CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter provides local and foreign related literature and studies gained from the

internet, websites, books, thesis and dissertations, and other scholarly sources that has a relation,

and could provide support to the present study.

2.1 PLASTIC

Plastics are (mostly) synthetic (human-made) materials, made from polymers, which are

long molecules built around chains of carbon atoms, typically with hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and

nitrogen filling in the spaces. (Chris Woodford)

The word plastic is derived from the Greek ThaotiKóg (plastikos) meaning capable of

being shaped or molded, from naoróg (plastos) meaning molded. It refers to their malleability, or

plasticity during manufacture that allows them to be cast, pressed or extruded into a variety of

shapes-such as films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more. (Hala Hashim

Merghani)

This property of plasticity, often found in combination with other special properties such

as low density, low electrical conductivity, transparency, and toughness, allows plastics to be

made into a great variety of products. These include tough and lightweight beverage bottles

made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), flexible garden hoses made of polyvinyl chloride

(PVC), insulating food containers made of foamed polystyrene, and shatterproof windows made

of polymethyl methacrylate. (Ferdinand Rodriguez)

 Plastic is one such material which poses a big threat to the environment. A huge amount

of plastic is produced and dumped into the environment which does not readily degrade

naturally. In this paper, we address the organization of a large body of literature published on the

management of waste plastics being the most challenging issue of the modern world.

(Kitchenham et al.)

Plastic bags are a big danger to our environment, because a single plastic bag takes 1000

hours to decay completely as they are made of petrochemicals which are nonrenewable. This

means that the plastic bags will stay for a longer period of time and damage our Mother Nature.

In the ocean, there are 46,000 pieces of plastic per square mile. (Vidya Hattangadi)

Organic material goes quickly: cardboard in three months; wood is up to three years, a

pair of wool socks is up to five. A plastic shopping bag may take 20 years; a plastic cup, 50.

Major industrials will be there for much longer. An aluminium can is with us for 200 years, a

glass bottle for 500, a plastic bottle for 700, and a styrofoam container for a millennium

(William Bryant Logan)

2.2 PRODUCTION OF PLASTIC

Hydrocarbons made in fractional distillation are the raw materials for polymerization, the

name we give to the chemical reactions that make polymers. Typically, we need to use other

chemicals called catalysts to kick-start polymerization. We often have to add other ingredients to

the basic hydrocarbons to produce a polymer with exactly the right chemical and physical

properties. These extra ingredients include colorants, plasticizers, stabilizers, and fillers. What

we've got at this point is a plastic polymer known as a resin, which can be used for making all

kinds of plastic products. Resins are supplied as powders or grains that are loaded into a
machine, heated, and then shaped by one or more processes to make our finished plastic product.

(C. Woodford)

Production of plastics from crude oil requires 62 to 108 MJ/Kg (taking into account the

average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%). Producing silicon and semiconductors for

modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 230 to 235 MJ/Kg of silicon, and

about 3,000 MJ/Kg of semiconductors. This is much higher than the energy needed to produce

many other materials, e.g. iron (from iron ore) requires 20-25 MJ/Kg of energy, glass (from sand,

etc.) 18–35 MJ/Kg, steel (from iron) 20–50 MJ/Kg, paper (from timber) 25–50 MJ/Kg. (Low-

Tech Magazine)

2.3 BIODEGRADABLE PLASTIC

Due to the risk plastics have cased and have been causing in our community,

biodegradable plastics were invented and are continuously developing. These kind of plastics are

promoted everywhere as support to our environment.

A plastic is considered biodegradable if it can degrade into water, carbon dioxide, and

biomass in a given time frame (Washington State Department of Ecology, 2014)

Biodegradable plastics are commonly used for disposable items, such as packaging,

crockery, cutlery, and food service containers. In principle they could replace many applications

for conventional plastics, however cost and performance remain problematic. Their usage is

financially favorable only if supported by specific regulations limiting the usage of conventional

plastics. (Anthony et al.)

 Biodegradable plastics are seen by many as a promising solution to this problem because

they are environmentally-friendly. They can be derived from renewable feedstocks, thereby

reducing greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and lactic acid

(raw materials for PLA) can be produced by fermentative biotechnological processes using

agricultural products and microorganisms (Wang et al. 1997)

Biodegradable plastics offer a lot of advantages such as increased soil fertility, low

accumulation of bulky plastic materials in the environment (which invariably will minimize

injuries to wild animals), and reduction in the cost of waste management. Furthermore,

biodegradable plastics can be recycled to useful metabolites (monomers and oligomers) by

microorganisms and enzymes. A second strategy involves degradation of some petroleum-

derived plastics by biological processes. A typical example can be seen in the case of some

aliphatic polyesters such as PCL and PBS that can be degraded with enzymes and

microorganisms. (Tokiwa Y.; Suzuki T.)

Studies have also shown that polycarbonates (particularly the aliphatic types) possess

some degree of biodegradability. Thirdly, bold attempts are being made to recycle non-

biodegradable plastics. For instance, polystyrene (used in making some disposable spoons,

plates, cups and some packaging materials) can be recycled and used as filler for other plastics.

(Tokiwa Y.)

2.4 BIOPLASTIC

Bioplastic, moldable plastic material made up of chemical compounds that are derived

from or synthesized by microbes such as bacteria or by genetically modified plants. (Wikipedia)

 A plastic is considered a bioplastic if it was produced partly or wholly with biologically

sourced polymers. (Scgchemicals) Biodegradable plastics, on the other hand, refer to

petroleum-based plastics that are combined with an additive that makes them break down

quickly. A plastic is considered biodegradable if it can degrade into water, carbon dioxide, and

biomass in a given time frame (dependent on different standards). Thus, the terms are not

synonymous. Not all bioplastics are biodegradable. An example of a non-biodegradable

bioplastic is bio-based PET. PET is a petrochemical plastic, derived from fossil fuels. Bio-based

PET is the same petrochemical plastic however it is synthesized with bacteria. Bio-based PET

has identical technical properties to its fossil-based counterpart. (Washingston State

Department of Ecology)

Bioplastics are driving the evolution of plastics. There are two major advantages of

biobased plastic products compared to their conventional versions: they save fossil resources by

using biomass which regenerates (annually) and provides the unique potential of carbon

neutrality. Furthermore, biodegradability is an add-on property of certain types of bioplastics. It

offers additional means of recovery at the end of a product’s life. (European Bioplastics)

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF TARO (COLOCASIA ESCULENTA)

Taro, (Colocasia esculenta), also called eddo or dasheen, herbaceous plant of the family

Araceae. Probably native to southeastern Asia, whence it spread to Pacific islands, it became a

staple crop, cultivated for its large, starchy, spherical underground tubers, which are consumed

as cooked vegetables, made into puddings and breads, and also made into the Polynesian poi, a

thin, pasty, highly digestible mass of fermented taro starch (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
 It is one of the few crops (along with rice and lotus) that can be grown under flooded

conditions. This is due to air spaces in the petiole, which permit underwater gaseous exchange

with the atmosphere. (Wikipedia) Taro is the fourteenth most-consumed vegetable worldwide.

According to the FAO Production Yearbook, 5.4 million tons of taro were produced from 1

million ha in 1989. (V. Lebot 1; K.. Aradhya)

Taro leaves are rich in minerals and vitamins, making them a good source of riboflavin,

phosphorus, thiamin, zinc, and iron, and vitamin C, vitamin B6, copper, niacin, manganese, and

potassium. Taro corms are also very high in starch, and a good source for dietary fiber. (Ting

Jang-Lu)

In addition, it is known to be a good source of carbohydrate, fiber and minerals especially

potassium and vitamins (especially B-complex) which is more than that found in whole milk and

vitamins A and C. It is rather low in ascorbic acid and carotene with the amount of carotene

being the same level as that found in cabbage and twice that found in potato (Wang 1983)

Taro also contains anti-nutrient factors such as: oxalate, phytate and tannin. Taro

deteriorates rapidly as a result of its high moisture and has been estimated to have a shelf-life of

up to one month if undamaged (Lebot, 2009) and stored in a shady area.

2.6 TARO AS A MAIN COMPONENT FOR BIOPLASTIC PRODUCTION

Bioplastics are plastic materials produced from renewable biomass sources, such as

vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste, etc.

Bioplastic can be made from agricultural by-products and also from used plastic bottles and other

containers using microorganisms. (Hong et al.)

 A plastic is considered a bioplastic if it was produced partly or wholly with biologically

sourced polymers. (Scgchemicals) The simplest bio-based polymers are cellulose and starch that

have been known and widely used for centuries.

. Taro corms are very high in starch, and a good source for dietary fiber. Taro contains

tiny starch grains rich in amylose, which is excellent for people that have digestive problems.

That is why Taro flour is used in canned baby foods and baby formulae. It is also good for

people that have allergies, for example: lactose intolerance. Some people say that Taro creates

less dental problems than other starch crops. (Ting Jang-Lu) This shows that taro is truly a

starchy crop thus making the researchers decide it as the main component for the bioplastic.

2.7 MEASUREMENT OF BIODEGRADABILITY

In order to make such assessments, scientists conduct respirometry tests that measure the

rate of carbon dioxide production or oxygen consumption of an organism or organic system. To

do this, researchers take a solid waste sample and place it in a container with microorganisms

and soil. The container is then aerated (supplied with oxygen or air) and over the course of

several days, the microorganisms interact and consume the sample – creating carbon dioxide in

return. The scientists then measure the biodegradability of a sample based on how much carbon

dioxide is produced during a set time period. (Andy Jessop)

2.8 MEASUREMENT OF DURABILITY

Durability is the ability of a physical product to remain functional, without requiring

excessive maintenance or repair, when faced with the challenges of normal operation over its

design lifetime (Cooper Tim)

 There are different kind types for testing durability. Temperature testing is mainly carried

out in laboratories. A reliable testing machine will measure the elevated behaviors of materials

when exposed to extreme temperatures. Tensile testing on the other hand, is done where the

product is placed into a testing frame where pressure is added to the product. Third is Vibration

testing is generally conducted out on the production floor or within a laboratory setting. The

vibration testing involves using either an electrodynamic vibration table or a servo-hydraulic

shaker. Ageing testing uses sped up conditions to advance the ageing process to test the product

to its limits. The testing is usually carried out in a laboratory setting where the sped up conditions

and continuous stress imposed on the product will determine its lifespan. Fatigue testing will

assess how a product degrades over time. (Kdbelta) The researchers decided to test the

durability using tensile strength method.