motivated by fear of not attaining goal
 Mastery goals are motives to increase skills and competencies

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 These three different types of goals predict different outcomes
WEEK 7: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Emotion:
An evaluative response to a situation that involves:
1. the cognitive component
 A subjective conscious experience
 Can occur at an unconscious level of processing
2. The physiological component

 Autonomic arousal
 Emotions are generally accompanied by visceral arousal (Sympathetic
response in ANS)
3. The behavioral component

 Characteristic overt expressions: emotion is expressed by body
language/non-verbal behavior
Measuring emotion:
 Direct report:
Ask someone how they feel
 Limitations: subjective, relies on introspection, affected by cultural
conventions and language

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 We can attempt to evoke emotion by presenting stimuli that evoke emotional

experience. Investigators can explore the impact this emotional experience
has on behavior (ie mental and physical) and neural responses
Eg show pictures of emotional faces/faces, words, money, loud noises, mild
shocks.
 Galvanic skin response (GSR; the lie detector test)
- measures electrical activity of skin which increases with emotion, eg
sweaty palms
- Index of autonomic arousal. Not completely reliable as other factors
can contribute.
 Facial electromyography
- the muscle movement of a person’s face. Can be subconscious
- eg corrugator muscle of face indicates the person finds something
unpleasant (furrowed brow)
Predicting emotion:
 We are not very good at anticipating our emotional responses to future
setbacks and triumphs
 Affective forecasting – efforts to predict one’s emotional reactions to future
events
 People tend to be reasonably accurate in anticipating whether events will
generate negative or positive emotions, but are often way off in predicting
the initial intensity and duration of their emotional reactions.
Experiencing emotion:
 People vary in the degree to which they can identify and experience
emotional states
 Extreme ends of the spectrum:
- Severe personality disorders with intense anger or sadness
- Absence of emotion  alexithymia (a condition in which a person
does not experience emotional states)
Emotion and health:

 Emotional expression has a positive impact on health
(eg: Holocaust survivors talking about their experiences had improved
physical health)
Happiness:
 Emotional state characterized by positive valence
 Related to cultural values (highest in individualistic cultures, lowest in
collectivist cultures)
 Highly correlated with number of uninterrupted years of democracy
 Large network of close friends and strong religious faith are predictors of
happiness
 Happiness is not related to age, sex, wealth

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Emotions:
Three unique qualities (compared to other psychological states):
 they are embodied
- manifest in recognizable patterns of behavior, such as facial expressions and
autonomic arousal
 they are less susceptible to our intentions
- often triggered ahead of, and in opposition to our reason concerning them
 they are less encapsulated
- global effects on virtually all aspects of cognition (eg memory and decision
making)
Feelings:
the subjective representation of emotions
Mood:
A diffuse affective state that is often of lower intensity then emotion but
considerably longer in duration
Moods vs. Emotions
Emotions Moods
Duration Seconds to Minutes Hours to Days
Function Biasing actions Biasing cognitions
General non-specific events

Sudden, specific events Object
Nature of antecedent event
focused Emotions
Relative intensity High Low
Facial expressions:
 An evolutionary link between experience of and facial expression of emotion:
Serve to inform others of our emotional state
 Innate (people who are congenitally blind still display them
 Distinctive antecedent events cause the emotions (biologically primed
stimuli)
 facial feedback hypothesis: facial muscles send signals to the brain, eg smiling tells
the brain you are experiencing happiness. When we see an expression we mimic it
and this helps our brain to process another’s emotion.
Cross-cultural similarities
***Ekman and Friesen (1975)
- testing subjects in a range of countries: agreement on identification of the 6
basic emotions: surprise, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, anger

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- fear, anger, happiness, surprise, disgust, sadness

cultural disparities do exist:
- the natural facial expressions associated with basic emotions transcend
culture, but display rules are norms that regulate the expression of emotions
Gender:
Women: experience more intense emotional states, are better able to read
emotional cues and express emotions more intensely and openly than men
 may reflect differing socialization patterns, perhaps not biology
Basic emotions:
 Universal human emotions; 5 common: anger, fear, happiness, sadness,
disgust. Also surprise and contempt.
 Primary function: to mobilise the individual to respond to fundamental and
universal life tasks. The individual is prepared to respond to these events in
ways that have been adaptive in the past history of both the species and the
individual’s own life.
 Biologically primitive for survival needs, eg:
- happiness: the need to reproduce
- fear: need for protection
- sadness: need to maintain possession of a pleasurable object
Emotion and the brain

 Doesn’t appear to be a single brain region that is solely responsible for
emotion, but some are particularly important:
 amygdala
 orbitofrontal cortex
 somatosensory cortex and insula
- Kulver-Bucy Syndrome:
Temporal lobes of monkeys removed  behavioral changes, inc lost fear of
stimuli for which they were normally afraid (Kluver and Bucy, 1937)
- Amygdala damage:
Patient S.M. has amygdala damage due to Urbach-Wiethe disease=
 Impaired recognition of fear, lesser impairment in recognizing related
emotions (surprise and anger)
 Impaired ability to make social judgments about trustworthiness and
approachability of people form their faces –missing social cues about
emotion
Distinguish between the different theories of emotion
Theories of emotion:
James and Lange:
 conscious experience of emotion results from one’s perception of autonomic
arousal

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(ie the perception of physical arousal leads to the conscious experience of the
emotion fear)
Cannon-Bard:
 physical arousal can occur without arousal – eg when we exercise
 emotion inducing stimuli simultaneously elicit both emotional experience and
bodily responses
Schachter (Two factor theory)
 People look at situational cues to different between alternative emotions
 Experiencing emotions depends on:
1. Autonomic arousal
2. Cognitive interpretation of that arousal
(ie see a bear, body produces adrenaline etc, process there is a bear=fear)
Perspectives on emotion:
Psychodynamic perspective:
 People can be unconscious of their own emotional experience
 Unconscious emotional processes can influence thought, behavior and health
Cognitive perspective:
 Cognitive judgments are a critical part of emotional experience
 Context also effects how we interpret emotion in others
 Mood and emotion impact thought and memory
- Depression is associated with underestimating the probability of success, and
overestimating the probability of bad events occurring
- Mood influences memory recall
Evolutionary perspective:
 Emotions have evolved because they have an adaptive value: signal to other
members of the species
Understand the nature of emotional deficits in a range of special populations
Deficits in emotion recognition:
 Ageing is associated with declines in facial recognition

 Older adults perceive individuals displaying negatively balanced
expression as more approachable. Older adults are more willing to trust
others  more readily deceived.
 May be a consequence of the structures of the brain deteriorating
with age
 Or possibly a positivity bias
 Psychopathy:

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Disorder marked by emotional dysfunction (reduced guilt and empathy) and

antisocial behavior (reactive and instrumental aggression)
- Individuals with psychopathy show reduced recognition of distress cues (eg
sadness and fear)
 Not just killers, also “community dwelling psychopaths” (eg CEOs are
typically able to rise to the top by having an element of emotional
detachment)
- Fail to show characteristic autonomic arousal in response to facial
expressions
 Prefrontal cortex damage:

Patient Phineas Gage acquired brain damage, pole through left frontal lobe:
- Gross changes in emotional behavior
- Diminished capacity to judge approachability from negatively valence faces
- Fail to display characteristic autonomic arousal when contemplating risky
decisions (eg Iowa Gambling task –stimulating gambling, measuring risk-
healthy people learn to choose to pick from the less risky deck of cards, they
have the skin response that indicates their emotional response as they make
decisions)
WEEK 8: SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Key Topics:
- Attachment; Socialisation; Peer relationships; Development of social
cognition; Moral development; Social development across the lifespan
Critical issues of Social Development:

- Attachment (adult functioning)
- Socialisation (parents and peers)
- Changes in moral reasoning
Attachment:
The enduring emotional ties children form with their primary caregivers. Including:
- A desire for proximity to an attached figure
- A sense of security derived from the person’s presence, and
- Feelings of distress when the person is absent
Temperament: An individual’s characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional

reactivity
Easy and Difficult babies: Differences in temperament

Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970): 3 basic temperamental styles
- Easy – 40%

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- Slow-to-warm-up – 15%
- Difficult – 10%
- Mixed – 35%
o Mixed temperaments become more stable over time
Kagan and Snidman (1991): Inhibited vs. Uninhibited temperament

- Inhibited – 15-20% (characterised by shyness, timidity, and wariness of the
unfamiliar)
- Uninhibited – 25-30% (less restraint with regard to the unfamiliar and little to
no trepidation)
- Stable over time, generically based
Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment:

Bowlby proposed an evolutionary theory of attachment predicated upon his study of
comparative animal behaviour (ethology). He argues that attachment behaviour is
prewired in humans, as similar to other species, to keep immature animals close to
their parents. His theory follows the study of ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1935) into
“imprinting”
Imprinting:
- The tendency of young animals of certain species to follow an animal to
which they were exposed to during a sensitive period early in their lives
- Lorenz argued that imprinting demonstrated an evolutionary advantage:
o A gosling that stays close to its mother or father is more likely to be
fed, protected from predators and taught skills useful for survival and
reproduction than a gosling that strays from its parents.
- Bowlby proposed that attachment behaviour in human infants, evolved for
the same reason
Hence, when a child feels:

- Threatened – attachment system ‘turns on’, leading the child to cry or search
for its attachment figure
- Safe – attachment system is dormant and child is free to play and explore
environment
The attachment figure acts as a safe base from which the child can explore, and then
return to for ‘emotional refuelling’.
Early emotional Development: Attachment

- Separation anxiety – Ainsworth (1979)
o The strange situation and patterns of attachment
Patterns of attachment:
- Secure
o Child tends to be playful, less inhibited, exploration-oriented, sociable
- Anxious – ambivalent

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o Child tends to engage in visual checking; signalling to re-establish

contact, calling, pleading; moving to re-establish contact, clinging
- Avoidant
o Child tends to maintain proximity while avoiding close contact with
the attachment figure
- Disorganised – disoriented
o Behave in contradictory ways, indicating helpless effort to elicit
soothing responses from the attachment figure
o Often approach the mother while simultaneously gazing away
o Can occur in cases where the parenting style is itself disorganised and
unpredictable from the infant’s point of view – roughly 15% of infants
raised in normal conditions – much higher where maltreatment
involved.
Harlow: Rhesus Monkeys – Attachment in Infancy

Harry Harlow conducted an experiment with infant Rhesus monkeys:
- Reared them for several moths away from their mothers
- Placed them in a cage with two inanimate surrogate ‘mothers’
o One made of wire – holding a bottle from which the infant could
nurse
o The other wrapped in towelling to provide softness (no bottle/ no
food)
- Found monkeys spent predominantly all time with softer ‘mother’ / ran to
softer surrogate when frightened; ignored wire surrogate except when
hungry
Contrary to earlier theories of attachment (predicated on link between attachment

and feeding), Harlow established that perceived security, not food, is the crucial
element in forming attachment relationships in primates.
- Harlow referred to the ties binding infants to their caregivers as contact
comfort
Evolutionary Perspectives on Attachment:

- Function of natural selection
o Infants emit behaviours that trigger affectionate / protective
responses from adults
- Children are predisposed to respond in a particular way (with specific
attachment pattern) to the care they receive (sensitive vs. insensitive)
- Security of attachment
- Individual difference in attachment style
- Adult attachment
o Patterns predict a range of phenomena

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 Whether people want to have children

 The attachment pattern of their children
 How people cope with stressful life situations / events
o Concern over whether early attachment problems result in adult
attachment difficulties
Socialisation:
The process by which children learn the beliefs, values, skills and behaviour patterns
of society.
Key Issues to Consider:
- Timeframe
- Context
The Role of Parents:

- Authoritarian
o Place a high value on obedience and respect for authority
o Do not encourage discussion of why particular behaviours are
important of listen to child’s point of view
o Impose standards to which they expect children to adhere, and are
likely punish children frequently and physically
o Typically results in children displaying low independence, vulnerability
to stress, low self-esteem and an external locus of control
- Permissive
o Impose minimal controls on their children
o Allow children to make their own decisions wherever possible
o Tend to accept children’s impulsive behaviours, including angry or
aggressive – rarely dole out punishment
o Typically results in children displaying low self-reliance and impulse
control
- Authoritative
o Enforce standards but encourage verbal give-and-take
o Explain their views while showing respect for their child’s opinions
o Typically results in children displaying self-control, independence,
curiosity, academic competence, and sociability
- Uninvolved (more recent)
o Place their own needs above those of their child
o Typically results in children displaying low self-esteem and aggressive
behaviour

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Current parenting advice recommends a ‘guidance approach’ to raising children,

whereby parents help their children to manage their emotions, cooperate with
others and think about the effects of their behaviour on others.
- Ultimate goal is learning of considerate behaviour
- Avoid praising achievements / punishing imperfections (as children need to
learn from their mistakes)
- Rather, acknowledge the skills involved in their child’s achievements
o How it was done, rather than the quality of the end product
Socialisation and Gender:

The difference between sex and gender:
- Sex: refers to a biological categorisation based on genetic and anatomical
differences
- Gender: refers to the psychological meaning of being male or female, which
is influenced by learning
Gender roles:
- The range of behaviours considered appropriate for men and women in a
given society
Sex Typing:
- The process by which children acquire personality traits, emotional
responses, skills, behaviours and preferences that are culturally considered
appropriate.
o Sex typing begins very early in life – right from childbirth “It’s a girl /
It’s a boy (Archer & Lloyd, 1985)
- Naturalistic investigations of parent’s behaviours with their children indicates
that throughout childhood, parents (esp. fathers) tend to encourage
traditional sex-typed behaviour, discouraging play with toys of the opposite
gender
- Fathers and mothers are both important figures in gender-role socialisation
o However, not exclusively

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o Teachers and peers play a large role in stereotypical gender roles

 Peers (beginning from pre-school) reward and punish,
respectively, their peers for engaging in gender-appropriate
and gender-inappropriate behaviour.
- Gender roles also portrayed through mass media and electronic games,
frequently as stereotypes.
Peer Relationships:
Friendships:
- Mostly same-sex (cross-sex relationships account for about 5% of friends in
childhood)
o Stems from the gender segregation of activities in childhood
- Meaning of friendship changes with age:
o Young children describe friends as people who give them things or let
them play with their toys
o Older children (middle childhood) recognise some of the longer term
pay-off of specific friendships – emotional and social
o Adolescents express more concern with intimacy in friendships
(mutual self-disclosure and empathy)
 Girls self-disclose more than boys; boys tend to self-disclose
with girls
- Time spent with peers increases with age, while time spent with parents
decreases
o Mothers and fathers are the primary sources of support for 9-year-
olds
o Wanes during adolescence when conflict with parents peaks
o Friends much more dominant in role as supports in late childhood and
adolescence; replaced by romantic partners in early adulthood
Peer Status:
- Children develop different status relationships with their peers
o Children who are disliked by their peers are referred to as rejected
children – these children are often teased and ostracised by their
peers; others are bullies
o Neglected children are those that are ignored by their peers
- Children develop reputations among their peers by pre-school
o These reputations can carry right through into adulthood and affect
the way that the individuals are perceived and interacted with by
their peers

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 Rejected children tend to exhibit low self-esteem and other

difficulties later in life (school drop-outs and delinquency in
adolescence / work and relationship troubles in adulthood)
 Tend to do poorly in school, but only if coupled with
aggressive behaviour
 Neglected children tend to perform better academically than
their more popular peers because the immerse themselves in
their studies
Siblings:
- Relationships involve:
o Warmth and companionship
o Rivalry and conflict
- Genetic make-up of sibling encourages an evolutionary perspective which
dictates that;
o On one hand, the shared genetic material of siblings would indicate
that the welfare of each influences the inclusive fitness of the other
o While on the other hand (esp. in childhood), siblings compete for
precious parental resources
 As they age, siblings compete over familial resources that
attract mates (adolescence) and then over estates once they
have reached adulthood
- The birth of a new child into the family can have mixed but equally strong
responses the older siblings (anger, happiness, anxiety, increased
dependency, etc)
Development of Social Cognition:

Self-concept:
- The organised view of ourselves or a way of representing information about
the self
Visual self-recognition developed between 15-24 months of age
- Rouge test (rouge dot placed on child’s nose)
o Children younger than 15 months rarely touch their nose (they don’t
recognise themselves)
o Most two-year-olds notice the difference between how the look vs.
how they should look
Toddlers characterise themselves on broad concrete dimensions:
- Age
- Gender
Early childhood:
- Generally refer to their membership in groups, material possessions, things
they can do, and appearance

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Self-concept in childhood vs. adolescence:

- Around 8, children define themselves based on internal, psychological
attributes as much as the obviously perceptible qualities or appearances that
dominate all cognition in early childhood
o Their abilities, likes, dislikes, the ways they tend to feel and think –
their personality!
o Generally based on comparison with other children
o Begin to describe themselves rationally
- In adolescence, representations of self become more subtle
o An important influence on individual differences in self-concept that
increases as children age is genetics – also intelligence!
o Heritability coefficients for self-esteem and self-concept are more
readily expressed during adolescence through behaviour
Gender differences in Self-Concept:

- Gender plays a role not only in the attributes that children and adolescents use
to describe themselves, but also in the evaluations they assign to those
attributes
o Females evaluate themselves weaker on appearance and athletics than
males, but higher on conduct
o Males and females evaluate themselves near equally on scholastic and
social outcomes
Theory of Mind:
- An implicit set of ideas about the existence of mental states in oneself and
others
- Develops around two to four years
- Precursor to perspective-taking
o The ability to understand other people’s viewpoints or perspectives
 Moving out of egocentrism and representing the other
person’s mind in one’s own…
Children’s Understanding of Gender:

Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory proposed three stages in understanding:
- Gender identity: the ability to characterise the self and others as male or
female
- Gender stability: understanding that gender remains constant over time
- Gender constancy: understanding that gender cannot be altered by changes
in appearance or activities
Cross-cultural Gender Stereotypes:

- Biology and evolution

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o Increased production of testosterone in girls leading to more

aggressive and ‘tomboy’ behaviour during childhood
- Culture and social learning
o Changing gender roles – fathers looking after infants and children in
ways previously considered ‘unnatural’
 Increased patriarchal care has multiple psychological benefits
o Social learning perspective based on behavioural differences between
men and women observed as resultant from experiences, not innate
differences
- An integrative view: Nature vs. nurture
o Considers interaction between biological evolution, cultural evolution
and learned expectations
o As ecological conditions shift, so to do cultural ideologies and
socialisation practices
o Evolution has selected for flexibility in human behaviour rather than
definitive gender roles
- The politics and science of gender
o Referring to the work of the first feminist movement to discredit
pejorative stereotypes against women (that gender differences were
in fact small) - modern thinking however, suggests that men and
women do differ in some important respects, but that the problems
lies with the tendency to devalue the things at which women excel.
Moral Development:
Morality:
Morality refers to the rules that people use to balance the conflicting interests of
themselves and others. Morality is examined in relation to:
- Cognition
- Emotion
Cognitive-Developmental Theories:
Piaget: Game of marbles among children
- Found that the youngest children changed the rules arbitrarily in order to
enhance their enjoyment / chances of winning
- Once the rules were accepted however, they were staunchly adhered to.
- Morality of constraint – the belief that morals are absolute
o Typical of children before the age of 9
o Social rules perceived as unchanging and unchangeable
- Morality of cooperation – moral rules can be changed if they are not
appropriate to the occasion, as long as all participants agree to do so
o More prevalent in older children and adults – focus more on their
inferences about other’s intentions

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o Rules are more a means to an end – to help keep social interactions

safe, fair and comfortable
The development of Moral Reasoning:

Kohlberg (1976):
- Reasoning as opposed to behaviour (moral dilemmas)
o Presented participants with moral dilemmas and asked how they
could be resolved and why
o Measured nature and progression of moral reasoning
- 3 levels, each with 2 sublevels
 Preconvention:
- Stage 1 – Punishment orientation
o Acts are wrong if punished
- Stage 2 – Naïve reward orientation
o Acts are right if rewarded
 Conventional:
- Stage 3 – Good boy / good girl orientation
o Right and wrong is determined by others approval / disapproval
- Stage 4 – Authority orientation
o Society determines rules and laws which people MUST abide by
 There are no grey areas; right and wrong is black and white
 Post-conventional:
- Stage 5 – Social contact orientation
o Once again, society determines rules and laws however these are not
moral absolutes
- Stage 6 – Individuals principals and conscience orientation
o Equality and justice
Cognitive-social Theories:
- Focus on moral behaviour rather than moral reasoning
- Suggest that moral behaviours are learned through conditioning and
modelling (via punishment and reinforcement)
- Proscial behaviour is behaviour that benefits other individual or groups
o More prevalent in collectivist societies where the needs of the group
are emphasised and children are required to contribute to the family
income (empathy and concern for others is also more apparent)
Information-processing Theories:
- Breaking moral thinking down into component processes and examining how
each process changes during childhood

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The Role of Emotion:

Psychodynamic theories:
- Propose that children begin moral development as narcissistic (self-centred
and self-gratifying)
- The conscious begins to develop between the ages of two and five
o Children take on the values of their parents
o Guilt is the primary motivation to obey the conscious
Empathy is the feeling for another person who is hurting
- Consists of cognitive and emotional components:
o Cognitive: understanding what another person is experiencing
o Emotional: experiencing a similar emotion
- Research suggests that empathy and empathetic concern contributes to
proscial behaviour
Emotional, Cognitive & Integrated views on moral development:

- Emotion, like cognition is central to moral development. Psychodynamic
theories emphasis the role of guilt in moral development and argue that
conscience arises through identification with parents. Other theories
emphasis empathy. Moral development probably reflects an interaction of
cognitive and affective changes that allow children to understand and feel for
other people as well as to inhibit their own wishes and impulses.
Social Development Across the Lifespan:

Stage Theories of Development:
Three primary components:
1. Progress through stages in order

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2. Progress through stages related to age

3. Major discontinuities in development
Erikson’s Stage Theory:

Erik Erikson (1963) – One of the great names (just quietly)
- Erikson’s model is culturally sensitive, it integrates biology, psychological
experience and culture, and offers a very broad framework
- His model was designed to supplement Freud’s psychosexual stages
- Eight stages spanning the lifespan
o 0-16months – 1-2years – 3-6years – 7-11years – teenage years
(adolescence) – 20s and 30s (young adulthood) – 40s to 60s (middle) –
60s on
- Psychological crises determining balance between opposing polarities in
personality
Development from Adolescence to Old Age:

Adolescence:

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- Dominated by a conflict model wherein, adolescents, break away from their

parents and become rebellious and moody – shifting from compliance to
defiance
o Conflict therapists argue it is necessary for conflict between parents
and adolescents in order for the kids to create their own identity and
path
Early adulthood and middle age:
- There is a shift away from trying to move away from the protection of the
parents to create a new path, to trying to find intimacy in relationships
among early adulthood.
- This progresses into marital intimacy an middle age
o The trend for couples to live together for longer before getting
married is perhaps a reason for the increasing number of years
married couples spend together, although there is also an increasing
trend for de facto relationships which do not end up in marriage at all
o Cultural influences on marriage are also present
 East vs. West expectations from marriage
o Long-term marriages ending in divorce indicate that the parents
waited till their children left home before splitting.
Old age:
- Increased life expectancy is changing the meaning of old age especially in well
developed countries where material and resources make quality of life better
for the elderly
- Stereotypes
o Although old age inevitably involves many losses, the realities appear
far better than the negative stereotypes of ageing seen in many
technologically developed societies.
o Croquet and Pimm’s on a Tuesday afternoon / bridge on the back

porch with Fred and Janice from next door…doesn’t get much better
than that! “FOOOOUUURRR BRIDGES!!! HAHAHA” – ye olde
Marshall ;)

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WEEK 9: THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
Definitions of Personality
 “Personality is an individual’s characteristic way of thinking feeling and acting across
a broad range of settings.” (Smither,1998)
 “…those characteristics of the person or of those people generally that
account for consistent patterns of response to situations.” (Pervin, 1980)
 “Personality refers to important and relatively stable aspects of behaviour”
(Ewen, 2003)
 “…the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that
are organised and relatively enduring and that influence his or her
interactions with, and adaptations to, the intrapsychic, physical and social
environment.” (Larsen & Buss, 2011)
- Defining Personality through enduring patterns of
 Thought
 Feeling
 Motivation
 Behaviour
- Personality research has looked at
 The structure of personality
 Individual differences
Psychodynamic Theory

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-  Freud emphasised the role of the unconscious and unconscious processes in the
control of behaviour
- Initially proposed a model: Topographical model:
o Suggested three levels of consciousness
 Conscious
 Preconscious
 E.g. phone number
o Not readily in conscious can be recited relatively
easily
 Unconscious
 Proposed hypnosis
- Proposed that conflict occurs between the different aspects of consciousness
(opposing motives)
o Consciously you are saying to yourself “yes I am going to do well at uni this
semester” but perhaps you aren’t actually doing that well
 Freud would suggest this is because unconsciously you’re not
wanting to do well to protect yourself from failing your expectations
as you don’t really believe in yourself
- Successful resolution of conflict requires compromise formation
Freud’s drive model
- Freud suggested human behaviour is motivated by two drives (or instincts)
o Aggressive Drive
 Could be channeled into social acceptable mode of sport
o Sexual (Libido) Drive
 Libido refers to pleasure-seeking, sensuality and love, as well as
desire for intercourse
- Freud’s developmental model
o Libido follows a developmental course during childhood
 Propose 5 tages of psychosexual development
 We naturally progression of change from stage to stage
 However can become fixated at sertain stage
Stage Age Conflicts and concern Fixation
Oral stage 0-18 - Dependency - Clingy, dependent, need for
months approval, nurturance and love
- Oral sadistic
- (very sarcastic)
- thumb sucking
- overeating
Anal stage 2 years - Orderliness When received overly strict parenting
(relates to - Cleanliness during toilet training
toilet - Control - Overly orderly, neat and
training) - Compliance punctual
When received relaxed parenting
during toilet training
- Extremely messy, stubborn
and constantly
Phallic stage 4-6 - Individuals identifiy with Women
years parent of opposite sex - May dress particularly
and need to come to provocitave
identify with same sex Men
Failure to do so can result in - Anxiety about sex

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- Boys: castration complex

- Girls: penis envy
This is why very important to
identify with same sex
- Oedipus complex
Latency stage 7-11 - Sublimation of sexual and - - If not resolved, developed
years aggressive impulsive asexual characteristics
- Forming relationships
with peers
Genital 12+ - mature sexuality and - If fixations do present, they
years meaningful relationships have been carried over from
earlier stages
Freud's Structural Model
- Freud believed there were different forces acting at each of the conscious,
preconscious and unconscious
- He saw conflict as being between three ‘forces’
o Id
 Reservoir of sexual and aggressive energy
 Unconscious and driven by impulses
 It is completely irrational (wants what it wants when it
wants it)
 Only component of personality present from birth
o Ego
 Must balance id and superego, obeys reality principle
 Id eventually break up to form ego (6-8months old)
 Function on a reality principal
o Superego
 Harbors the morals, what we really do and shouldn’t
 Shouldn’t: source of conscious
 Should: ideals
 Counterbalance to id
 Arises by about age 5
- EXAMPLE: hungry
o See someone eating sandwich
 ID: I want that sandwich
 Superego: you can’t just steal a sandwich
 Ego: okay, lets go to the canteen and buy a sandwich
Defence Mechanisms
- When there is conflict between our id, ego and superego, anxiety can arise
- One way we can reduce this anxiety through defence mechanisms
o Unconscious mental processes that protect a conscious response from
unpleasant emotions
- There are a variety
o Repression
 Anxiety-evoking thoughts are kept unconscious
 E.g. forgetting childhood trauma
o Denial
 Person refuses to recognise reality
 E.g. A hoarder who doesn’t think behaviour is problematic
o Projection
 A attribution of own unacceptable impulses to others

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 E.g. Thief who thinks everyone else is thief

o Reaction formation
 Where a person converts an unacceptable impulse into the opposite
impulse
 Vice for particular social group but then go lobby for that group to
the extreme
o Sublimation
 person converts an unacceptable impulse into a socially acceptable
activity
 E.g. person becomes doctor cause they like to cut people
o Rationalisation
 Person explains away actions to reduce anxiety
 E.g. habitual drinker says its just social cause of friends
o Displacement
 persons direct their emotions away from the real target to a
substitute
 E.g. After a bad day at work yell at partner or dog
o Regression
 Person reverts back to an earlier stage of psychosexual development
 E.g. Throw temper tantrum
 Or excessively engage in eating smoking or chewing gum
o Passive aggression
 An indirect expression of anger towards others
 No submit part of work to group assignment
Post Freud – Object Relations Theories
- Object relations refers to enduring patterns of behaviour in intimate relationships
and to the motivational, cognitive and affective processes that produce those
patterns
o Freud believed every impulse had aim, usually towards an object (other
people)
- Object relations theories
o Focus on interpersonal disturbances and capacity for relatedness to others
o E.g. relationship issues because having difficulty relating to others
- Relational theories
o Argue that adaptation is primarily adaptation to others
o More suited to individuals that are less troubled
Assessing Unconscious Patterns
- Given that the core assumption that many personality processes are unconscious
how can these be assessed?
- Projective Tests
o A person is presented with a vague stimulus will ‘project’ their own
impulses and desires into a description of the stimulus
 E.g. Rorschach inkblot test
 What do you see in the ink blot
 E.g. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
 Vague stimulus, what is the story behind it
Evaluation of Psychodynamic Theory
- Contributions
o Emphasis on unconscious processes
o Identification of conflict and compromise

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o Demonstrates the importance of childhood experiences in shaping adult

personality
- Limitations
o Not solidly based on scientific observation
o Emphasis on drives (sex and aggression)
o Gender bias (towards women)
- Freud developed first comprehensive theory of personality
- Highlighted import unconscious process and importance of early childhood
experiences
Cognitive – social theory

- A theory developed from behaviourist and cognitive roots
- It considers:
o Learning
o Beliefs
o Expectations
- Asserts that information processing is central to personality
- Places emphasis on learned aspects of personality as well as expectations and beliefs
of the person
- According to this theory
o Person must encode the situation as relevant to themself
o Situation must have personal meaning
o Person must believe in their ability to carry out a behaviour (self efficacy)
o Personal constructs are mental representations of significant people, places
and things (George Kelly)
o Why we interpret things differently and therefore behave in different
manners
1. Stimulus
2. Categorise and encode
3. Look at personal value
4. Come up with plan of behaviour
a. Form behaviour outcome expectancy
b. And have a belief in our own ability to execute
5. Execution of plan
a. Do we have the competency
6. Self regulation of plan
- Whether people carry out an action depends on

o Expectancies and competencies
o Behaviour-outcome expectancies
o Belief that a behaviour will lead to an outcome
- Self-efficacy expectancies
o Belief that the person can perform the behaviour
- Competencies
o Need to have a set of skill in order to problem solve
- Self-regulation
o Involves setting goals, evaluating performance and responding to feedback
Self-efficacy and performance

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- If people have a belief that they are able to do something they have set out to do,
they are more likely to accomplish that task/inclined to do it
- Can self-efficacy perceptions causally influence behaviour?
o Problem: What about level of actual skill?
o Solution: Manipulate perceived self-efficacy while
 Anchoring manipulations
o Manipulate the thinking process used when people try to figure out a
problem
 E.g. asking a question what do you think the population is
 By condition a person with a high number (e.g. saying do
you think its around 20 million) they are more likely to
answer with a higher number
- Cervone and Peake (1986)
o Participants judged whether they could solve “more or less than X” of the
items
o “X” was a no. that corresponded to a high vs. low level of performance
 People judged how many items they could solve
 People in the low anchoring condition said they were able to
solve fewer problems
 People in the high anchored condition performed better
 Because they we more likely to try longer/harder
o Example of holding a skill at constant, but manipulating their efficacy
through anchoring
- Self efficacy has diverse effects on experience and action in terms of
o Selection
 Effects the type of task individuals will select
o Effort, persistence, and performance
 Highe self efficacy correlate with more effort
o Emotion
 A higher will relate with better moods
o Coping
 Engage in more effective coping mechanisms
Evaluation of cognitive–social theory
- Contributions
o Provided emphasis on the role of thought and memory in personality
- Limitations
o Overemphasis of rational side of personality
o Avoidance of explanations of unconscious processes in personality
Trait theory
- Traits are emotional, cognitive and behavioural tendencies that constitute
underlying personality dimensions on which individuals can vary
o Individuals will all have these traits but their level of expression will vary
between individuals
- Traits can be measured by asking the self or another to rate the self
o Often measured through questionaires
- How many traits are required?
o Allport noted some 18,000 traits
o Cattell argued for 16 distinct traits
Eysenck’s 3-factor theory (PEN)
- Conducted factor analysis on all traits

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o Then secondary factor analysis

- People will fall on extraversion and introversion dimension
- Three dimensions
o Extraversion-introversion
 Sociability, activity, liveliness and excitability
o Neuroticism
 Anxious, depressed, shy and moody
o Psychoticism
 Aggressiveness, a lack of empathy, interpersonal coldness and
antisocial behavioural tendencies
- Everybody has these three different factors
o But in different levels
Norman’s Five factor model
- Early work by Norman (1963) indicated that five factors are necessary
o Five-factor solutions were found repeatedly in a wide range of data sources,
samples, and instruments
- All five factors shown to possess reliability and validity and to remain relatively
stable throughout adulthood
- An OCEAN of traits
o Openness
o Conscientiousness
o Extraversion,
o Agreeableness
o Neuroticism
 It has been argued that honestly and humility should be added
Is personality consistent?
- Consistency across situations
o Mischel argues that situational variables largely determine behaviour
 Principle of aggregation
 Class of behaviours over a range of situations
- Consistency across time
o A basic personality disposition is heavily influenced by genes (temperament)
o Resilience for e.g. increases as we age
-  Person-by-situation interaction
o Perhaps similar to Mischel, looking at if-then patterns of behaviour
Evaluation of Trait Theories
- Contributions

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o Traits can be empirically measured

o It assume individual differences in traits
- Limitations
o Depend on self-report
o Statistical analyses may govern outcomes
o Do not explain how and why traits emerge
o Traits may have different cultural meanings
o Barnum effect
 Are traits applied so broadly that they can be applied to everybody?
Are they so vague that they are suited to anyone
Humanistic theories
- Humanistic personality theorists reject the behaviourist and psychodynamic notions
of personality
o They were quite positive theories of human nature
- Humanists emphasise the notion that each person has a potential for creative
growth
o The intent is to assist people in developing to their maximal potential
- Carl Rogers: “I have little sympathy with the rather prevalent concept that man is
basically irrational, and that his impulses, if not controlled, will lead to the
destruction of others and self.”
o He saw humans as innately good, with an innate need to survive, grow, and
enhance themselves
Rogers’ Person-Centered Approach
- Human beings are good by nature but personality becomes distorted by
interpersonal experiences; phenomenal experience
- Each person has multiple selves
o True-self
 The core aspect of being, untainted
o False-self
 The self that is created by distortions from interpersonal
 Experiences, conditions of worth
 Though it was very important the people experience unconditional
positive regard
o Ideal-self
 What the person would like to be
 We experience difficulties with our personality when we have a
discrepancy between the world we experience and who we think of
as ourselves
 Talked about the concept of congruence and incongruence
 The more our circles overlap, the better it will be for us
 More likely if we don’t have conditions of worth being
placed on us
Existential Approaches
- Belief that people have no fixed nature and must create themselves
- Key issues
o Importance of subjective experience
o Importance of individual to Central quest for the meaning of life
o Danger of losing touch with feelings
o Danger of conceiving oneself as thing-like rather than as changing, ever-
forming and the creative source of will and action
 We need to create and find our own meaning

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- Mortality salience /existential dread

o Ultimately we all face death, of ourselves and of our loved ones
o To avoid anxiety over this cultural values and beliefs symbolically deny death
and allow hope in the face of
- You can manipulate death salience
o Individuals who were made more aware of their impending death (Death
salience induced) rated charity and their relation to charity as more
important
Evaluation of Humanistic Theory
- Contributions
o Focus on how humans strive to determine the meaning of life
o Optimistic view of human nature
-  Limitations
o Humanistic approach is not a complete theoretical account of personality
o The approach has not generated a body of testable hypotheses and research
Genetics and personality

- Heritability
o Refers to the proportion of variance in a particular trait that is due to genetic
influences
-  Supporting evidence for heritability has come from twin studies
o Data suggests that most personality variables are 15–50% heritable
- Twin studies
o Identical twins reared apart more similar than fraternal twins reared
together
o Seems to suggest a strong biological component
Personality and culture
- Freud viewed cultural phenomena as reflections of individual psychodynamics
- The culture pattern approach sees culture as an organised set of beliefs, rituals and
institutions that shape individuals to fit its patterns
o Research: individualistic (e.g. western world) vs collective cultures
 Those of individualistic cultures tend to display more socially
disengaging emotion such as anger or pride
- The interactionist approaches suggest that personality, economics, and culture
mutually influence one another
o It is an interaction between these components
- Its important to note that psychology has been bourn out of a western culture

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WEEK 10: GROUP DYNAMICS AND INTERPERSONAL DYNAMICS
Relationships
Interpersonal Attraction:
 We tend to like/love those who:
- are physically close to us
- provide rewards (social exchange theories)
- share our attitudes, values and interests
- of the same level of physical attractiveness (matching hypothesis)
Love:
 Classifying love
- Passionate love = a complete absorption in another that includes tender
sexual feelings and the agony and ecstasy of intense emotion
- Compassionate love = warm, trusting, tolerant affection for another whose
life is deeply intertwined with one’s own
- These may co-exist but not necessarily

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 Classifying love – Triangular Theory:
Love Story:
 Travelling story
 Gardening story
 Horror story
Evolutionary Views of Love:

 Males
- Short-term: seek young fertile women
- Long-term: seek committed relationship with sexual access
- Men prefer young females
 Females
- Use short-term liaisons to assess and attract males
- Women prefer older males with status resources
 Mating Priorities
- Certain characteristics are attractive because they are indicators of
reproductive fitness
- Women’s menstrual cycles (Ovulation = most fertile period)
- Women favour men who exhibit masculine facial and bodily features,
attractiveness, and dominance
Romantic Love as Attachment:

 Share several features with attachment styles in infancy
 Evident in adults under stress
 Couple conflict and attachment
 Attachment style and sexual interaction
- Secure VS Anxious VS Avoidant

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Maintaining Relationships:
 Factors to consider
- investment and commitment
- faults
- undervaluing potential partners
- negative reciprocity
The Dark Side of Relationships:

 We often experience the greatest hurt and criticism within close relationships
- on any given day, 44% of individuals are likely to be annoyed by a close

partner
 Ostracism in relationships
- people are motivated in order to keep their inclusionary status in a
relationship
 Need to learn to accommodate “pet peeves” in relationship
The Internet and Close Relationships

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 Has the availability of networking and interacting online undermined the

ability of people to form close relationships
- Attraction = online VS face to face
- Most common factors misrepresented online = age, appearance and marital
status
Altruism:
Altruism
 Intentional behaviours that benefit another person
- no obvious gain for the provider
- obvious costs for the provider
Theories of Altruism
 Ethical Hedonism
- selfish acts that benefit the actor
 Genuine Altruism
- natural compassion
 Reciprocal Altruism
- evolutionary perspective = natural selection
Bystander Intervention
 The bystander effect
- Darley and Latane, 1968
- People are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than
when they are alone – diffusion of responsibility
Model of Bystander Intervention:
Aggression:

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Aggression
 Verbal or physical behaviour aimed at harming another person or living being
- hostile aggression = elicited by anger
- instrumental aggression = calm pragmatic aggression
 Violence and Culture
- varies across cultures
 Violence and Gender
- consistent across cultures = predominantly committed by males
- forms of aggression differ between men and women
Theories of Aggression
 Psychodynamic View
- triggered by frustration, anger and shame
 Evolutionary View
- survival and reproduction
 Cognitive Neoassociation Theory
- Aversive stimuli triggers aggressive thoughts and actions
- Frustration aggression hypothesis
 Social Cognitive Perspective
- Results from reward, punishment, cognitive processes and social learning
 General Aggression Model
- Combination of person and situation variables
Biology of Aggression
 Aggression is controlled by the brain
- Hypothalamus
- Amygdala
 Hormones
- Testosterone
- Serotonin
 Genetics
- Temperament
Social Influence
The mere presence of others can alter human behaviour

- social facilitation
- deindividuation
- self-fulfilling prophecies
Obedience
 Refers to compliance to the orders of an authority figure

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 Milgram’s Obedience Study

- Person is asked by an experimenter to deliver shocks to a learner
(confederate) when the learner makes mistakes in a test
- Shocks range from 15-450 volts
- The learner stops responding after 300 volts
- 65% of subjects went to 450 volts
Factors that Influence Obedience

 Proximity of the learner
 Proximity to the experimenter
 When other participants dissented to give shock, participants were more
likely to refuse to shock the learner
Effect of
Distance On
Obedience

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Conformity
 A change in attitude or behaviour to accommodate the standards of peers or
groups
 The pressure to conform can be immense, even if subtle
Asch’s Conformity Study

 Participants were asked to judge line lengths while working in a group
 As confederates consistently gave obviously wrong answers, the participant
often conformed and gave the wrong answer
Factors Affecting Conformity

 Group size
- The larger the group the greater the percentage of conforming
 Dissention
 Personality
 Culture
Group Process
 Norms = implicit or explicit
 Status = power
 Roles = shared expectations
Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment

 ‘Prisoners and Guards’ = social roles
 More recently = Abu Ghraib
Group Social Influence

 Social Facilitation
- Presence of other people helps or hinders individual performance
 Social Loafing
- individuals exert less effort when in a group
 Group Decision Making
- Group polarization
- Group cohesiveness
- Groupthink

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Leadership
 Leaders
- exert more influence over a group than the average member
- differing styles = Autocratic VS Democratic VS Laissez-Faire
 Organisational/Industrial psychologists have identified two factors on which
leaders differ
- task orientation
- relationship orientation = socio-emotional leaders
Everyday Social Influence

 Reciprocity
- Door in the Face Technique = make a request that we know will be turned
down, so that when we back down the other individual reciprocates with a
counter offer
 Commitment
- Foot in the Door Technique = start small then ask for a larger request
- Low balling = get a commitment to a request and then change the
conditions of the commitment
 Liking
- We might agree to things we normally would not if we like the individual
making the request
Communicating in the Health Sciences
Consulting
 Seeking advice, information, or exchanging opinions
- formal or informal
 Differences of opinions can be opportunities to learn
 Important to understand the differing roles in teams
 Optimal outcomes for clients can be gained through consulting
Advocating
 Presenting the cause of another individual or group
 Clients may need advocacy for a range of issues
- EG. Social, personal, health
 There may be times where you can act on a clients behalf
 Referral to an external independent advocate may be more appropriate
Mediating
 An independent party resolving disagreements or disputes
- Identify the nature and severity of the issue
- Keep a record of communication
- Paraphrase and re-state information
- Agreements must be specific and clear
- Process should always be fair and reasonable
Negotiating

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 Seeking agreement about matters people are concerned about or interested

in changing
 Relation to mediation but does not need to involve conflict or dispute
 Relies on discussion, flexibility, and willingness to compromise
 External barriers and limitations need to be considered
 Compromise to reach best outcome for client
WEEK 11: PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH PROCESSES

Health Psychology Principles
 Psychological influence on health & response to illness
 Perspectives- evil spirits → release via trephination- fluid imbalance → correct deficit
- separation of mind & body → cellular discrepancies- biopsychosocial → interplay of
factors
Theories of Health Behaviour

 Health Belief Model / Protection Motivation- perceived susceptibility (bias)-
seriousness or severity of outcome- benefits & barriers- cues to action → peers,
media- self efficacy (complete actions)
 Reasoned Action / Planned Behaviour- attitudes → perception from peers-

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subjective norms → socio cultural influence- capacity to resist or disengage w/

behaviour
Emergency Health Compromising Behaviours

 Creeps up
 Short term satisfaction
 Harmless perception
 Underestimate risk (bias)
 Includes: obesity, alcohol abuse, smoking, unprotected sex etc.
Produce consequences & can be treated / prevented
Barriers to Healthy Behaviours

Individual: short term consideration, denial, gender (rates of usage) & self-presentation
Family: model behaviours & attitudes
Health system: treatment VS prevention (biomedical), communication
Cultural: seeking help, language barrier and sensitivity
Stress
 Challenge to individuals capacity to adapt
 Subjective experience
 Produces arousal & efforts to cope
 Process- potentially stressful event- analyse threat- response: emotional
(annoyance, fear), behavioural or physiological
 Types: harm, threat or challenged
 Sources- frustration → blocked goal- conflict → incompatible motives (approach VS
avoidance)- change → scale of likely illness- pressure → perform or conform- hassles
→ accumulative
 Effects- impaired performance (inverted U)- assistance / adjustment → efficiency &
future avoidance- psychological disturbance- physical → susceptibility to illness,
altered behaviour & mood
Coping
 Reduce, master or tolerate demands
 Adaptive (+ve) or maladaptive (-ve)
 Mechanisms- adaptive (behavioural change) or maladaptive (emotional change)-
learned helplessness → give up (↓ self efficacy)- indulgence → temporary satiation-
defensive → unconscious protection from -ve emotion
 Stress control: support (buffer), optimism (adapt) and diligence (healthy behaviour)
MULTIPLE CHOICE PRACTICE TEST NOTES:
 Psychology originally arose from philosophy. When it became psychology it

also became a science.
 The father of psychology is William Wundt. He was the first person to call
himself a psychologist.
 Biopsychology investigates the physical basis of behaviour, by determining
what the physical issue is.
 The dynamic interplay of mental forces was a theory that was developed by
Freud (this theory was a mental life that emphasized the above)
 The primary method of behaviourism is the experimental method

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 Characteristics that help organisms adjust and survive are referred to as

adaptive traits
 Evolutionary psychologists examine psychological traits such as memory,
language and perception. They have been criticised because predicting
behaviour in the laboratory is much more difficult and therefore convincing
than explaining what had already happened.
 Cognitive psychologists will often use response times in experiments.
 Gestalt is a word for form shape, and gestalt psychologists will argue that
when seeing ones perspective of pieces as a whole there perspective will be
influenced.
 William James theories of psychology revolve around Functionalism
 CR = Conditioned Response
 UCR = Unconditioned Response
 UCS = Unconditioned Stimulus
 Classical conditioning was originally proposed by Ivan Pavlov
 According to our texts, taste aversions are visceral responses
 Classical conditioning between CS AND UCS involved forward conditioning
 The highest and most consistent rate of response is produced by a Variable-
Ratio schedule of reinforcement. EG – continually changing so that it doesn’t
become stale or known
 Reinforcement is an environmental event which increases the probability
that a response will be repeated
 When administering punishment you should ensure that acceptable
behaviours are being reinforced
 People learn from one another and there surroundings without
reinforcement. This is called social learning.
 If you are exposed to a loud noise over and over again you will adapt to the
situation. This is called Habituation
 In classical conditioning and most conditionings the order of presentation of
the Conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus plays an important role
 Operant conditioning = behaviour is controlled by its consequences.
 Beyond the visual cortex the visual information flows along the what and
where processing streams
 The where pathway does not involve recognizing and name an object
 The main cues for vocal localisation are differences in loudness and time of
arrival of the sound
 If standing on a building and the closer look sharp and the distant look hazier.
This is an example of depth cue = aerial perspective
 Schemas is a pattern of behaviour or thought that organises categories of
information and the relationships between them. These increase the speed
and efficiency of perception.
 Perception is distinguished from sensation by organisation and interpretation
 Muller Lyer illusion involves two lines of equal length that appear to be
different in size
 Perception involves bottom up processing and top down processing
 People with blind sight are cortically blind

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 William James states primary memory is short where secondary memory is

long
 Short term memory is brief, limited in capacity and quickly accessed
 Declarative memory can involve semantic and episodic memory
 The visuo-spatial sketchpad is part of working memory
 Long-term knowledge stored in networks of association is ideas that are
mentally connected to one another by repeatedly occurring together.
 In the working model memory system by Baddeley and Hitch, memory load
of 3 items did not affect reasoning speed.
 Subconscious memory. EG – Non declarative and explicit and implicit
 IQ scores normally tend to be distributed around the mean
 The authors of our textbooks define intelligence as: application of cognitive
skills and knowledge to learn, solve problems and obtain ends that are valued
by an individual or culture
 Thermatic-apperception test is commonly used to identify unconscious
motives
 Physiological arousal is not a component of motivation
 Attachment motivation will be someone’s desire for physical and
psychological closeness to another
 When eating your satiety mechanisms start to operate, this is why you will
rapidly eat and then slow down and start to feel full
 According to John Bowlby, attachment behaviour is pre-wired in order to
keep offspring close to their parents
 Acceptance from parent child interactions is associated with high self-
esteem, independence and emotional stability
 From a psychodynamic perspective the main emotion that motivates people
to obey his or her conscience is guilt
 Adolescence for most individuals is continuous with childhood and
adulthood, undistinguished by turbulence
 Personality psychology examines the structure of personality and individual
differences
 According to Freud, the key to personality development is development of
the libidinal drive
 According to Freud, the reality principle is the ego weighing the IDs desires
against the consequences
 Unconscious thoughts are statements of feelings without even hesitating
 Carl Rogers proposed that the primary motivation of humans is actualizing
tendency (making it a reality)
 The more conflict that arises in achieving your goals, the more anxious,
depression and poor health people will suffer
 Successful task performance is tied to a persons conviction that they can
produce the desired outcome
 Personality is likely to be consistent in similar situations
 Compassionate lovers differs from passionate lovers in that it develops over
time through shared experiences, emotions and daily life routines

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 Having a presence of other people in an emergency situation, decreases the

chance that a bystander will intervene because other people act as a source
of information and reassurance
 People often do not help in a situation where someone is in distress to diffuse
the responsibility
 If two people are to change rolls and swap the power/dominance there is
likely to be a role where they actually take on the roles seriously
 Stress entails a transaction between people and their environment
 The psychodynamic medicine was brought about as physiology and
psychology mutually influence each other
 Stress is describe by Richard Lazarus = harm or loss, treat, challenge

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ALHT106 NOTES: PSCYCHOLOGY FOR ALLIED HEALTH EXAM PREP

WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

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Contemporary Psychology Perspectives:

There are 5 contemporary psychology perspectives:

Psychodynamic Perspective: Freud

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Some key figures:

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more self-aware and self-directed.

 Baddeley: working memory model

Basis: Darwin, natural selection, adaptive traits.

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• Conservation Psychology: studying the Reciprocal relationships between

Characteristics of Scientific Psychological Research

Evidenced Based Practice - Different Research Methods

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WEEK 2: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOURAL ANALYSIS #1

Learning: A durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience. The

Learning theories: Provide a conceptual framework to explain what is known about

Main two theories:

Behaviourist paradigm & Cognitive paradigm

NB: UCS - unconditioned stimulus, I.E. a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned

Conditioned responses are often weaker or less intense.

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Implications: Conditioned and unconditioned stimuli can pair to obtain a conditioned

Stimulus generalisation: A CR to one CS seems to generalise to closely related

Discrimination to CS: After teaching a CR subsequent pairings of different CS can

WATSON: Expanded on Pavlov’s work to demonstrate that emotional reactions

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Reinforcement: An event, which strengthens or maintains behaviour that it

Positive reinforcement: applies a stimulus, adding something to increase behaviour

Punishment: decreases the frequency of undesirable behaviour.

Intrinsic VS extrinsic: IE - self fulfillment VS reinforcement outside the activity. Eg

Artificial VS naturally occurring: Eg praise every time a good behaviour occurs

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Factors Influencing Reinforcer Effectiveness:

**Variable often more effective**

Prompting and fading:

Prompts can be physical, visual, auditory or a combination.

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Extinction: withholding a reinforcer for a previously reinforced response to cause a

• Incompatible behaviour: reinforce behaviours that are physically incompatible

• Simple correction: results of inappropriate behaviour must be corrected.

Premack response: The opportunity to engage in high probability behaviour

Thorndike: (pre skinner) Stimulus -> response

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Law of effect - pleasant consequences lead to repetition unpleasant to cessation of

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WEEK 3: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOURAL ANALYSIS #2

Social Learning Theory

Three concepts are at the centre of social learning theory:

Reinforcement may be internal (intrinsic), external (extrinsic), positive, or negative.

Bandura – Bobo Doll Experiment

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Implications for health professionals

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Variable often more effective