HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

ECG354

by:
Nurul Najihah bt Mad Rosni
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
content:
3.1 Sight distance – stopping & overtaking sight
distance
3.2 Horizontal alignment – curves & superelevation
3.3 Road cross sectional elements – road furnishes &
drainage
 Lesson Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students should be able

to:
• Calculate stopping and passing sight distance
• Calculate horizontal alignment
• Sketch and describe road cross section elements
• The term geometric design of highway facilities deal with
proportioning of the physical elements of highway such
as horizontal curves, vertical curves, lane widths and
cross section.
• Its effect highway operation, safety & capacity.
 Features to be considered in geometric design are
primary, horizontal & vertical curvature, the cross
section element, highway grades & the layout of
intersections.

HORIZONTAL CURVATURE
VERTICAL CURVATURE
• The important design factors which control the geometric
elements are:-

1. DESIGN SPEED
2. DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME
3. DESIGN VEHICLES
4. CONTROL ACCESS
5. TOPOGRAPHY
6. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR
 1. Design speed
• Design speed depends on the functional class of highway, the
topography area in which highway located.
 2. Design hourly volume (DHV)
• Direct use of ADT in geometric design is not
appropriate because does not indicate the
significant variation of traffic volume.
• A better measurement is one which give hourly
volume that determines the capacity requirement
of the road.
3. Design Vehicle
Vehicle characteristics such as turning radii, dons and operating
characteristics will be used to establish geometric standard of
highway
 4. Control access
location for traffic signal, junction, interchange.

5. Topography
Topography is generally classified into;
i. Level terrain  relatively flat with ground slope 3%
ii. Rolling terrain natural slope which rise above and
fall below highway grade with natural ground slope
between 3-25%
iii. Mountainous terrain sudden change in ground
elevation thereby required hill side excavation to
achieved acceptable horizontal and vertical
alignments. Natural ground slope above 25%
 Sight distance
• SIGHT DISTANCE is the length of road ahead visible to
drivers. Ability of a driver to see ahead is of the utmost
importance to the safe and efficient operation of a road.

• The designer must provide sight distance of sufficient

length in which drivers can control the speed of the
vehicles so as to avoid striking an unexpected obstacle on
the travelled way.

• Two sight distance situation considered:

1. Stopping sight distance
2. Passing sight distance
 3.1.1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

• The stopping sight distance is the length

required to enable a vehicle traveling at or
near the design speed to stop before
reaching an object in its path.
Minimum stopping sight distance is the sum of
two distances:
i. PERCEPTION-REACTION DISTANCE
the distance traversed by a vehicle
from the instant the driver sights an
object for which a stop is necessary, to
the instant the brakes are applied, d₁
ii. BRAKING DISTANCE  the distance
required to stop the vehicle after the
brake application begins, d₂
3. PERCEPTION-REACTION DISTANCE – is the distance
travelled during the perception-reaction time.
Perception-reaction distance, d1 = 0.28 t V
= 0.28 x 2.5 x V
t = perception-reaction time (sec)
V = initial speed (km/hr)
According to ATJ, for design purpose, t = 2.5 sec ( 1.5s
for perception time + 1 sec for reaction time

REACTION TIME - Is the time taken by the

driver to actuate the brake pedal, after realizing
the need to brake, until the brakes start to take
effect.
 4. BRAKING DISTANCE – the distance needed by a vehicle to stop
after the brakes have been applied.

Braking distance, d2 = V2
254f
V = initial speed (km/hr)
f = coefficient of friction (developed
between the tyre & the road surface

Stopping Sight Distance = Perception-reaction Distance + Braking Distance

= d1 + d2
= (0.28 x 2.5 x V) + V2
254f
 *FROM ATJ 8/86 GUIDE ON
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROAD
*FROM REAM – A GUIDE ON
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROAD
*FROM REAM – A GUIDE ON
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROAD
Effect of grades on stopping sight
distance
 Example Calculation
• Given: Initial Speed, v = 80 km/hr
Coefficient of friction, f = 0.8
The total perception and brake
reaction time, t = 2.5 seconds

Calculate the SSD

Solution:
SSD = d₁ + d₂
= 0.28vt + v²/254f
= 0.28(80)(2.5) + (80)²/254 (0.8)
= 56 + 31.5
= 87.5 m
 3.1.2 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
Also called as passing sight distance when the sight distance is long
enough to enable a vehicle to overtake & pass another slower vehicle
on a two way lane road, without interference from oncoming vehicle.

d1 d2 d3 d4
 Element of total OSD
𝐷1  distance traversed during the perception and
reaction time and during the initial acceleration to
the point of encroachment on the passing lane.
𝐷2 distance travelled while the passing vehicle
occupies the passing lane.
𝐷3 distance between the passing vehicle at the end
of its maneuver and the opposing vehicles.
𝐷4  distance traversed by an opposing vehicle which is
the passing vehicle that occupies the passing lane.

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
• To determined safe overtaking/passing sight distance:

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
= Vbt + VbT + 2S + VtT

where, Vb = vehicle initial travelling speed (m/s)

Vt = vehicle speed while overtaking (m/s)

S = distance of travelling during

overtaking (0.7Vb ) + 6

T = time taken during overtaking (sec)

EXAMPLE 3.2
 solutions
i. Vb = 45 km/hr
= 45 km/hr × 1000/3600
= 12.5 m/s

ii. Vt = 80 km/hr × 1000/3600

= 22.22 m/s

iii. S = [(0.7 Vb) + 6] m

= 14.75 m

iii. T = = = 7.0s

∴ OSD = Vbt + VbT + 2S + VtT

= 310 m
• Horizontal alignment is an important feature in road design
which enhances smooth driving & safety among motorists.

• Inappropriate alignment may:

1. Cause accidents – motorists are not

able to properly maneuver their
vehicles/are not aware of the need to
change speed.
2. Reduce capacity – motorists may
travel at low speeds, hence reducing
the capacity of the road.
• Horizontal alignment is needed when two straight roads
(tangents) intersect.

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Four important criteria of designing horizontal curve:
Horizontal Curve
Design speed highway, V

Safety of lateral friction, f

Superelevation,e

Centrifugal force, P
 3.2.1 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE,P
• CENTRIFUGAL FORCE,P is aforce that causes an object
moving in a circular path to move out and away from
the center of its path
• Centrifugal force, P acting on vehicle has two effects:
i) tendency to overturns
ii) Tendency to skid laterally

• When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the

centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards through
the center of gravity of the vehicle.
 Centrifugal force, P

• P= Wv2/gR
80

Km/j

• Centrifugal ratio, P/W P

• 2 effects – overturns and

skidding laterally
Moving on
track by
turning the
steering
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE,P

N
CENRIFUGAL
FRICTION
FORCE
FORCE

P G F

W
 Centrifugal Force, P = mv2
R
Also known, m = W
g

* P = Wv2 • P = centrifugal force

• W= weight of the vehicle
gR
• R = radius of the circular curve
• v = speed of the vehicle
• g = acceralation due to gravity

Centrifugal Ratio = P → the ratio of the centrifugal force

W to the weight of vehicle
 3.2.2 TENDENCY TO OVERTURN

P
h
Point A

b
h = height of the centre of gravity above the road
surfaced
b = wheel track of the vehicle
 Moment at A,
∑MA = 0

-P (h) + W (b/2) = 0
OVERTURNING RESTORING
MOMENT
MOMENT Ph = W (b/2)
* P = b
CENTRIFUGAL
W 2h
RATIO
DANGER OVERTURNING, when P (CENTRIFUGAL RATIO)
W
reach a value of b
2h
3.2.3 TENDENCY TO SKID LATERALLY

F
h

Ra Rb
 P=F
P = fN f = coefficient of the lateral friction

P = f (Ra + Rb)
P = fW
P=f
W
To avoid overturning & lateral skidding, centrifugal ratio should be:

P < b/2H P<f

W W
 3.2.4 SUPERELEVATION,e

• Superelevation is used to minimise the effect of centrifugal force

on driver/passenger for comfort and maximise the adhesion of
the tyre to the road when cornering.
• The importance of superelevation in the geometric design of
highway:

 To allow for a gradual built-up of centrifugal force.

 To allow for a gradual streering of wheel. E.g., change of
direction.
 Enable vehicle to travel at moderate speed along the curve.
 To counterbalance the centrifugal force developed during
cornering.
 OUTER
SIDE

INNER
SIDE

• In order to counteract effect of centrifugal to reduce

the tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the
outer edge of the pavement is raised with the
respect to the inner edge.
 e + f = v2 e + f = V2
gR or 127R

e = rate of superelevation
f = lateral friction (assume as 0.15)
v = speed (m/s)
V = speed (km/h)
R = radius (m)
g = gravity (9.8 m/s2 )
Derivation:

N
P = Wv2cos
gR
P = Wv2sin
gR

P
F

W = Wcos

W = Wsin
W
 Equilibrium of forces on the elevated plane, x-axis,

Wv2cosα = Wsinα + fN ……………………………………………… 1

gR

Equilibrium of forces on the elevated plane, y-axis,

N = Wcosα + Wv2sinα …………………………………………………… 2

gR
substitute 2 into 1

Wv2cosα = Wsinα + f ( Wcosα + Wv2sinα )

gR gR

since Wv2sinα ≈ 0,
gR

Wv2cosα = Wsinα + fWcosα

gR

by dividing the terms with Wcosα,

v2 = tanα + f
gR
since tan α = e,

v2 = e + f
gR

• e = tan 
• e design not for mixed traffic – complex

• Practical consideration:
e provided due to 75% design speed
(neglect f)
limit e to 0.06

Remember!!
convert v (m/s) to V (km/h) and substitute
g=9.81,

v2 = e + f
gR
v2 (60x60) 2 x 9.81R
gR (1000) 2

So, e + f = V2
127R
 Example:
Calculate the minimum radius of a circular
horizontal curve for dual carriageway. Given
e=0.06, f = 0.15 and V = 120km/h

𝑉2
e+f =127𝑅
1202
R= 0.06+0.15 ×127
R = 540m
 Example
Given, v = 90 km/hr, R = 450m, f = 0.11. what is
rate of superelevation?

𝑉2
e+f =127𝑅
902
e+0.11 =127(450)
e = 0.031
3.3 TRANSITION
CURVE
 3.3 TRANSITION CURVE
• Transition curves are place between tangents &
circular curves or between two adjacent circular curves
having substantially different radii.
• It was provided to adjoin between a straight road with
the circular curve of a road. Transition curve is not
needed if:-
Calculated length is short
Calculated shift is small
External angle is small
Superelevation is not needed (low speed)
• Types of transition curves:
 Spiral
 Lemniscates
 Cubic parabola
Reason for transition curve:

 To allow gradual built up to centrifugal force until reach

maximum as enter circular curve.
 To allow gradual introduction of superelevation.
 To allow gradual alteration of steering.
 To provide a smooth transition from straight to a sharp
curve, & to facilitate a reasonable deceleration rate.
 3.3.1 TRANSITION LENGTH
TRANSITION LENGTH, L = v3
qR
where;
q = rate of change of radial acceleration (0.3-0.6m/s2)
R = radius of circle (m)
v = speed (m/s)

If V in km/hr ; then
L = V3
C
46.7qR L
R L
R



TOTAL LENGTH OF ROAD ALIGNMENT,
T = 2L + C
CIRCULAR CURVE,
C = R (θ - 2Ф) rad
Where;
Deflection angle, Ф = L
2R

Angle of
C intersection

Deflection
angle

 
 3.3.2 HAND-OFF SPEED

Hand-off speed is where the speed is balance by

superelevetion. At this speed vehicle maintains course
without steering. Thus there is no friction force, f. R was
balanced by superelevation, e only;

VHO = 0.63 V

• Normally, hand-off speed, VHO = 0.63V due to 40% balances of

P/W
• If not 40%  derivation should be made first to get the new
equation for VHO
 VHO = 0.63 V
Derivation:

V2 = e + f
127 R

R= V2 ……………………………(1)
127 (e + f)

VHO2 = e
127 R

R = V2 …………………………...(2)
127 e
1=2

VHO2 = V2
127 e 127 (e + f)

VHO2 = V2
e (e + f)

VHO2 = V2 x e
(e + f)
If, e = 0.4 (40% of balances)
(e + f)

VHO2 = V2 x 0.4

VHO = V

VHO = 0.63V
 EXAMPLE:
A simple circular curve of the dual-carriageway is to
be design with a design speed of 110 km/h. The
superelevation on the circular curve is 0.058, the
balances 40% of the centrifugal ratio, the angle of
intersection is 50° and the radial acceleration is
0.37. Calculate;
i. Radius of curve
ii. Hand-off speed
iii. Length of transition curve
iv. Total length of the road alignment
 3.5 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
Highways are classified by function and each
class of highway, such as local roads, collector
roads, arterials (urban & rural) and freeways
has unique design features.
The elements of cross sections depend on the
usage of the facility.
Almost all highway cross-sections are composed
of four basic elements:

1. The paved road – traffic bearing lanes

2. The road margins – shoulders, curbs, drainage
channels & medians
3. The traffic separation devices – traffic barriers,
median barriers and crash cushions
4. The provisions of bikeways and sidewalks
Undivided highway – travel lanes & shoulders
Divided highway – travel lanes, shoulders &
medians.
Other elements – roadside barriers, curbs
(US), gutters, guardrails & sidewalks depends
on road type.

kerb, gutter and storm drain

1. Marginal Strip
• Marginal is a narrow pavement strip attached to
the both edges of carriageway. The marginal
strip include as a part of shoulder width.

2. Width of travel lanes

• vary between 10 and 13 ft, usually 12 ft (3.66 m)
• two lane, two way rural road – 10 & 11 ft
• traffic volume low – 9 ft
LANE WIDTH & MARGINAL STRIP
WIDTH OF ROADS
*FROM ATJ 8/86 GUIDE ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROAD
LANE WIDTH & MARGINAL STRIP
WIDTH OF ROADS
FROM REAM – A GUIDE ONGEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROAD
 UNDIVIDED ROAD

Marginal strip

shoulder
Lane width

Carriageway
3. Road shoulders
Main functions of road shoulder:
space is provided for emergency stopping free of the
traffic lane.
space is provided for the occasional motorist who
desires 'to stop for various reasons.
space is provided to escape potential accidents or
reduce their severity.
the sense of openness created by shoulders of adequate
width contributes to driving ease and comfort.
lateral clearance is provided for signs and guardrails.
structural support is given to the pavement.
ROAD SHOULDERS
• The normal usable
shoulder width that
should be provided along
high type facilities is 3 m.
• However, in difficult
terrain and on low
volume roads, usable
shoulders of this width
may not be feasible.
• A minimum usable
shoulder width of 0.6m
should be considered in
such cases.
 SHOULDER WIDTH
*FROM ATJ 8/86 GUIDE ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROAD

NOTE : ( ) denotes the total two-way lane width

 4. MEDIAN
• A median is a highly desirable element on all roads
carrying four or more lanes and should be provided
wherever possible.
• the section of divided highway that separates traffic
moving in opposite directions
 4. MEDIAN
• Widths generally range from 2 ft to 80 ft or more.
• Types of median:
Flush
1. Raised
2. flush
3. depressed.

raised

depressed
4. Medians
functions of median:
 separating opposing traffic
 Reduce crash rate and turning conflict
 provide storage area for right & U turn vehicles
 provide refuge for pedestrians
 reducing the effect of headlight glare
 Landscaping opportunity and aesthetic benefit
5. Median barrier& Roadside barriers
median barriers  provide protection for
vehicle enter the opposite direction.
roadside barriers  protect vehicles from
crashing onto hazards along the side of the road.

Roadside barrier/guardrail

Median barrier
Cable barriers

Guardrails
 Too rigid a guardrail "bounces" a car back into oncoming traffic.

Too weak a guardrail "pockets" a vehicle with a resultant abrupt impact.

 6. CURBS & GUTTERS
• curbs are used to delineate pavement edges & pedestrian
walkways, also to control drainage.
• types of curbs:
– barrier curbs – relatively high and steep faced are design to prevent
vehicles from leaving highway (height:6-8”)
– mountable curbs – sloping faced that permit vehicles to cross over
without damaging tire and wheel (height:4-6”)
gutters – drainage facility for the road.
* located at the pavement side of
the curb
* usually 1-6 ft wide.
Road gutter
7. Sidewalks
• provided mainly on urban streets to facilitate the safe
movement of pedestrians.
• particularly at areas adjacent to schools, transit stops, parks
& shopping centers
• minimum width 4 ft in residential areas (range: 4 – 8 ft)
8. Cross Slopes/ Camber

* facilitate the drainage of surface water - minimize

water ponding on the pavement
* Two lane & multilane highway without medians are
sloped from middle downward to both sides.
* Divided highway by either crowning the pavement in
each direction or by sloping the entire pavement in
one direction.
* JKR recommends:
a) 2.5 % for high-type pavements
b) 2.5 - 3.5% for intermediate-type pavements
c) 2.0 - 6% for low type pavements
Direction of water flow

Cross slopes/ crown/ camber

 A dual carriageway or divided highway
is a road or highway in which the two
directions of traffic are separated by a
central barrier or strip of land, known
as median.

Single carriageway is the British

designation for the most common type
of road; one with no physical separation
(median) between opposing flows of
traffic. It usually has two or more
marked traffic lanes, one in each
direction, although narrow rural roads
and residential streets may have no
markings.
 ROAD DRAINAGE
• Road drainage Utilities provide for carrying water across the right
of way and for removal of storm water from the road itself. These
facilities includes culverts, channels, gutters and various types of
drains.
• Inadequate drainage will results:
– serious damage to the highway structure. Moisture (water) in soil
subgrade may cause considerable instability thus lead to pavement failure
to the subgrade
– traffic may be slowed by accumulated water on the pavement.
– accidents occur as a result of hydroplaning & loss of visibility from splash
& spray.
– erosion of soil/slopes of embankment.
– Water can cause reduction in strength of many pavement materials like
stabilized soil.
– Surface water may reduce the tire-road interface contact which leads to
reduction in skid resistance.
• Highway engineer is concerned primarily with two
sources of water.
a) Surface water – occurs as rain or snow
─ drainage referred as surface
drainage

b) Ground water – flows in underground stream.

─ important in highway cuts
or locations where high
water table exists near the
pavement structure.
─ drainage is referred as
sub-surface drainage
 SURFACE DRAINAGE
• surface water must be drained out from the pavement.
• A properly designed should effectively intercept all
surface & watershed runoff & direct this water into
adequately designed channels & gutters for discharge into
natural waterways.
• Types of surface drainage:
– cascading drain
– berm drain
– interceptor drain
– embankment toe drain
– Culvert
– roadside drain
– others
CASCADING DRAIN
 vertical drains that run down the length of the slope
 to channel the water from high ground to lower ground.
 also break up the high energy of water coming down from drains
at the upper levels so that water from the top and along the slope
does not damage the drainage structures below.
BERM DRAIN  catches the water coming down from the
slope face immediately above and from the berm itself.
EMBANKMENT TOE DRAIN  accepts water from the
slope face directly above, from the area below the slope such
as roads and all water discharged by the cascade drains
INTERCEPTOR DRAIN
diverting minor streams away from the road and collecting it at
points where major drainage crossings are being installed
CULVERT
Culverts are the most common cross drainage structure used on
roads. Its allow natural streams to cross the road, and discharge
surface water from drains and the areas adjacent to the road.
 SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE
• Sub-surface drainage is ensure that water table can be kept low
enough to prevent saturation road structure and surrounding
soil.
• ground water can permeated through cracks & joints in the
pavement to the underlying strata.
• moved upward through the underlying soil strata as a results of
capillary action.
• Effect of inadequate sub-drainage:
a) Pavement performance
b) Slope stability
Cross Section of Surface & Subsurface Drainage
THANK
YOU