Science – a systemized body of knowledge which is based on facts that are gathered through

observation, experimentation and investigation.

 CHEMISTRY – study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
- Central science, it embodies other branches of science
 MATTER – anything that occupies space and has mass.
 ATOMS – smallest particle
 MOLECULES – group of atoms
 IONS – charged particles
o ANIONS – negatively charged particles
o CATIONS – positively charged particles

 STATES OF MATTER
 SOLID – its particles are compact; and has definite size, shape and
volume.
 LIQUID – its particles are slightly away with each other; has no definite
shape but has definite volume; and it takes the volume and shape of its
container.
 GAS – its particles are away from each other; and has no definite shape
and volume.

 PHASE CHANGE
 SOLID TO LIQUID – melting (Endothermic)
 LIQUID TO SOLID – solidification or freezing (Exothermic)
 LIQUID TO GAS – vaporization or evaporation (Endothermic)
 GAS TO LIQUID – Condensation (Exothermic)
 SOLID TO GAS – Sublimation (Endothermic)
 GAS TO SOLID – Deposition (Exothermic)

 ENDOTHERMIC – heat going in

 EXOTHERMIC – heat going out

 PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 PHYSICAL – observable and measurable without changing the
substance’s chemical composition.
o EXTRUSIVE – depends on the amount of matter.
o INTRUSIVE - doesn’t depend on the amount of matter.
 CHEMICAL – chemical reaction; flammability and rusting.

 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER
  PURE SUBSTANCE – definite composition
o ELEMENT – cannot be separated; and only one type of atom.
o COMPOUND – can be separated chemically; 2 or more types of
atom.
 MIXTURE – 2 or more components.
o HOMOGENOUS – uniform composition; one phase
SOLUTION
/ \
Solute Solvent
o HETEROGENOUS – not uniform composition; 2 or more phases

/ \
Suspension Colloids (Tyndall Effect)
 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
 DISTILLATION – evaporation and condensation
 EVAPORATION – to get the solute
 MAGNETIC SEPARATION – separation of 2 solid material but one of
them is magnetized.
 DECATATION – separation of 2 liquid material with different density.
 FLOATATION – separation of 2 solid material, one is less dense, one
will float and one will sink.
 FILTRATION – separate insoluble solid and liquid.
 CENTRIFUGATION – with the use of centrifuge.

 LAWS OF MATTER
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS – Matter is neither created nor
destroyed during chemical reactions or physical change.
Reactant → Product
↑ ↑
Mass = Mass
-Anton Lavoisler, the mass of your reactant is equal to the mass of
the product.
CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2 (H₂O)
/ \ | / \ / \
12g+4g+64g=12g+32g+4g+32g
80g = 80g
 LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS – Joseph Proust, A chemical
compound contains the same elements in exactly the same proportions by
mass regardless of the size of the sample or source of compound.
CO2 = 12gC, 32gO 32/12 = 2.67
 = 24gC, 64gO 64/24 = 2.67
= 36gC, 96gO 96/36 = 2.67
= 30gC, __gO 30gC x 32gO = 80g0
12gC
 LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS – John Dalton, If the two or
more different compounds are composed of the same two elements, then
the ratio of the masses of the second element combined with a certain
mass of the first element is always a ratio of small whole numbers.
A B
CO CO₂
12gC = 16gO 12gC = 32gO Divide the mass of the first
12 12 element by itself for it to be
1gC = 1.33gO 1gC = 2.67gO equal to one.
B/A → 2.67gO/1.33gO = 2/1 → ratio
If B/A is not a ratio of whole number, example: B/A = 1.5/1 x 2 = 3/2

Daltons Atomic Theory

1. All matter is made of extremely small particles called atoms (in constant motion).
2. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of
different elements differ in size, mass and other properties.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical
compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.

JJ Thomson – Electron
- Plum pudding
- Ratio of mass/charge; -1.76x10⁸ c/g
Robert Milikan – oil drop experiment
- Mass of electron = -1.602x10^-19 c
-1.76x10⁸ c/g
= 9.10x10^-28 g
Ernest Rutherford – proton and nucleus
- Gold foil experiment
- “atom is almost an empty space”
- Mass of proton = 1840 x mass of electron
- = 9.10x10^-28 g x 1840
 - = 1.67x10^-24 g
James Chadwick – beryllium foil experiment
- Neutron
(Z) Atomic number = no. of protons = no. of electrons (if neutral)
(A) mass number = no. of protons + no. neutrons
A Q → charge

X → element
Z

Atomic Mass = average mass of all the isotopes of a given element.

= (A₁ x %) + (A₂ x %)
151Eu = 48.03%
153Eu = 51.97%
= (151 x 48.03%) + (153 x 51.97%)
= (151 x 0.4803) + (153 x 0.5197)
= 152.04amu

Naming Compounds
 Ionic compound
 Cations + anions
 Metal + non-metal
Metals tends to lose electron
Non-metals tends to gain electron
1. BINARY COMPOUND (metal + non-metal) – retain the name of the first element and
change the 2nd element and add a suffix of “ide”
- MgO – Magnesium Oxide
2. METAL + POLYATOMIC ANIONS – the two ions present retain its name
Na₂SO₄ – Sodium Sulfate
3. VARIABLE VALENCE + ANIONS
 CLASSICAL SYSTEM – latin root and add a suffix of “ous” or “ic”
FeO <- Fe^2 + O^2 - Ferrous Oxide
Fe₂O₃ <- Fe^3 + O^2 - Ferric Oxide
 STOCK SYSTEM – real name of the 1st element and represent the charge using
roman numeral
FeO – Iron (II) Oxide
Fe₂O₃ – Iron (III) Oxide
4. COVALENT COMPOUND – non-metal + non-metal
- Mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, and deca
SO₂ – sulfur dioxide
N₂O₂ – dinitrogen dioxide
Significant Figures
 Important digits that indicates the precision of measurement.
 Avoid over representation of numbers.

1. All non-zero numbers are significant.

123,456 – 6 significant numbers
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
101 – 3 significant numbers
1,000,001 – 7 significant figures
3. Leading zeros are not significant.
0.0135 – 3 significant figures
4. Trailing zeros in a whole number with no decimal are not significant.
1000 -1 significant figure
5. Trailing zeros in a whole number with decimal are significant.
305,010. – 6 significant figures
256,000. – 6 significant figures
6. Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal are significant.
1,250.000 – 7 significant figures
0.500 – 3 significant figures

OPERATIONS
 Add and Subtract – consider the least decimal number.
45.012 → 3 decimal number
+3.1 __ → 1 decimal number
48.112 → 48.1 (1 decimal number)
 Multiplication and division – consider the least no. of significant figures.
23.7 → 3 significant figures
X 3.8 → 2 significant figures
90.06 → 90. (2 significant figures)

 Example:
= (3.57 + 2.61) x 0.48 After performing the first operation, write down the whole
= (6.18) x 0.48 answer (not represented in significant figures) but the
= 2.9664 → 3.0 underline will represent the number of significant figures
then proceed to the next operation.
Scientific Notation
 to express values that are very small or very large in a more convenient way.
N x 10ⁿ → number of movement of decimals.
299,792,458 m/s speed of light
3.0 x 10⁸ m/s
Examples:
= 125,000. If the movement of the decimal is from right to left (positive exponent).
= 1.25 x 10⁵

= 0.000125 If the movement of the decimal is from left to right (negative exponent).
= 1.25 x 10⁻⁴
OPERATIONS
 Addition and Subtraction – make sure that the exponents are the same before
proceeding with the operation.
= (3.40 x 10^2) + (4.57 x 10^3) Make the smaller exponent the same to the larger
= (0.340 x 10^3) + (4.57 x 10^3) exponent by moving the decimal to the left.
= 4.910 x 10^3 = 4.91 x 10^3

= (6.91 x 10^-2) + (2.41 x 10^-3)

= (6.91 x 10^-2) + (0.241 x 10^-2)
= 7.151 x 10^-2 = 7.15 x 10^-2
 Multiplication and Division

Multiplication & Division

| |
Add the exponent subtract the exponent

= (4.3 x 10⁸) + (2 x 10⁶)

= 8.6 x 10^14
= 9 x 10^14

= 7.8 x 10^3
1.2 x 10⁴
=6.5 x 10^-1

Mole and Avogadro’s Number

 MOLE – a counting unit
- Unit of the amount of substance
- The amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in 12g of C-12 -> 6.02 x 10^23 particles (Avogadro’s number).
- No. of particles of 1 mole of any substance = number of atoms in 12g of C-12
- Lorenzo Romano Amadeo Carlo Avogadro
- Just a number to represent quantities
 Elementary Entities
 Element – Atoms
 Simple Compound – Molecules
 Ionic Compound – Formula Units

 MOLAR MASS – mass of element per unit mole (g/n)

- Numeric equivalent of atomic mass in grams

H = 1amu C = 12amu
1 mole H = 1g C = 12g/n
H = 1g/n 1 mole C = 12g

 MOLAR CONVERSION
  Particles to number of mole and vice versa
1 mole = 6.02 x 10^23 particles

 How many atoms are in 1.50 moles of Au?

1.50 n Au x 6.02 x 10^23 atoms Au = 9.03 x 10^23 atoms Au
1 1 n Au
 How many moles of NH3 are in 1.20 x 10^25 molecules of NH3?
1.20 x 10^25 molecules NH3 x 1n NH3 = 19.9 n NH3
1 6.02 x 10^23 molecules NH3
 Mole to mass and vice versa
n = mass/molar mass
 How many moles are in 29.58g of C?
29.58gC x 1nC = 2.465nC
12gC
 How many grams are in 3.45n of CO2?
3.45nCO2 x 44g = 152gCO2
1n
 Particle to mass and vice versa

 Find the mass in grams of 2.00 x 10^23 molecules F2

2.00 x 10^23 molecules F2 x 1n F2 x 38gF2 = 12.6g F2
6.02 x 10^23 molecules F2 1nF2
 Find the no. of particles of 452gAr
452gAr x 1nAr x 6.02 x10^23 atoms Ar = 6.80 x10^24 atoms Ar
40gAr 1n Ar

 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS

%mass = molar mass of element x 100%
molar mass of compound

What is the percentage by mass of H & O in water?

H2O %mass H = 2g/n x 100%
H = 1(2) = 2g/n 18g/n
O = 16 (1) = 16g/n %mass H = 11.11% H
18g/n %mass O = 16g/n x 100%
18g/n
%mass O = 88.89% O
 COMPUTING THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR FORMULA
USING PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS
 Empirical Formula – simplified chemistry formula
 Molecular Formula – actual chemistry formula

 What is the E.F. of a molecule containing 65.5% C, 5.5% H, and

29.0% O?
o Assume 100g of compound
o Convert mass to mole
 o Divide all product with the lowest value
65.5gC x 1nC = 5.46nC/1.81 = 3
12gC
5.5gH x 1nH = 5.5nH/1.81 = 3 E.F. C3H3O
1gH
29gO x 1nO = 1.81nO/1.81 = 1
16gO
 What is the molecular formula if the molar mass of the compound is
110g/n?
C = 12(3) = 36g/n 55g/n = 2 x C3H30
H = 1(3) = 3g/n 110g/n C6H6O2 -> M.F.
O = 16(1) = 16g/n
55g/n -> divided by the given molar mass of the compound
Chemical reaction
 Conversion of one substance in to another form.
 CHEMICAL EQUATION – symbolic representation of a chemical reaction.
 (→) to separate the reactant from the product
 ← reversible
→
 (+) Separate substances from the reactant side as well as on the product side
 Catalyst The reaction speeds up
→
 ∆ Heat
→
 (s) Solid
 (l) Liquid
 (↑) Turns into gas
 (aq) Aqueous Solution

X + YZ → XZ + Y
↓ ↓ ↓
Reacts To And
with produce

 EVIDENCES
 Change in color
 Production of heat/change in temperature
 Change in odor
 There is explosion
 Produce light
 Formation of bubbles of gases
 Formation of precipitate
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION
 COMBINATION/ SYNTHESIS REACTION – two or more substances
combine to form one new substance.
A + B → AB
 H₂ + O₂ → H₂O

Diatomic Elements:
H, O, Cl, Br, F, I, N
 DECOMPOSITION/ ANALYSIS REACTION
AB → A + B
H₂O → H₂ + O₂
CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
 COMBUSTION REACTION – hydrocarbon react with oxygen and will
produce carbon dioxide and water.
CxHy + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
C₆H₁₀ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
 SINGLE REPLACEMENT/ SUBSTITUTION REACTION

A + BC → B + AC
↓ ↓
Metal metal

A + BC → BA + C
↓
Non-metal

Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂
Ag + Cu (NO₃) → no reaction (because gold is less reactive than copper)
By using the activity series, you could identify the most reactive element.

Activity Series for Metals

Lee - Lithium
Stop - Sodium
Calling- Calcium
Me - Magnesium
A - Aluminum
Careless- Carbon
Zebra - Zinc
Instead - Iron
Try - Tin
Learning- Lead
How - Hydrogen
Copper- Copper
May - Mercury
Save - Sliver
Gold - Gold

Activity Series for Non-Metals

F₂
 Cl₂
Br₂
I₂
 DOUBLE REPLACEMENT/ METATHESIS REACTION
AB + CD → AD + CB
BaCl₂ + Na₂SO₄ → BaSO₄ + NaCl
 ACID-BASE REACTION (neutralization)
Acid + Base → Salt + H₂O
H + anion Cation + OH
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
H₂SO₄ Mg (OH)₂
H₃PO₄ Be (OH)₃

H₂SO₄ + Pb (OH)₄ → Pb (SO₄)₂ + H₂O

Balancing Equation
 to follow the law of conservation of mass

2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

 Using Algebra
AKNO₃ + BH₂CO₃ → CK₂CO₃ + DHNO₃use variables
K A = 2C A=1 x2=2
NO₃ A = D B=½ x2=1
H 2B = D C=½ x2=1
CO₃ B = C D=1 x2=2
It should be a whole number, so multiply until all
the values become whole numbers.
2KNO₃ + 1H₂CO₃ → 1K₂CO₃ + 2HNO₃ (balanced equation)

 Balancing Combustion Reaction Equation

o Copy the C
o Half the H
o Balance the O
1CH₄ + 2O₂ → 1CO₂ + 2H₂O (balanced equation)

Stoichiometry
 The study of the quantities or amount of substances
 MASS RELATIONSHIP
example:
2 slices of bread + 1 hamburger patty + 0.5 slices of cheese → cheeseburger
 MOLAR RATIO:
2 slices of bread = 1 hamburger patty = 0.5 slices of cheese

6.0 slices of bread x 0.5 slices of cheese = 1.5 slices of cheese

2 slices of bread
 3H₂ + N₂ → 2NH₃
o How many n pf NH₃ will be produce if 10.4nH₂ reacts completely
with N₂?
o Molar Ratio: 3n H₂ = 1n N₂ = 2n NH₃
Particle particle
↘ ↗
n sub. A → n sub. B
↗ ↘
Mass mass

10.4nH₂ x 2n NH₃ = 6.93n NH₃

3 n H₂