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Different Types and New Applications of Stainless Steel

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STAINLESS STEEL VOL. 62 NO. 5

Different Types and New

Applications of Stainless Steel

Prof. S. K. Dutta
Former Professor & Head, Metallurgical & Materials Engg. Dept.
M. S. University of Baroda
Vadodara, India

A patent on austenitic stainless steel was granted in 1912. Chromium is the essential element in stainless
steel. It took 115 years to produce stainless steel, even after discovery of chromium in 1797. Popularity
of stainless steel increased drastically in the last 37 years with respect to other major metals. Stainless
steel production increased 34% in the last 5 years in the world. India becomes number two in position
for stainless steel production in the world. Apart from motor vehicles and parts, electrical machinery
etc., stainless steel can be made into soap, woven and worn.

Introduction China’s contribution in world’s stainless steel production increased

Stainless steel may be defined as alloy steel containing at least
12% chromium with or without nickel. The corrosion resistance
and ability to remain stainless has been attributed to the passive
film formed on the surface. Passivity is due to the formation of
a thin protective oxide film on the surface of the metal. This is a
condition of negligible corrosion despite a tendency of the metal
to react with the environment. The serious attack on stainless steel
takes place due to the breakdown of passivity film, resulting in the
localized attack such as pitting, crevice, inter-granular corrosion
and stress corrosion cracking (SCC).
Popularity of stainless steel increased drastically in the last 37
years with respect to other major metals (as shown in Table 1).
Stainless steel production increased 34% in the last 5 years in the
world, from 35.9 million tonnes (Mt) in 2012 to 48.1 Mt in 2017
(Table 2). China is continuing as number one in the production of
stainless steel and India becomes number two in the last 2 years1.
Table 1: Compound annual growth rate1 of major metals from 1980 to 2017
Sr. No. Metal Compound annual growth rate (%/year)
1. Stainless steel 5.39
2. Aluminium 3.90
3. Copper 2.67
4. Carbon steel 2.35
5. Zinc 2.20
6. Lead 1.99
7. Average 2.44
from 12.9% in 2012 to 53.6% in 2017; European contribution
decreased from 34.8% in 2012 to 15.3% in 2017, and Asian (without
China and Korea) contribution also decreased from 29.7% to 16.7%.
Table 2: Stainless steel production (melt shop)1(Mt)
Country 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Growth in
5 years (%)
China 16.087 18.984 21.692 21.562 24.938 25.774 60.22
India 2.834 2.891 2.858 3.060 3.324 3.486 23.01
Japan 3.166 3.175 3.328 3.061 3.093 3.168 0.06
USA 1.977 2.030 2.389 2.346 2.481 2.754 39.30
South Korea 2.167 2.143 2.038 2.231 2.276 NA 5.03 (in 4 yr.)
World (Total) 35.917 38.506 41.686 41.548 45.778 48.081 33.87
History of Stainless Steel2
Axel Fredrik Cronsted (Sweden) discovered nickel in 1751,
Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Germany) discovered molybdenum in
1778, and chromium was discovered by Nicolas-Louis Vauquelin
(France) in 1797. Eduard Maurer (Germany) was granted a patent
on Austenitic Stainless Steel in 1912. Chromium is the essential
element in stainless steel. It took 115 years to produce stainless
steel, even after the discovery of chromium in 1797. Henry Brearley
(UK) produced Martensitic Stainless Steel in 1913, and Elwood
Haynes (US) was granted a patent on Ferritic Stainless Steel in
1919. Duplex Stainless Steel was initially produced (Sweden) in
1930.

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STAINLESS STEEL
Nickel is used in ~60% of stainless steel. What is the role of
nickel?
Nickel act as an austenite stabilizer in Fe-Cr-C alloy.
15% Cr-Mn-1.5Ni stainless steel were in use in Germany in
1940’s; used in dairy industry, beer industry and household
appliances. In early 50’s during Korean War, U.S. Government
restriction of 1% nickel (max.) for stainless steel in certain
applications. 201 Grades developed by ALLEGHENY
termed IA 201: 14.5% Cr, 15.0% Mn, 0.15% C, 0.99% Ni and
0.25% N.
Chrome-manganese stainless steel is used in the post Korean
war scenario:
l Softer alloys preferred,
l Half of nickel only replaced by Mn and N,
l AISI designation in 1955 to 201 and 202 as follows.
Grade %C %Cr %Mn %Ni %N
201 0.15% max. 16-18 5.5-7.5 3.5-5.5 0.25 max.
202 0.15% max. 17-19 7.5-10.0 4.0-6.0 0.25 max.
Types of Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is broadly classified as:
i) Austenitic,
ii) Ferritic,
iii) Martensitic,
iv) Duplex, and
v) Precipitation hardenable alloys.
Austenitic stainless steel is the largest family of stainless steel,
making up about two-thirds of all stainless steel production.
They possess an austenitic microstructure. This microstructure
is achieved by alloying with sufficient nickel and/or manganese
and nitrogen to maintain an austenitic microstructure at all
temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point3.
Thus, austenitic stainless steel are not hardenable by heat
treatment since they possess the same microstructure at all
temperatures. Though they can be strengthened by cold working,
this is limited to thin sheet and small diameter bar. Their austenitic
microstructure gives them excellent formability and weldability
and they are essentially non-magnetic and maintain their ductility
at cryogenic temperatures.
There are two subgroups of austenitic stainless steel3: a) 300
series stainless steel achieve their austenitic structure, primarily
by a nickel addition, while b) 200 series stainless steel substitute
manganese and nitrogen for nickel, although there is still a small
nickel content.
(a) 300 series are chromium-nickel alloys, which achieve their
austenitic microstructure almost exclusively by nickel
addition. 300 series are the largest group and the most widely
used. The best known grade is Type 304, also known as 18/8
and 18/10 for its composition of 18% chromium and 8% or
IRON & STEEL REVIEW | 88 | OCTOBER 2018
VOL. 62 NO. 5
10% nickel, respectively. The second most common austenitic
stainless steel is Type 316. The addition of 2% molybdenum
provides greater resistance to acids and to localized corrosion
caused by chloride ions. Low-carbon versions, e.g. 316L
or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problems caused by
welding. The “L” means that the carbon content of the alloy is
below 0.03%, which prevents sensitization (precipitation of
chromium carbides at grain boundaries) caused by the high
temperatures involved in welding.
(b) 200 series are chromium-manganese-nickel alloys, which
maximize the use of manganese and nitrogen to minimize
the use of nickel. Due to their nitrogen addition, they possess
approximately 50% higher yield strength than 300 series
stainless steel. Type 201 is hardenable through cold working;
Type 202 is a general purpose stainless steel. Decreasing
nickel content and increasing manganese results in weak
corrosion resistance.
Ferritic stainless steel posseses a ferrite microstructure like
carbon steel, which contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium
with very little or no nickel3. This microstructure is present at all
temperatures, due to the chromium addition, and like austenitic
stainless steel is not hardenable by heat treatment. They cannot be
strengthened by cold work to the same degree as austenitic stainless
steel. They are magnetic like carbon steel. They are problematic to
weld due to grain growth in the heat affected zone, which reduces
ductility and may result in cracks. Increasing chromium and
molybdenum contents increase corrosion resistance as it does
for austenitic stainless steel, however, this high alloying result in
the precipitation of embrittling intermetallic phase upon welding.
These microstructural problems due to welding restrict the use
of ferritic stainless steel to very thin thicknesses and thus are
not used in the construction of large heavy walled vessels and
tanks, and structures like austenitic stainless steel. Common
ferritic grades are: Type 430 with 17% chromium, which is used in
washing machine drums, dish-washer interiors and refrigerator
exteriors. Type 409 with 11% chromium is used extensively in
the manufacture of automotive exhausts. Poor toughness is
the biggest drawback to ferritic stainless steel. Like martensitic
stainless steel, ferritic stainless steel is ferro-magnetic4. However,
ferritic stainless steel’s magnetic behaviour isn’t as strong as
martensitic stainless steel.
Martensitic stainless steel offers a wide range of properties
and is used as stainless engineering steel, stainless tool steel,
creep resisting steel. Martensitic stainless steel contain 12-15%
chromium, as well as 0.2-1% molybdenum. Martensitic stainless
steel also contains no nickel, and 0.1-1% carbon. This combination
is ferro-magnetic4 in nature. Its magnetic properties depend on
the strength of the applied magnetizing field. Martensitic stainless
steel will exhibit permanent magnetic properties if it becomes
magnetized during its hardening process.
They fall into 4 categories (with some overlap):3
a) Fe - Cr - C grades: They were the first grades used and they are
still widely used in engineering and wear-resistant applications
(Types: 410,420).
STAINLESS STEEL VOL. 62 NO. 4

b) Fe-Cr-Ni-C grades: In these grades, some of the carbon Table 4: Properties of stainless steel5
is replaced by nickel. They offer a higher toughness and a Type Microstructure Mechanical Properties Physical Properties

higher corrosion resistance. Tensile Yield Elongation

Strength, Strength, in
c) Precipitation Hardening grades: Type: 630, the best known MPA MPA 50 mm%
grade, combines martensitic hardening and precipitation Austenitic Austenite 490-860 205-575 30-60 Non-heat treatable,
hardening. It achieves high strength and good toughness non-magnetic.
and is used in aerospace among other applications. Ferritic Ferrite 415-650 275-550 10-25 Non-heat treatable,
magnetic, good
d) Creep-resisting grades: Small additions of Nb, V, B, Co resistance to
increase the strength and creep resistance up to about chloride SCC.
650oC. Martensitic Martensite 480-1000 275-860 14-30 Hardenable by heat
treatment, high
Duplex stainless steel has a mixed microstructure of
strength.
austenite and ferrite, the aim usually being to produce a Duplex Austenite + 680-900 410-900 10-48 Non-heat treatable,
50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys, the ratio may be ferrite high strength.
40/60. They are characterized by high chromium (19–32%), Precipitation Austenite + 895-1000 276-1000 10-35 Harden by heat
molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than hardenable martensite treatment, very high
austenitic stainless steel. Duplex stainless steel has roughly strength.

twice the strength compared to austenitic stainless steel3.

Their mixed microstructure provides improved resistance Stainless Steel can Stain
to chloride stress corrosion cracking in comparison to austenitic
Stainless steel comes from a family of materials that resist
stainless steel Types 304 and 316. Duplex stainless steel offers
corrosion and oxidation. This gives it the ability to resist rust.
excellent resistance to corrosion and very high mechanical strength.
When exposed to oxygen and moisture, stainless steel produces a
The high corrosion resistance of duplex stainless steel ensures
thin passive oxide film that prevents the metal from corrosion. Yet
significantly more uptime than carbon steel and conventional
despite its name and resistant nature, stainless isn’t impossible
stainless steel, while the mechanical strength allows for lighter
to stain. The protective passive film will break down over time,
constructions, more compact system design and less welding.
leading to pitting and corrosion. To maintain stainless steel,
Precipitation hardening stainless steel3 has corrosion surface cleaning must be done regularly and ensure the steel has
resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be an adequate supply of oxygen.
precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than the other
Stainless Steel is Recyclable
martensitic grades. The most common, 17-4 PH, uses about 17%
chromium and 4% nickel. Stainless steel is one of the most recycled materials on the earth.
According to the American Iron and Steel Institute, approximately
Table 3 and Table 4 show the chemical composition and
88% of the world’s stainless steel are recycled4. Further, two out
physical properties of different types of stainless steel.
of three tonnes of new stainless steel come from
Table 3: Chemical composition of stainless steel old steel.
AISI Type %C %Cr %Ni %Mo %Mn %Si %S %P Other
The steel industry also recycles steel by-
Grade
products, including mill scale, steelmaking slags,
304 Austenitic 0.08 18-20 8-10 -- 2.0 1.0 0.03 0.045 --
and processing liquids. Steelmaking dust and
316 -do- 0.08 16-18 10-14 2-3 2.0 1.5 0.03 0.045 --
316L -do- 0.03 16-18 10-14 2-3 2.0 1.0 0.03 0.045 --
sludge can also be recovered and reused to make
201 -do- 0.15 16-18 3.5-5.5 -- 5.5-7.5 1.0 0.03 0.06 0.25N other metals like zinc.
202 -do- 0.15 17-18 4-6 -- 7.5-10.0 1.0 0.03 0.06 0.25N Properties
409 Ferritic 0.08 11.5-14.5 -- -- 1.0 1.0 0.045 0.045 Ti: [6 x
(C+N)] to 0.65 Stainless steel has the following properties2:
430 -do- 0.12 16-18 -- -- 1.0 1.0 0.03 0.04 --
1. Formability: deep drawing, stretch forming to
410 Martensitic 0.15 11.5-13.0 -- -- 1.0 1.0 0.03 0.04 --
make any shapes;
431 -do- 0.12-0.22 15-17 1.5-2.0 -- < 1.5 1.0 <0.015 0.4
17-4 PH Precipitation 0.07 15.5-17.5 3-5 -- 1.0 1.0 0.03 0.04 3-5Cu, 0.15Nb, 2. Energy absorption, e.g. producing bodies of
hardenable 0.45Ta. bus, train etc.;
17-7 PH -do- 0.09 16-18 6.5-7.75 -- 1.0 S1.0 0.03 0.04 0.75-1.5Al 3. High load caring capacity, e.g. Indian railway
3RE60 Duplex 0.03 18-19 4.3-5.3 2.5-3.0 1.2 1.5 0.03 0.03 -- coal wagon (409M contains only about 1%
SAF2205 -do- 0.03 21-23 4.5-6.5 2.5-3.5 2.0 0.8 0.02 0.03 0.14N nickel);

IRON & STEEL REVIEW | 90 | OCTOBER 2018

 STAINLESS STEEL VOL. 62 NO. 5

4. Delayed cracking of the substance; and is often used in touchscreen gloves. Capacitive touchscreen
can detect the presence of an electrically conductive object
5. Good weldability;
(such as a finger). Stainless steel gloves conduct electricity in a
6. Toughness after elevated temperature exposure; way that mimics a finger’s electrical current. Additionally, some
7. Corrosion resistance. manufacturers weave stainless steel fibers into the carpet. The
stainless steel prevents the buildup of static electricity, reducing
Applications
the likelihood of static electric shock. Because stainless steel’s
Stainless steel used per sector1 in 2017 as follows: unique properties have applications in a variety of situations, this
metal alloy has the ability to make life easier.
1. Metal products 37.5%
References
2. Mechanical Engineering 28.3%
1. http://www.worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/
3. Construction 12.3%
PDF/ISSF_Stainless_Steel_in_Figures_2018_English_
4. Motor vehicles and parts 9.4% Public.pdf
5. Electrical machinery 7.6% 2. h t t p s : / / w w w . n i c k e l i n s t i t u t e . o r g / ~ / m e d i a / F i l e s /
6. Other transport 4.9%. Presentations/NickelinStainlessSteelsCutlerNewDelhi
20111214.ashx
Apart from above, stainless steel can be also used as follows4:
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steels
Stainless Steel can be made into Soap:
4. http://jamesduva.com/6-little-known-facts-about-stainless-
Many reputable manufacturers produce stainless steel soap,
steel/
which is essentially a piece of stainless steel in the shape of a soap
bar. While stainless steel soap does not kill germs or other bacteria 5. ASM Handbook on Stainless Steel.
like regular soap would, stainless steel soap can neutralize strong
odors on the hands. Simply rub the bar on hands after handling
garlic, onion, or fish. The smell should disappear.

Why does stainless steel have this unique property? Some

researchers believe that the stainless steel binds to sulphur
compounds in various substances, which reduce odors.

Stainless Steel Expands and Contracts

Stainless steel is valuable in the nuclear power and aerospace

industries, because it has a high temperature oxidation resistance.
While it has a much higher resistance than many other metals,
stainless steel still expands and contracts when the temperature
varies. Because of this, construction industry must account for
thermal expansion when creating a steel frame for a building. For
example, the Eiffel Tower (France), is approximately 299.9 m tall
(not including the antenna) during the summer. But on cold days,
the metal tower is approximately 0.15 m shorter.

Stainless Steel can be Woven and Worn

Stainless steel is incredibly ductile, which means it can be

drawn out into a thin wire without losing its toughness. Many
stainless steel manufacturers produce stainless steel mesh that is
fine enough and pliable enough to wear. Stainless steel clothing is
thermal and radiation resistant, so it is often used in the electrical
and textile industries.

Stainless steel thread is a key component in the tech industry

IRON & STEEL REVIEW | 91 | OCTOBER 2018

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