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Guideline For Stone Masonry Construction
Guideline For Stone Masonry Construction
Guideline For Stone Masonry Construction
Bhutan lies in the Himalayas which were formed by collision between the Indian plate and Eurasian
Plate that started about 50 million years ago. Each year, the Indian Plate advances relentlessly
about 20mm towards the Asian plate resulting in the stress built up in the Himalayan region.
The two earthquakes of 2009 and 2011 which affected mainly the eastern, western and southern
Bhutan have re-confirmed the active seismicity in the region. These two earthquakes caused severe
damages to properties in Bhutan.
The earthquakes can neither be predicted nor be prevented but proactive precaution can be taken to
reduce the risk by building safer homes. It is said ―Earthquakes do not kill but bad buildings do‖.
This ―Guideline for Stone Masonry Construction - 2013‖ is an updated and improved version of the
previous Good Construction Practices Manual 2011.
The guideline provides various measures to be considered in proper planning, design and
construction of the houses to achieve good seismic resistance.
The Ministry of Works and Human Settlement is pleased to publish this ―Guideline for Stone
Masonry Construction - 2013‖ and anticipate all the users and the home owners to take full
advantage more so , this should serve as a good guideline to all artisans, engineers, architects and
builders in rendering their services.
The guideline will be reviewed and updated periodically as and when better methods are available
to suit our context. We would also, appreciate valuable comments and suggestions on this
guideline for consideration in its next edition.
i
Acknowledgement
The Stone Masonry Guideline 2013 is prepared with the financial assistance from the UNDP–
Bhutan office. The Ministry of Works and Human Settlement would like to thank the UNDP for
their support.
The Ministry would also like to thank the members of the Technical Core Group for their valuable
inputs in developing and fine tuning the Guideline. The Members are:
ii
Scope of the Guideline
This guideline specifically deals with stone masonry construction in Bhutan. Traditionally stone
masonry constructions in Bhutan were carried out using mud mortar. The recent trend in stone
masonry construction is using cement mortar and steel. However, it is unfortunate that both these
constructions are happening with little or no regard to earthquake safety of these houses. The lack
of earthquake resistant features in these houses has resulted in major damages and losses during
recent earthquakes. This guideline, therefore, endeavors to identify and highlight shortcomings of
present construction practices in stone masonry and recommend internationally accepted
strengthening measures.
This guideline could be used by all professionals involved in building constructions particularly
stone masonry buildings.
iii
Definition of Key Terms
Epicentre: It is the point on the surface, vertically above the place of origin (hypocenter) of
the earthquake.
Magnitude: It is the quantity to measure the size of an earthquake and is independent of the
place of observation.
Wythe: is a continuous vertical section of masonry one unit thickness. A wythe maybe inde-
pendent of, or interlocked with, the adjoining wythes.
Delamination : is a failure mode where by a splitting apart of layers takes place, or division
into separate layers.
In-Plane Failure of Wall: The failure that takes place due to the forces parallel to the axis of
the wall.
Out - of-Plane Failure of Wall : the failure that takes place due to the forces perpendicular to
the axis of the wall.
iv
Preface
Contents
7. References 44
v
1. Seismicity, Past Damage and Pattern and Building Typology in Bhutan
1
Figure 2: Seismic Hazard
Map of India and Adjoining
Areas
Source: http://
earthquake.usgs.com
The list of Historical earthquakes that affected Bhutan in the past are given in the Table 1.
The damages on rural homes reported by the affected Dzongkhags and compiled by the Department
of Disaster Management for 2009 and 2011 Earthquakes are presented in the Tables below. The
Damage Assessment format used for the 2009 earthquake is incorporated in the Appendix B and for
the 2011 earthquake is put in Appendix C.
2 Zhemgang 1 0 0 1
3 Trashigang 147 445 439 572 2 18
4 Pemagatshel 25 24 24 187 0 3
5 Lhuentse 0 6 24 87 0 0
7 Samdrupjongkhar 7 0 10 11 4 0
8 Gasa 0 0 23 0 0 0
9 Punakha 0 5 0 0 0 0
10 Chukha 0 0 0 22 0 0
11 Sarpang 0 0 0 2 0 0
12 Tsirang 1 3 2 28 0 0
3
Table 3: 2011 Earthquake Damage to Rural Homes
Note: Cat III: Total Collapsed , Cat II: Substantial to Heavy Damage, Cat I: Minor Damage
4
ii) Delamination of Wall Wythes
Stone masonry walls constructed of two wythes are susceptible to delamination. The space between
the wythes is usually filled with small stones and mortar. Delamination takes place when the
vertical wall wythes bulge and collapse outward due to earthquake shaking.
The absence of the through-stones is the primary cause of delamination. The process of
delamination and a picture of delaminated wall are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4.
5
iv) In-Plane Shear Cracking factors like pier dimensions, wall thickness, building height and
masonry shear strength influence the in-plane failure mechanism.
The in-plane shear cracking failure is shown in Figure 6.
Damage to stone masonry
walls due to in-plane seismic
effects (in the direction of the
wall length) is less common
than damage due to the
out-of-plane seismic effects.
Poor quality of construction and use of low quality of building materials are the cause of significant
earthquake damage and destruction in the stone masonry.
6
2. Stone Masonry with Cement Mortar
2.1 Materials
Site conditions play a very important role in the seismic safety of a building. The site should
provide a stable and firm base for the building. In earthquake prone areas where the site is inclined,
the following precautions must be taken into account:
a) The house should not be constructed 3m into the cut slope, as the horizontal forces of the
earth might cause the adjacent walls to collapse.
b) The house should not be constructed near or on top of the edge of slopes as it might
collapse due to earth avalanches.
7
c) Buildings should not
be constructed on the
loose fill, as its low
bearing capacity
might cause
differential settlement
of the foundation.
e) Houses should be
built above the
possible flood line
and with adequate
distance from the
river banks. Buffer
zone of 30m from the
river bank should be
maintained as per the
NEC Act.
8
2.3 Building layout
Building plans should be regular, simple and into smaller blocks of regular plans. Complex
symmetrical. Regular shaped buildings like buildings shall be made simple by providing
square, rectangular or circular resist the gaps at appropriate locations. A separation gap
earthquakes more effectively. During the of 75-100mm should be provided. The length
earthquake movements the corners of the of the building should not be more than three
non-uniform buildings are stressed more and times its width. The above mentioned idea are
may be damaged. When the proposed plan of depicted in the Figure 7.
the building is irregular, it should be divided
Square Rectangle
Building should be as regular as possible along its height. Vertical irregularities are not recom-
mended, but if they cannot be avoided, a load-bearing wall should be provided below each wall in
the upper story.
The pictorial representation of the above mentioned is shown in the Figure 9.
DO DO NOT DO NOT
Figure 9: Regular buildings are recommended, Building irregularity in vertical direction: and buildings
with setbacks or overhangs are not recommended.
Stone masonry buildings with cement mortar should be limited to two stories in high seismic zones.
10
Figure 11. Key Requirements for Structural Integrity in a Masonry Building
2.4 Foundation
Foundation of a building is the The thickness of footing should not be less than 450mm for
part of the building below the one storey and 600mm for two storied. It is preferable to
ground level. The purpose of the have larger stones for foundation. The foundation details for
foundations is to transfer the load stone masonry with cement mortar is shown in Figure 12.
of the superstructure to the
ground. The weight of the struc-
ture must be suited to the load
capacity of the ground which in
turn shall be stable. An adequate
depth of the foundation should be
provided and it should reach the
stable ground with adequate bear-
ing capacity.
11
2.5 Wall
Very long walls which tend to warp or bend The wall height should be limited to 3m for
under in-plane loading are considered slender stone masonry with cement mortar.
walls. These walls are not effective in resisting
lateral earthquake loads. This slenderness ratio iv) Wall thickness
is calculated as effective height divided by the
effective thickness or effective length divided The recommended thickness of a stone
by the effective thickness whichever is less. masonry wall in cement mortar is 450mm and
the recommended minimum wall thickness is
As per the IS 1905, the maximum slenderness
380mm.
ratio for a load bearing wall in Portland cement
or Portland Pozzolana cement mortar for not
more than two storeys should be limited to 13. v) Course Work
Also in the IS 1905, the regular sized unit
stones is considered. Construction of walls in both unreinforced and
reinforced masonry are carried out in course
layers to achieve desired bonding between
ii) Layout of Walls masonry units and also to allow setting of the
fresh course work before next course layer is
Most rural houses in Bhutan have asymmetric continued. A good masonry wall construction
wall layouts and this have resulted in failures therefore should incorporate the following
due to torsion. Asymmetric wall layout important elements at appropriate stages of the
directly translates to unequal distribution of coursework to achieve good bonding between
structural stiffness thereby creating torsion or masonry units and proper connections at
twisting of the structure. Wall layout should be various intersections of walls.
therefore as symmetric as possible in both
directions. The height of the wall constructed in one lift
should not be more than 600mm or 2feet as
shown in Figure 15. There should not be
vertical mortar lines as shown in Figure 14. A
good sample without vertical mortar line is
shown in Figure 16.
Through-stones are the long stones placed through the wall to tie the wall together and prevent
delamination which is one of the main causes of collapse of stone masonry wall during earthquake.
Through-stones make the wall perform like hands with interlaced fingers as shown below.
When through-stones are unavailable, precast concrete members (1:2:4) of 38mm (1.5‖) by 38mm
(1.5‖) cross-section, or 8mm / 10mm diameter rod in S-shaped or hooked link with a cover of
25mm (1‖) from each face of the wall may be used. Through-stones should be placed every
600mm (2feet) along the wall height and every 1200mm (4feet) along the wall in plan as shown in
Figure 18.
13
Figure 18: Placement of Through-Stone
Details on the control of wall length and opening lengths in the wall, together with mathematical
for formula is shown in the Figure 20.
14
Figure 20 Control on Wall length, height and openings
15
2.7 Use of Reinforced Concrete Bands
Reinforced concrete bands are use in the stone masonry houses with cement mortar. The required
number and size of reinforcing bars in a RC band depends on the room span, the importance of the
building and the number of stories. The minimum requirement of bars, their placement details and
the placement of bands are depicted through pictorial representation and tabulated in the Figures 22
– 26 and Table 4. A minimum concrete cover of at least 25mm (1‖) should be maintained.
6m or 19.7 feet 2 12
16
Figure 24: Details of Steel Rod in Horizontal Concrete Band
17
2.8 Use of Vertical Reinforcement
In unreinforced masonry walls, there are three basic failure modes due to earthquake lateral
loading:
18
Placing vertical reinforcement
in masonry walls basically
provides tensile strength and
partial confinement to wall
piers. The behavior of
masonry is significantly
improved to mitigate the
above failure modes. This
effect is shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30: Tensile strength provided by vertical steel reinforcement
In particular, the rocking behavior of slender masonry behavior is modified into bending due to the
presence of vertical reinforcement wherein the tensile strength is provided by the vertical
reinforcement. The vertical reinforcement in walls also increases the shearing strength at the
reduced wall sections and this prevents the sliding of wall piers at opening along sill, lintel and
below the roof. These effects are depicted in Figures 31 –32.
Figure 31: Vertical reinforcement causes Figure 32: Sliding is resisted by vertical
Bending of Masonry Piers instead of reinforcement.
rocking
In wider walls, the placement of vertical reinforcement enhances the capacity of wall sections to
resist lateral earthquake loads. Due to this enhanced capacity, the process of development of
X-crack is substantially delayed. The vertical reinforcement along with RCC bands strengthens the
opening to prevent formation of opening cracks at the corners. These effects are shown in Figures
33-34.
Figure 33: Cracking in the building with no Figure 34: Prevention of X-cracks due to vertical
corner reinforcement reinforcement and RCC bands
19
Instructions for installation of vertical
reinforcements
20
Figure 37: Vertical Steel Reinforcement (PLAN)
21
3. Stone Masonry with Mud Mortar
3.1 Materials
i) Stone The total content of the clay and silt should not
be less than 60% by weight.
Type:
Natural building stones such as granite,
limestone, sandstone etc are to be used. Round Simple field tests which can be conducted to
stones and river stones shall not be used. identify the content of sand and clay for
ordinary soil are as follows and shown in
Figure 40.
Durability:
Stones should be hard, tough, compact 1. Moist cast test. *
grained, uniform in texture and color and
crack-free. Compress moist soil by squeezing it in your
hand. When you open your hand, if the soil
Size: holds together (that is, forms a cast), pass it
Stones small enough to be lifted and placed by from hand to hand — the more durable the
hands can be used. The length of the stone cast, the higher the percentage of clay.
shall not be 3 times the height and shall not be
less than 200mm.
2. Ribbon test. *
* For these tests, the soil specimen should be gradually moistened and thoroughly reshaped and
squeezed to bring it to its maximum "plasticity" and to remove dry lumps. Do not add too much
water, as the sample will lose its cohesion.
22
3.2 Site Selection
Site conditions play a very important role in the seismic safety of a building. The site should
provide a stable and firm base for the building.
In earthquake prone areas where the site is inclined, the following precautions must be taken into
account:
a) The house should not be constructed 3m into the cut slope, as the horizontal forces of the
earth might cause the adjacent walls to collapse.
b) The house should not be constructed near or on top of the edge of slopes as it might
collapse due to earth avalanches.
23
e) The house should not be constructed on the unstable slopes as it might slide down. The
slopes where the trees are bent as shown in the picture are not stable.
24
3.3 Building layout
Square Rectangle
Long walls are weak and flexible against should be divided into smaller blocks with
earthquake forces and can easily fall down sufficient gaps between them. Interior cross
during the earthquake. When the building is walls and buttresses could be constructed as
longer than three times its width, it another option. These ideas are depicted in
Figure 42.
Stone masonry buildings with mud mortar should be limited to one storey.
iv) Box Effect (Structural Integrity) Structural integrity/ box action of a building
can be achieved by developing a box action by
Experiences from the past earthquakes have
ensuring good connections between all
shown that damage to unreinforced masonry
building components like, foundation, walls,
buildings is significantly reduced when the
floors and roof. The box effect is shown in
building components are well connected and
Figure 43 The key elements required to
building vibrates as monolithic box.
achieve the box effect is shown in Figure 44.
26
3.4 Foundation
The foundation detail is shown in Figure 45.
Foundation of a building is
the part of the building below
the ground level. The purpose
of the foundations is to
transfer the load of the
construction to the ground.
The weight of the structure
must be suited to the load
capacity of the ground which
in turn shall be stable. An
adequate depth of the
foun dat i on sho ul d be
provided and it should reach
the stable ground with
adequate bearing capacity.
The minimum width of the
foundation should be at least
1.5 times the wall thickness
and the minimum depth
Figure 45: Foundation Details for Mud Mortar
should be 750mm or 2.5 feet.
The thickness of footing
should be 450mm.
3.5 Wall
i) Layout of Walls
v) Use of Through-Stones
Through-stones are the long stones placed through the wall to tie the wall together and prevent de-
lamination which is one of the main causes of collapse of stone masonry wall during earthquake.
Through-stones make the wall perform like hands with interlaced fingers as shown in Figure 48.
When the through-stones are unavailable, wooden bars of 50mm (2‘) by 50mm (2‘) cross-section,
8mm/10mm diameter rod in S-shaped or hooked link with a cover of 25mm (1‖) from the each face
of the wall may be used. A pair of overlapping stones can also be used, each extending at least three
-quarters of the wall thickness. Through-stones extending over the full wall thickness must be used
every 600mm in the height and at 1.2m maximum spacing along the length as shown in Figure 50.
Figure 49 shows a picture of wall failure due to delamination.
28
Figure 49: Wall Failure due to Delamination
Figure 48: Through Stone
29
vi) Use of Corner Stone
Details on the control of wall length and opening lengths in the wall, together with mathematical for
formula is shown in the Figure 52.
Number of Storeys:
A maximum of 1 storey construction is recommended for stone masonry using the mud mortar.
30
3.6 Seismic Bands
Timber bands are used in stone masonry with mud mortar. Timber bands are made using a pair of
parallel planks or runners nailed together with small cross members. The corners of the timber
bands should be strengthened by diagonal knee-braces. The required size and number of timber
elements depends on the distance between the cross-walls, type of timber and importance of the
building. But for a wall span up to 5 m, generally long parallel timber runners with dimensions of
50mm by 100mm and cross members with dimensions of 50 mm by 50 mm placed at the spacing of
half a meter along the runner is enough. This type is usually used as Plinth Band and it is shown in
Figure 54. For a roof band timber plank band of usually 300mm by 35mm thick is used as shown in
the Figure 55.
Plinth Band
31
Roof Band
Timber plank 300 mm x 35 mm thick (1‘ by 1.4‖ thick) to be provided on top of wall at roof level.
Figure 56: Wooden Bands used in the Figure 57: No sill and very Short Lintel leads
Southern Bhutanese Houses to cracking at the corners.
Adequate length sill and lintels are also necessary for seismic protection as shown in the Figure 57.
Min250mm(10‖)
32
3.8 Vertical Plank Reinforcement
Vertical reinforcement in the stone masonry with mud mortar can be provided in the form of two
planks nailed to each other and placed at the wall corners. This arrangement will also acts as a con-
nection between the plinth and the roof band. It will also reinforce the wall corners and prevent the
inward failure of the walls during the earthquake.
A pictorial representation of the above mentioned arrangement is show in the Figure 59.
33
3.9 Roof Anchorage
The integrity roof structures and its connection to the supporting walls is very important as it acts
as a lid on top of a box . An option to anchor the roof trusses to the roof joist with bolts is shown
Figure 60. Another way to anchor the roof may be as represented in the Figure 61, at least it is bet-
ter than not anchoring at all.
Figure 60: Connection of Roof Truss and Figure 61: Anchoring Roof for Wind and
Roof Band in Traditional Houses Earthquake Protection
34
4. Appendix A:
Reinforced Concrete
Buildings- mostly in
Urban areas
Brick Houses
35
Stone and Brick Masonry
in cement Mortar
Timber Houses
Eckra Houses
Bamboo Houses
36
Appendix B : Damage Assessment Format for 2009 Earthquake
37
Appendix C : Damage Assessment Format for 2011 Earthquake
- Bulge/tilt of walls
38
Category III: Total or, Near Collapse
Final Categorization:
Category I :
Category II :
Category III:
Additional Informations
Foundation &Plinth Stone with Mud motar Stone with Cement motar
Name and signature of the Surveyor: Signature of the House Owner: Date of Inspection:
39
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT FORM FOR STONE MASONRY BUILDINGS
Different types of building respond and fail in different ways during ground shaking. Four categories of damages
have been assigned for Stone masonry structures for post earthquake damage assessment purpose. During earth-
quakes buildings may undergo both structural and non-structural damages. Damage location and patterns may also
be different for engineered and non-engineered structures.
- Displacement of Rabsey
- Dislocation of Rabsey
40
Category IV: Total or, Near Collapse
-Serious failure of both structural and non structural
components, collapse of walls, roof and floors
Final Categorisation
Category I :
Category II :
Category III:
Category IV:
Additional Informations
Foundation &Plinth Stone with Mud motar Stone with Cement motar
Remarks:
41
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT FORM FOR DAKCHAR ZHIKOR (EKRA TYPE) BUILDINGS:
Different types of building respond and fail in different ways during ground shaking. Two Categories of damages
have been assigned for Ekra type structures for post earthquake damage assessment purpose. During earth-
quakes buildings may undergo both structural and non-structural damages. Damage location and patterns may
also be different for engineered and non-engineered structures.
Categorization of Damage for Ekra Type Buildings
Category I: Substantial to Heavy Damage Tick
Final Categorisation
Category I :
Category II :
Additional Informations
Foundation &Plinth Stone with Mud motar Stone with Cement motar
Remarks:
42
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT FORM FOR WOODEN BUILDINGS:
Different types of building respond and fail in different ways during ground shaking. Two Categories of damages
have been assigned for wooden structures for post earthquake damage assessment purpose. During earthquakes
buildings may undergo both structural and non-structural damages. Damage location and patterns may also be
different for engineered and non-engineered structures.
Final Categorisation
Category I :
Category II :
Additional Information
Foundation &Plinth Stone with Mud motar Stone with Cement motar
Remarks:
43
5. References
1. Bilham, R., Gaur, V.K., and Molnar, P.: ―Himalayan Seismic Hazard‖, 293, 1442-4, Science,
2001.
8. IS 1597 (part 1): 1992 (reaffirmed 2002) – Construction of Stone masonry code of practice.
9. IS 13828: 1993 (reaffirmed edition 2003) – Improving Earthquake resistance of low strength
masonry buildings – Guidelines
10. IS 4326‐1993 – Earthquake resistant design and construction of buildings – Code of practice.
11. Papanikolaou .A, Taucer. F, 2004. Review of Non-Engineered Houses in Latin America with
Reference to Building Practices and Self-Construction Projects, Institute For Protection and
Security of the Citizen, European Laboratory for Structural Assessment (ELSA) I-21020 Ispra
(VA) Italy.
13. Zangmo.D, Retrofitting of Rammed Earth Walls with Prestressing, A Dissertation, 2008.
Department of Civil Engineering, Yokohama National University, Japan.
44