Diffraction

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Not to be confused with refraction, the change in direction of a wave passing
from one medium to another.

A diffraction pattern of a red laser beam projected onto a plate after passing through a small
circular aperture in another plate

Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when a wave encounters an

obstacle or a slit. It is defined as the bending of waves around the corners of an
obstacle or through an aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the
obstacle/aperture. The diffracting object or aperture effectively becomes a
secondary source of the propagating wave. Italian scientist Francesco Maria
Grimaldi coined the word "diffraction" and was the first to record accurate
observations of the phenomenon in 1660.[1][2]

Infinitely many points (3 shown) along length d project phase contributions from the wave-front,
producing a continuously varying intensity θ on the registering plate.

In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described by the Huygens–

Fresnel principle that treats each point in a propagating wave-front as a
collection of individual spherical wavelets. [3] The characteristic bending pattern is
most pronounced when a wave from a coherent source (such as a laser)
encounters a slit/aperture that is comparable in size to its wavelength, as shown
in the inserted image. This is due to the addition, or interference, of different
points on the wave-front (or, equivalently, each wavelet) that travel by paths of
different lengths to the registering surface. However, if there are
multiple, closely spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying intensity can
result.
These effects also occur when a light wave travels through a medium with a
varying refractive index, or when a sound wave travels through a medium with
varying acoustic impedance – all waves diffract, including gravitational
waves[citation needed], water waves, and other electromagnetic waves such as X-
rays and radio waves. Furthermore, quantum mechanics also demonstrates that
matter possesses wave-like properties, and hence, undergoes diffraction (which
is measurable at subatomic to molecular levels).[4]
Diffraction and interference are closely related and are nearly – if not exactly –
identical in meaning. Richard Feynman observes that "diffraction" tends to be
used when referring to many wave sources, and "interference" when only a few
are considered.[5]

Contents

 1History
 2Mechanism
 3Examples
o 3.1Single-slit diffraction
o 3.2Diffraction grating
o 3.3Circular aperture
o 3.4General aperture
o 3.5Propagation of a laser beam
o 3.6Diffraction-limited imaging
o 3.7Speckle patterns
o 3.8Babinet's principle
 4Patterns
 5Particle diffraction
 6Bragg diffraction
 7Coherence
 8See also
 9References
 10External links

History[edit]

Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction for water waves, which he presented to the Royal
Society in 1803.
The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characterized
by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction, from the
Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different
directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously
in 1665.[6][7][8] Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them
to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory (1638–1675) observed the diffraction
patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first diffraction
grating to be discovered.[9] Thomas Young performed a celebrated experiment in
1803 demonstrating interference from two closely spaced slits. [10] Explaining his
results by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he
deduced that light must propagate as waves. Augustin-Jean Fresnel did more
definitive studies and calculations of diffraction, made public in 1816 [11] and
1818,[12] and thereby gave great support to the wave theory of light that had been
advanced by Christiaan Huygens[13] and reinvigorated by Young, against
Newton's particle theory.

Mechanism[edit]

Photograph of single-slit diffraction in a circular ripple tank

In classical physics diffraction arises because of the way in which waves

propagate; this is described by the Huygens–Fresnel principle and the principle
of superposition of waves. The propagation of a wave can be visualized by
considering every particle of the transmitted medium on a wavefront as a point
source for a secondary spherical wave. The wave displacement at any
subsequent point is the sum of these secondary waves. When waves are added
together, their sum is determined by the relative phases as well as the
amplitudes of the individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the waves
can have any value between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes.
Hence, diffraction patterns usually have a series of maxima and minima.
In the modern quantum mechanical understanding of light propagation through
a slit (or slits) every photon has what is known as a wavefunction which
describes its path from the emitter through the slit to the screen. The
wavefunction — the path the photon will take — is determined by the physical
surroundings such as slit geometry, screen distance and initial conditions when
the photon is created. In important experiments (A low-intensity double-slit
experiment was first performed by G. I. Taylor in 1909, see double-slit
experiment) the existence of the photon's wavefunction was demonstrated. In
the quantum approach the diffraction pattern is created by the distribution of
paths, the observation of light and dark bands is the presence or absence of
photons in these areas (no interference!). The quantum approach has some
striking similarities to the Huygens-Fresnel principle; in that principle the light
becomes a series of individually distributed light sources across the slit which is
similar to the limited number of paths (or wave functions) available for the
photons to travel through the slit.
There are various analytical models which allow the diffracted field to be
calculated, including the Kirchhoff-Fresnel diffraction equation which is derived
from the wave equation,[14] the Fraunhofer diffraction approximation of the
Kirchhoff equation which applies to the far field and the Fresnel
diffraction approximation which applies to the near field. Most configurations
cannot be solved analytically, but can yield numerical solutions through finite
element and boundary element methods.
It is possible to obtain a qualitative understanding of many diffraction
phenomena by considering how the relative phases of the individual secondary
wave sources vary, and in particular, the conditions in which the phase
difference equals half a cycle in which case waves will cancel one another out.
The simplest descriptions of diffraction are those in which the situation can be
reduced to a two-dimensional problem. For water waves, this is already the
case; water waves propagate only on the surface of the water. For light, we can
often neglect one direction if the diffracting object extends in that direction over
a distance far greater than the wavelength. In the case of light shining through
small circular holes we will have to take into account the full three-dimensional
nature of the problem.


Computer generated intensity pattern formed on a screen by

diffraction from a square aperture.
 


Generation of an interference pattern from two-slit diffraction.

 

 Computational model of an interference pattern from two-slit
diffraction.
 


Optical diffraction pattern ( laser), (analogous to X-ray

crystallography)
 


Colors seen in a spider web are partially due to diffraction,

according to some analyses.[15]

Examples[edit]

Circular waves generated by diffraction from the narrow entrance of a flooded coastal quarry

A solar glory on steam from hot springs. A glory is an optical phenomenon produced by

light backscattered (a combination of diffraction, reflection and refraction) towards its source by a
cloud of uniformly sized water droplets.
The effects of diffraction are often seen in everyday life. The most striking
examples of diffraction are those that involve light; for example, the closely
spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar
rainbow pattern seen when looking at a disc. This principle can be extended to
engineer a grating with a structure such that it will produce any diffraction
pattern desired; the hologram on a credit card is an example. Diffraction in the
atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring to be visible around a
bright light source like the sun or the moon. A shadow of a solid object, using
light from a compact source, shows small fringes near its edges. The speckle
pattern which is observed when laser light falls on an optically rough surface is
also a diffraction phenomenon. When deli meat appears to be iridescent, that is
diffraction off the meat fibers.[16] All these effects are a consequence of the fact
that light propagates as a wave.
Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave. Ocean waves diffract
around jetties and other obstacles. Sound waves can diffract around objects,
which is why one can still hear someone calling even when hiding behind a tree.
[17]
 Diffraction can also be a concern in some technical applications; it sets
a fundamental limit to the resolution of a camera, telescope, or microscope.
Other examples of diffraction are considered below.
Single-slit diffraction[edit]
Main article: Diffraction formalism

Numerical approximation of diffraction pattern from a slit of width four wavelengths with an incident
plane wave. The main central beam, nulls, and phase reversals are apparent.

Graph and image of single-slit diffraction.

A long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated by light diffracts the light into
a series of circular waves and the wavefront which emerges from the slit is a
cylindrical wave of uniform intensity, in accordance with Huygens–Fresnel
principle.
A slit that is wider than a wavelength produces interference effects in the space
downstream of the slit. These can be explained by assuming that the slit
behaves as though it has a large number of point sources spaced evenly across
the width of the slit. The analysis of this system is simplified if we consider light
of a single wavelength. If the incident light is coherent, these sources all have
the same phase. Light incident at a given point in the space downstream of the
slit is made up of contributions from each of these point sources and if the
relative phases of these contributions vary by 2π or more, we may expect to
find minima and maxima in the diffracted light. Such phase differences are
caused by differences in the path lengths over which contributing rays reach the
point from the slit.
We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted light
by the following reasoning. The light from a source located at the top edge of
the slit interferes destructively with a source located at the middle of the slit,
when the path difference between them is equal to λ/2. Similarly, the source just
below the top of the slit will interfere destructively with the source located just
below the middle of the slit at the same angle. We can continue this reasoning
along the entire height of the slit to conclude that the condition for destructive
interference for the entire slit is the same as the condition for destructive
interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half the width of
the slit. The path difference is approximately  so that the minimum intensity
occurs at an angle θmin given by
where

 d is the width of the slit,

  is the angle of incidence at which the minimum
intensity occurs, and
  is the wavelength of the light
A similar argument can be used to show that if we
imagine the slit to be divided into four, six, eight
parts, etc., minima are obtained at angles θn given
by
where

 n is an integer other than zero.

There is no such simple argument to enable us
to find the maxima of the diffraction pattern.
The intensity profile can be calculated using
the Fraunhofer diffraction equation as
where
  is the intensity at a given angle,
  is the intensity at the central maximum
(), which is also a normalization factor of
the intensity profile that can be
determined by an integration
from  to  and conservation of energy.
  is the unnormalized sinc function.
This analysis applies only to the far
field (Fraunhofer diffraction), that is, at a
distance much larger than the width of the
slit.
From the intensity profile above, if , the
intensity will have little dependency on ,
hence the wavefront emerging from the slit
would resemble a cylindrical wave with
azimuthal symmetry; If , only  would have
appreciable intensity, hence the wavefront
emerging from the slit would resemble that
of geometrical optics.
When the incident angle  of the light onto
the slit is non-zero (which causes a change
in the path length), the intensity profile in the
Fraunhofer regime (i.e. far field) becomes:
The choice of plus/minus sign depends
on the definition of the incident angle .

2-slit (top) and 5-slit diffraction of red laser light

Diffraction of a red laser using a diffraction grating.

A diffraction pattern of a 633 nm laser through

a grid of 150 slits

Diffraction grating[edit]
Main article: Diffraction grating
A diffraction grating is an optical
component with a regular pattern. The
form of the light diffracted by a grating
depends on the structure of the
elements and the number of elements
present, but all gratings have intensity
maxima at angles θm which are given by
the grating equation
where

 θi is the angle at which the light is

incident,
 d is the separation of grating
elements, and
 m is an integer which can be
positive or negative.
The light diffracted by a grating is
found by summing the light diffracted
from each of the elements, and is
essentially a convolution of
diffraction and interference patterns.
The figure shows the light diffracted
by 2-element and 5-element gratings
where the grating spacings are the
same; it can be seen that the
maxima are in the same position, but
the detailed structures of the
intensities are different.

A computer-generated image of an Airy

disk.

Computer generated light diffraction

pattern from a circular aperture of
 diameter 0.5 micrometre at a wavelength
of 0.6 micrometre (red-light) at distances
of 0.1 cm – 1 cm in steps of 0.1 cm. One
can see the image moving from the
Fresnel region into the Fraunhofer region
where the Airy pattern is seen.

Circular aperture[edit]
Main article: Airy disk
The far-field diffraction of a plane
wave incident on a circular aperture
is often referred to as the Airy Disk.
The variation in intensity with angle
is given by
,
where a is the radius of the
circular aperture, k is equal to
2π/λ and J1 is a Bessel function.
The smaller the aperture, the
larger the spot size at a given
distance, and the greater the
divergence of the diffracted
beams.
General aperture[edit]
The wave that emerges from a
point source has amplitude  at
location r that is given by the
solution of the frequency
domain wave equation for a point
source (The Helmholtz
Equation),
where  is the 3-dimensional
delta function. The delta
function has only radial
dependence, so the Laplace
operator (a.k.a. scalar
Laplacian) in the spherical
coordinate system simplifies
to (see del in cylindrical and
spherical coordinates)
By direct substitution, the
solution to this equation
can be readily shown to
be the scalar Green's
function, which in
the spherical coordinate
system (and using the
physics time convention )
is:
This solution assumes
that the delta function
source is located at
the origin. If the
source is located at an
arbitrary source point,
denoted by the
vector  and the field
point is located at the
point , then we may
represent the
scalar Green's
function (for arbitrary
source location) as:
Therefore, if an
electric field,
Einc(x,y) is incident
on the aperture,
the field produced
by this aperture
distribution is
given by
the surface
integral:

On the
calculation of
Fraunhofer
region fields

where the
source point in
the aperture is
given by the
vector
In the far
field,
wherein the
parallel
rays
approximati
on can be
employed,
the Green's
function,
simplifie
s to
as
can
be
see
n in
the
figur
e to
the
right
(clic
k to
enla
rge)
.
The
expr
essi
on
for
the
far-
zon
e
(Fra
unh
ofer
regi
on)
field
bec
ome
s
N
o
w
,
s
i
n
c
e
an
d
the
expre
ssion
for the
Fraun
hofer
region
field
from a
planar
apertu
re
now
beco
mes,
Letting,
and
the Fraunhofer
region field of the
planar aperture
assumes the
form of a Fourier
transform
In the far-field /
Fraunhofer regio
this becomes the
spatial Fourier
transform of the
aperture distribu
Huygens' princip
when applied to
aperture simply s
that the far-field
diffraction pattern
the spatial Fourie
transform of the
aperture shape,
this is a direct by
product of using
parallel-rays
approximation,
which is identica
doing a plane wa
decomposition o
aperture plane fi
(see Fourier opti
Propagation
a laser
beam[edit]
The way in which
beam profile of
a laser
beam changes a
propagates is
determined by
diffraction. When
entire emitted be
has a planar,
spatially coheren
ve front, it
approximates Ga
ian beam profile
has the lowest
divergence for a
given diameter. T
smaller the outpu
beam, the quicke
diverges. It is
possible to reduc
the divergence o
laser beam by fir
expanding it with
one convex lens
and then collima
it with a second
convex lens who
focal point is
coincident with th
of the first lens. T
resulting beam h
larger diameter,
hence a lower
divergence.
Divergence of a
laser beam may
reduced below th
diffraction of a
Gaussian beam
even reversed to
convergence if th
refractive index o
the propagation
media increases
the light intensity
[18]
 This may resu
a self-focusing e
.
When the wave f
of the emitted be
has perturbation
only the transver
coherence length
(where the wave
front perturbation
less than 1/4 of t
wavelength) sho
be considered as
Gaussian beam
diameter when
determining the
divergence of the
laser beam. If the
transverse
coherence length
the vertical direc
is higher than in
horizontal, the la
beam divergence
be lower in the
vertical direction
than in the
horizontal.
Diffraction-
limited
imaging[edit]
Main
article: Diffractio
limited system
The Airy disk around
the stars from the 2.5
telescope aperture ca
seen in this lucky ima
the binary star zeta B

The ability of an
imaging system
resolve detail is
ultimately limited
by diffraction. Th
because a plane
wave incident on
circular lens or
mirror is diffracte
described above
The light is not
focused to a poin
but forms an Airy
disk having a cen
spot in the focal
plane with radius
first null of
where λ is the
wavelength of th
and N is the f-
number (focal len
divided by diame
the imaging optic
object space, the
corresponding an
resolution is
where D is the d
the entrance pup
imaging lens (e.g
telescope's main
Two point source
produce an Airy
see the photo of
star. As the poin
move closer toge
patterns will star
and ultimately th
merge to form a
pattern, in which
two point source
resolved in the im
The Rayleigh
criterion specifie
point sources ca
considered to be
if the separation
images is at leas
of the Airy disk, i
first minimum of
coincides with th
of the other.
Thus, the larger
aperture of the le
smaller the wave
finer the resolutio
imaging system.
telescopes have
lenses or mirrors
optical microscop
limited in the det
they can see.
Speckle patte
Main article: Spe
Pattern
The speckle patt
is seen when usi
pointer is anothe
phenomenon. It
of the superposit
many waves with
phases, which ar
when a laser bea
illuminates a rou
They add togeth
resultant wave w
amplitude, and th
intensity, varies r
Babinet's
principle[edit]
Main article: Bab
principle
Babinet's princip
useful theorem s
the diffraction pa
an opaque body
to that from a ho
same size and s
with differing inte
This means that
interference cond
single obstructio
the same as that
slit.

Patterns[edi

The upper half of this

diffraction pattern of
on an elliptic aperture
its 2D Fourier transfo
reconstructing the sh
aperture.

Several qualitativ
observations can
of diffraction in g

 The angular s
the features i
diffraction pa
inversely prop
the dimension
object causin
diffraction. In
words: The s
diffracting ob
'wider' the res
diffraction pa
vice versa. (M
precisely, this
the sines of th
 The diffractio
are invariant
scaling; that i
depend only
of the wavele
size of the dif
object.
 When the diff
object has a p
structure, for
a diffraction g
features gene
become shar
third figure, fo
shows a com
a double-slit p
a pattern form
slits, both set
having the sa
spacing, betw
center of one
next.

Particle
diffraction[
See also: neutro
diffraction and e
diffraction
According to qua
theory every par
exhibits wave pro
particular, massi
can interfere with
themselves and
diffract. Diffractio
electrons and ne
stood as one of t
powerful argume
of quantum mech
wavelength asso
a particle is the d
wavelength
where h is Planc
constant and p is
the momentum o
(mass × velocity
moving particles
For most macros
this wavelength i
it is not meaning
wavelength to th
atom traveling at
30,000 m/s woul
Broglie waveleng
pico meters.
Because the wav
even the smalles
macroscopic obj
extremely small,
matter waves is
small particles, li
neutrons, atoms
molecules. The s
wavelength of th
waves makes the
suited to study th
crystal structure
large molecules
Relatively larger
like buckyballs w
shown to diffract

Bragg diffra

Following Bragg's law
(or reflection) in this d
from the constructive
passing through a cry
used to determine th
structure.

Further informati
diffraction
 Diffraction from a
dimensional peri
such as atoms in
called Bragg diffr
similar to what o
waves are scatte
a diffraction grati
diffraction is a co
interference betw
reflecting from di
planes. The cond
constructive inte
given by Bragg's
where
λ is the wavelength,
d is the distance between crystal planes,
θ is the angle of the diffracted wave.
and m is an integer known as the order of the
diffracted beam.
Bragg diffraction
electromagnetic
wavelength like X
like neutrons (an
on the order of (o
spacing.[20] The p
of the separation
allowing one to d
Diffraction contra
microscopes and
particular, is also
individual defects
crystals.

Coherence[
Main article: Coh
The description o
interference of w
source taking dif
a screen. In this
phase between w
only dependent o
does not take int
that arrive at the
emitted by the so
phase with which
change over time
means that wave
that are too far a
constant interfere
between their ph
independent.[21]:919
The length over
light is correlated
In order for interf
difference must b
length. This is so
coherence, as it
different frequen
the case of light
the coherence le
the excited state
transition.[22]:71–74[23]:3
If waves are emi
this can lead to i
direction. When
beam of light, the
correlated is call
length. In the cas
experiment, this
coherence length
between the two
screen would loo
patterns.[22]:74–79
In the case of pa
and atoms, the c
spatial extent of
the particle.[24]:107

See also[edit
 Angle-sensiti
 Atmospheric
 Bragg diffract
 Brocken spec
 Cloud iridesc
 Coherent diff
 Diffraction for
 Diffraction lim
 Diffraction sp
 Diffraction vs
 Diffractomete
 Dynamical th
 Electron diffra
 Fraunhofer d
 Fresnel diffra
 Fresnel imag
 Fresnel numb
 Fresnel zone
 Neutron diffra
 Prism
 Powder diffra
 Refraction
 Schaefer–Be
 Thinned array
 X-ray scatteri

References
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coloribus, et iride
("Bonomia"), Ital
12-01 at the Way
Original : Nobis alius
vocamusque; diffract
hoc est partes eius m
medium in diversa ul
declarabimus.
Translation : It has ill
make known and cal
sometimes observe l
[i.e., the beam of ligh
the medium but in dif

2. ^ Cajori, Florian 
Branches, includ
laboratories."Arc
Machine MacMil
3. ^ Wireless Comm
Hall communicat
series, T. S. Rap
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Asenbaum, Pete
Marcel; Cheshno
time single-mole
Nanotechnology
300.  arXiv:1402.
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Retrieved 2019-
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coloribus, et iride
mathematics of l
appended …] (B
1665), pp. 1–11 
Machine: "Propo
solum directe, re
quarto modo, dif
 spreads not only
reflection, but als
diffraction.) On p
of light from two
per sui communi
corporis aliunde,
Sometimes light,
body's surface, [
another [source]
7. ^ Jean Louis Au
sciences et des
Ganeau. pp.  149
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Longman, Rees,
pp.  95.
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1673. Reprinted
Seventeenth Cen
England: Oxford
especially p. 254
Machine.
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Experiments and
optics". Philosop
London. 94: 1–
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(Note: This lectu
24 November 18
11. ^ Fresnel, Augus
la lumière" ("Mem
Chimie et de Phy
reprinted as "De
in Oeuvres comp
Imprimerie Impé
the "First Memoi
12. ^ Fresnel, Augus
la lumière" ("Mem
29 July 1818, "cr
in Mémoires de l
France, vol. V (fo
reprinted in Oeuv
(Paris: Imprimeri
translated as "Fr
in H. Crew (ed.),
Huygens, Young
pp. 81–144. (Firs
Chimie et de Phy
13. ^ Christiaan Huy
16 at the Wayba
der Aa, 1690), C
the Wayback Ma
peut concevoir q
ondes spherique
can imagine that
waves, … ) (Note
however, in the p
1678 he first com
Academy of Scie
14. ^ Baker, B.B. & C
of Huygens' Prin
 15. ^ Dietrich Zawisc
Retrieved 2007-
16. ^ Arumugam, Na
Iridescent?".  Sla
original on 10 Se
17. ^ Andrew Norton
CRC Press. p.  1
18. ^ Chiao, R. Y.; G
TRAPPING OF O
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External lin

 "Scattering a
diffraction". C
Union of Crys

XX527015

cb131628747 (data)

 4145094-2

N: sh85037928

00564628
OC: 027569276
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