Triennale

UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI PERUGIA
Dipartimento di Ingegneria
Corso di Laurea Triennale in Ingegneria
Informatica ed Elettronica
Development and validation of a TCAD model of

radiation damage effects in electronic devices
Laureando: Relatore:
Riccardo Vinciarelli Ing. Daniele Passeri
Correlatore:
Ing. Arianna Morozzi
Anno Accademico 2018/2019

Alla mia fidanzata,
Federica
II
Index
Introduction 1
1 Experimental measurements 3
1.1 Clean room...................................................................................................3
1.2 Wafer fabrication.........................................................................................5
1.3 How measurements are made......................................................................7
1.3.1 Device positioning.........................................................................8
1.3.2 Contact the device.........................................................................8
1.4 Measured devices.........................................................................................9
1.4.1 Diode.............................................................................................9
1.4.2 MOS capacitor...............................................................................12
1.4.3 Gated Diode...................................................................................16
1.4.4 MOSFET transistor.......................................................................19
2 Sentaurus TCAD 23
2.1 Sentaurus Structure Editor...........................................................................26
2.1.1 Mesh definition..............................................................................27
2.2 Sentaurus Device.........................................................................................28
2.2.1 File section (File {…})..................................................................29
2.2.2 Electrode section (Electrode{...})..................................................30
2.2.3 Physics section (Physics {…})......................................................31
2.2.4 Plot section (Plot {…}).................................................................33
2.2.5 Math section (Math {…}).............................................................33
2.2.6 Solve section (Solve {…})............................................................34
2.3 Sentaurus Inspect.........................................................................................35
2.4 Sentaurus Visual...........................................................................................37
2.5 Synopsys Sentaurus Workbench..................................................................38
2.6 How to make a MOS capacitor on TCAD...................................................38
2.6.1 MOS Capacitor command file – SDE...........................................39
2.6.2 MOS Capacitor command file – SDEVICE..................................41
2.6.3 MOS Capacitor command file – INSPECT...................................45
3 Comparison between experimental measurements and simulations 48
3.1 MOS capacitor IFX......................................................................................49
3.1.1 Not irradiated MOS.......................................................................53
3.1.2 50 krad irradiated MOS.................................................................54
3.1.3 100 krad irradiated MOS...............................................................55
3.1.4 500 krad irradiated MOS...............................................................57
III
3.1.5 1 Mrad irradiated MOS.................................................................58
3.1.6 10 Mrad irradiated MOS...............................................................60
3.1.7 100 Mrad irradiated MOS.............................................................61
3.2 Gated Diode.................................................................................................63
3.2.1 Not irradiated Gated Diode...........................................................65
3.2.2 50 krad irradiated Gated Diode.....................................................66
3.2.3 100 krad irradiated Gated Diode...................................................67
3.2.4 500 krad irradiated Gated Diode...................................................69
3.2.5 1 Mrad irradiated Gated Diode......................................................70
3.2.6 10 Mrad irradiated Gated Diode....................................................72
3.3 Gated Diode p-spray....................................................................................73
3.3.1 Not irradiated Gated Diode p-spray..............................................75
3.3.2 50 krad irradiated Gated Diode p-spray........................................76
3.3.3 500 krad irradiated Gated Diode p-spray......................................78
3.3.4 1 Mrad irradiated Gated Diode p-spray.........................................79
3.3.5 10 Mrad irradiated Gated Diode p-spray.......................................81
4 Surface radiation damage TCAD model development 83
4.1 Infineon Model............................................................................................86
4.2 Hamamatsu Model.......................................................................................89
4.2.1 Hamamatsu Model without p-spray..............................................90
4.2.2 Hamamatsu Model with p-spray...................................................93
4.2.3 Hamamatsu generic Model............................................................96
5 Combined surface and bulk radiation damage model: multistrip device
simulation 99
5.1 DC simulation..............................................................................................104
5.1.1 DC simulation ϕ=0 particles/cm2........................................................106
5.1.2 DC simulation ϕ=1e15 particles/cm2..................................................107
5.1.6 DC simulation all fluences..................................................................111
5.2 TV simulation................................................................................................112
5.2.1 Fixed fluence and varying impact point.............................................112
5.2.2 Fixed impact pointand varying fluence..............................................115
5.3 Collected charge and elecrons.......................................................................119
5.3.1 Collected charge efficiency.................................................................119
5.3.2 Collected electrons..............................................................................119
Conclusions 121
Appendix A - technical terms 123
Bibliography 124
Acknowledgment 125
IV
Introduction
The topic of this work is the development of a comprehensive TCAD radiation damage
model for the study and design of solid-state, silicon particle detectors.
The TCAD model has been developed and implemented with reference to the
commercial Sentaurus TCAD software. The development and validation of the model
have been carried following two main steps: 1) measurements on real test structures and
data analysis, in order to extract the fundamental physical parameters pertinent to the
modes; 2) computer simulations and comparison with experimental measurements.
The measurements on actual devices have been carried out at the clean room
facilities available at the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) from Perugia. The
parameters used for computer simulations are derived from the data analysis performed
on the experimental measurements. In general, the parameters taken from the
measurements may undergo variations in order to best simulate the device.
Chapter 1 discusses where and how measurements are performed on electronic
devices, then the clean room is analyzed, the importance of the presence or absence of
dust on the device is underlined, the tools used are analyzed and the results of the
measurements are presented. Furthermore, it is explained how the realization of
electronic devices in the industrial field takes place. Chapter 2 illustrates the software
used, shows how to use Sentaurus TCAD to simulate electronic device. The importance
of the files that the software receive as input and those it will send out is described. In
addition, code examples are given for the Sentaurus Structure Editor, Sentaurus Device
and Sentaurus Inspect software. Chapter 3 shows the comparison between curves
obtained from experimental measurements and TCAD simulations. The simulations
have been carried out on devices irradiated according to different radiation damage. In
Chapter 4 models are created for the simulation of electronic devices for two different
companies: Infineon Technologies and Hamamatsu Photonics. The models are
characterized by three significant parameters representing: charge concentration in the
oxide (NOX), acceptors concentration (NitACC) and donors concentration (NitDON) as a
function of the radiation dose. In Chapter 5 the Hamamatsu technology model is applied
to an electronic device called strip, in particular the model used is Hamamatsu with
1
INTRODUCTION
p-spray. The strip device is polarized through a DC simulation, then a time-variant

simulation will be carried out to understand the electrical behaviour of the device
following the passage of a particle. From the time-variant simulation the current flowing
in the device is obtained following the passage of a particle. By integrating the current
pulse the charge collected by the device is obtained following the passage of the
particle. Simulations are performed for the different irradiation fluencies undergone by
the device. This document uses technical terms and abbreviations that are included in
Appendix A.
2
Chapter 1
Experimental measurements
Measurement activity is important in order to know how an electronic device behaviour
under given voltage or current excitations. Another aspect to be emphasized is that the
same device, for example a diode, manufactured by company A, appears to be different,
in terms of electrical behaviour, from that produced by company B. The reasons that
lead to supporting what has just been said are the result of experimental measurements
work. The differences mainly depend upon a technological issues, that is the industrial
processes that lead to the realization of the device, the “recipe” with which it is made.
Foundries do not make the data used for chip production available. Technological
progress can be added, e.g equipment upgrades, so their evolution represents a
significant difference. From a point of view of chemical-physical processes there are
differences in particular: doping of the device; growth of the oxide; realization of wells;
wafer fabrication. Through the activity of data measurement and analysis, connected
with that of software simulation, it is possible to get to know the doping parameters of
the device. Logically it is not trivial to extrapolate from the measurements the
fundamental data that characterize that device.
1.1 Clean room
Knowing how to make a silicon electronic device, regardless of the complexity of the
same, it is necessary for the manufacturing company to keep the production
environments in conditions of controlled air, very low dust content and controlled
humidity. Moreover not only industries, but also those who work on electronic devices,
in this case measurement activities, need this specific environment. It all started in the
first microelectronics industries in the United States, which saw the need to improve the
quality of their products following the technological evolution of the devices, so the
clean room was introduced.
3
CHAPTER 1. EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
In the semiconductor production process, dust particles in the air irreparably

damage the micro-incisions made in the chips, creating defective circuits. This
industrial environment has mostly two objectives: to increase production efficiency; to
increase the quality of the final product. The clean room is an environment in which the
previously mentioned characteristics, that is very low quantity of dust and controlled
humidity, are respected. The Figure 1.1 shows an example of an industrial clean room.
Figure 1.1: Industrial clean room.
In order to preserve the clean environment it is necessary that the structure has
appropriate machinery for air filtering. One aspect to note is that there is not only one
type of room that is clean but different. The classification of clean rooms is based on the
counting of microparticles of 0.5 µm in one cubic meter (UNI standard). The clean
room quality certificate is issued by the manufacturer by counting the number of
microparticles, then an ISO standard is assigned. For the classification of clean rooms
reference is made to the ISO 14644 standard, where it is necessary to measure the
particles present in the air equal to or greater than 0.5 µm. This measurement must be
made both during the construction of the clean room and during its usage. The operating
principle of the clean rooms is based on the forced air recirculation, that is the room is
sealed with respect to the external environment and the air filtered through low flow
fans is introduced into it.
4
Moreover, anyone who wants to enter in clean room, even a non-specialist, must
wear clothes that reduce the transport of dust and bacteria from the outside. In the
Figure 1.1 there are people with special clothing. The quality in terms of garments for
body protection has repercussions on the standards to which the clean room belongs. It
should be noted that it is forbidden to enter this environment with external material that
does not comply with hygiene standards.
At INFN, Istitutito Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, located at the Physics
department of the University of Perugia, it is possible to access at clean room where
various research activities are carried out. In particular, the measurement part on
electronic devices will be analyzed, performed with the PA200 instrument, Figure 1.4.
1.2 Wafer fabrication
Before talking about which devices are measured it is useful to understand how these
are produced. In electronics, with wafers we refer to thin layer of cylindrical
semiconductor, with a variable size radius. This slice of silicon allows the realization of
electronic devices (diodes, transistors, capacitors, integrated circuits, etc.) at planar
level, therefore with some chemical reactions of oxidation and through
photolithographic processes it is possible to realize a certain device. Obviously with a
single slice of silicon many devices can be produced, depending on their size, so in
general we do not have wafers with a single device. During the process for making the
wafers we start with poly-silicon crystals which are placed in an oven and brought to the
melting temperature (about 1500 °C), the Czochralski method. At this point the molten
silicon is doped with p-type (with boron) or n-type (with phosphorus). Immediately
afterwards a crystal pin is immersed and then rotated in the molten silicon. The rotation
and simultaneous raising of the pin allows the creation of a silicon cylinder. The
manufacturing steps in the Figure 1.2.
Once the cylinder has completely formed, it is cleaned by eliminating the upper
and lower ends and then sanded externally. Subsequently, with special diamond cables,
it is cut giving life to slices that then undergo a process of polishing and cleaning
through chemical and mechanical agents. The wafers are made from a crystalline
semiconductor cylinder with a purity grade of silicon of 99.999999%. The thickness of
the slices is in the order of half a millimeter (0.2 – 0.75 mm), while the diameter
depends on the production line that processes the slices. We talk about diameters of 200
mm, 300 mm and others, see Figure 1.3.
5
On the single slice numerous devices are made from tens to thousands according
to the dimensions of the components. Subsequently the devices present in the slice are
separated into the individual chips (called dies) which will then be encapsulated in their
containers (package). Measurements take place at the chip level, the device does not yet
have the external casing, so the classic pins that are usually seen are not present.
Figure 1.2: Main steps Czochralski method.
Figure 1.3: Silicon crystal and wafers.
6
1.3 How measurements are made
In detail, the measurement part of the devices is analyzed, that is how to act. In the
Figure 1.4 there is the box that contains the instrument for making the measurements.
On the left of the Figure 1.4 it is possible to notice a microscope used to fix the device
before being contacted, in the lower right there is a keyboard used to move the contact
plate on the X-Y plane. The Figure 1.5 shows how the instrument is made PA200.
The main foundries that provide test structures for this work are: Infineon
Technologies (IFX), a German company specialized in the design and manufacture of
silicon electronic devices; Hamamatsu Photonics (HPK), a Japanese company
specialized in the design and manufacture of silicon electronic devices, particularly
optical sensors; Fondazione Bruno Kessler (FBK), an Italian research organization
dealing with scientific and technological development, in particular produces electronic
devices.
Figure 1.4: Probe Station box of INFN Perugia.
7
Figure 1.5: PA200 – Probe Station of INFN Perugia.
1.3.1 Device positioning

The probe station can be accessed by opening a special door. If the tips are resting on
the plate they are raised. Now that the tips are raised it is possible to move the plate
along the X-Y axes, this movement is done thanks to the external console. The plate is
moved to allow the silicon slice to rest more comfortably. The silicon wafer is fixed to
the plate with special adhesive tape. Now the various devices in the silicone slice are
ready to be contacted.
1.3.2 Contact the device

Since the machine makes 4 tips (or contacts) available, we are able to analyze devices of
increasing complexity, starting from the diode to the strips. The tips resemble the shape
of pins, but are made with a specific material, while the size is in the order of hundreds
of micrometers. The structures that support the points are adjustable along all three
axes, but in particular the long Z movement is exploited.
8
1.4 Measured devices
Supposing to take as a reference a device having two contacts, the first on the upper part
and the second on the lower part. Once placed on the chuck the first point will be placed
on the upper contact, while the second will go to rest on the chuck itself in order to
contact the lower part, since being the planar structure we can access are to one side of
the device. The measured devices are described in this order:
• Diodes
• MOS capacitors
• Gated Diodes
• MOSFET transistors
1.4.1 Diode
The pn junction diode is characterized by a doped p-type side (with donor atoms) and
the other n-type doped (with acceptor atoms). The p-type electric terminal is called
anode (A) while the one connected to the n-type part is called the cathode (K), see
Figure 1.6. In the junction region a recombination process is started where some free
electrons pass from the p-type doped side to the n-type side. Near the junction, fixed
ions remain, which determine the region of space charge or emptied region, generating a
potential difference called the built-in voltage (Vbi). Further information regarding the
structure and polarization of the device can be found in the theory book [1].
Figure 1.6: p-n junction Diode structure.
9
The device has two polarization regions when the voltage applied to the anode
with ground cathode (VD) varies:
• Direct (VD > 0)

• Reverse (VD < 0)
→ Direct (VD > 0)

In this condition the potential applied to the outside (VD) is opposed to the built-in
voltage (Vbi) and therefore the overall result is the reduction of the potential difference
that develops at the ends of the space charge region. In this configuration, the gaps in
the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed towards the junction.
This reduces the width of the emptied area and the positive voltage applied to the device
is concentrated almost completely at the ends of the space charge zone, lowering the
potential barrier. In this situation an appreciable imbalance is created between the flows
of the majority and minority that cross the junction in the opposite direction; the
resultant is a flow of charges, and therefore a current (ID), which varies exponentially
with the applied voltage.
→ Reverse (VD < 0)

In the case in which a negative voltage is applied, that is a potential at the anode less
than that of the cathode, it will be said that the diode is in reverse polarization. In this
case the applied potential is added to the built-in voltage. Since the p-type region is
connected to the negative terminal of the supply, the gaps in the p-type region are
pushed away from the junction, increasing the width of the emptied area. The same
happens in the n-type zone, where the electrons are pushed away from the junction due
to the action of the positive terminal of the power supply. This increases the width of the
emptied area and the negative voltage applied to the device is concentrated almost
completely at the ends of the space charge zone raising the potential barrier. Therefore,
an imbalance is created between the flows of the majority and minority groups that
cross the junction in the opposite direction and also here the result is a flow of charges,
and therefore a current, which varies exponentially with the applied voltage. However
the result is very different because the exponential is negative and therefore the
resulting reverse current is very small.
10
Concerning the measurement activity, I-V curves were performed in the diode
inversion region. The applied voltage goes from 0 → -1000 V in order to understand the
breakdown point in inversion. The measurements are made on different diodes of the
Infineon Technologies (IFX). The first device measured was a circular p-n junction
diode, with area 0.25 cm2. Subsequently, the contacts were placed on the surface of the
diode. The first contact was placed on the guard ring n+ (not always contacted), the
second on the measuring instrument plate (contact p+) and third on the n+ type doped
part. From Figure 1.7 it is possible to notice how as the voltage decreases the module of
the inversion current increases. Measurements have been made on different diodes, in
fact in the heading of the Figure 1.7 there are numbers indicating the different devices:
1015 red color, 1020 blue color, 1022 green color.
Figure 1.7: I-V Diode, produced by FBK. T=20 °C.
11
1.4.2 MOS capacitor

MOS capacitors are measured because they are electronic devices with very simple
behaviour, so we can understand its behaviour and its changes in physical terms after
irradiation. Referring to the theory, we take for granted the fact that its structure is
characterized by a metallic contact, oxide and semiconductor, see Figure 1.8 (a). In the
Figure 1.8 (b) is present the MOS capacitor in the wafer. Further information regarding
the structure and polarization of the device can be found in the theory book [1].
Figure 1.8: MOS capacitor structure.
For p-type devices there are three working regions when the voltage applied to
the terminals varies:
• Accumulation (VGB < VFB)

• Depletion (VFB < VGB < VT)
• Inversion (VGB >> VFB ˄ VGB < VT)
→ Accumulation (VGB < VFB)

Occurs when the bias voltage applied to the gate is negative (VGB < VFB). The energy
bands near the oxide-silicon interface fold upwards, the valence band approaches the
Fermi level and the semiconductor surface close to the insulating layer is enriched with
gaps.
12
→ Depletion (VFB < VGB < VT)

Occurs when the bias voltage applied to the gate is positive the gaps move away from
the interface with the oxide (V FB < VGB < VT). Due to the hypothesized, the presence of
electrons is negligible. The positive charge of the metal electrode is counterbalanced by
the negative charge of the ionized acceptor atoms in the area emptied of the holes.
→ Inversion (VGB >> VFB ˄ VGB < VT)

Occurs when the polarization voltage increases (VGB >> VFB ˄ VGB < VT), the energy
bands continue to bend downwards until the intrinsic level exceeds the Fermi level, the
electron density at the surface is greater than that of the gaps.
Concerning the polarization, considering the Figure 1.9 from left to right, we
have the following polarization regions: Accumulation, Depletion, Inversion. In general,
measurements are carried out on the MOS because it is possible to extrapolate the
parameters that characterize a device, the concentration of charges trapped in the oxide,
acceptors and donors. The objective of these measurements is to create a model that
allows to measure the measured devices at the Sentaurus TCAD. The curves that will be
created are C-V in low and high frequency (LF-HF). Concerning the low frequency
(quasi-stationary, QS) the device is excited with a certain continuous voltage range, for
example -6 V → 5 V, with 100 mV steps and a measurement delay of 0.7 s. Instead, for
high frequency measurements, a small 15 mV amplitude signal of 10 kHz frequency is
applied.
Following its irradiation, the behaviour of a MOS is similar in terms of curves
with respect to the before irradiation case. One of the differences found between the
irradiated case and the before irradiation case is the positioning of the curves with
respect to the x-axis, translation in tension. The simulations on irradiated devices will be
analyzed in chapter 3 on the comparison of measures-simulations. From the C-V curves
on the MOS the flat-band voltage (VFB) is obtained, from here through data analysis the
QEFF is obtained, a parameter that contains the charge concentration in the oxide (N OX),
the concentration of atoms acceptors and donors ( NitACC - NitDON). The flat-band voltage
can be obtained in various ways, one of which is the calculation of the angular
coefficient of the straight line tangent to the curve, the maximum value is found and this
corresponds to the VFB. The flat-band voltage (VFB) is shown in Figure 1.10. Through
the high-low method it is possible to derive the interface state density (DIT) for each
radiation dose.
13
The DIT parameter is fundamental for the purposes of TCAD simulations, in fact
from this it is possible to derive the NIT, that is the concentration of donor traps (if p-
type substrate) or acceptor (if n-type substrate ), see Eq.1.1. In the chapter 3 comparing
measurements-simulations, it will be emphasized that often the parameters provided by
the measurements do not allow the realization of the device through TCAD simulations.
In the clean room, at INFN of Perugia, different types of MOS were measured:
squares and rounds. In particular the capacitors belong to the same batch, Infineon
Technologies (IFX): IFX_05_15. The device was contacted using two pins, the first
contact is made on the gate terminal and the second on the bulk. The graph shows on the
y-axis the capacity and on that of x the voltage applied to the gate terminal. In the
Figure 1.10 is reported the curve of the square MOS and in the Figure 1.11 is the curve
of the circle MOS. The other simulations about MOS are not reported because the
curves are very similar. In the graph the solid line represent the low frequency, while the
dotted line represent the high frequency.
Figure 1.9: Working regions for p-type MOS.
N it = D it ⋅Δ E Eq. 1.1
14
Figure 1.10: C-V square MOS produced by IFX. T=20 °C. Line: Solid LF, Dashed HF.
Figure 1.11: C-V circle MOS produced by IFX. T=20 °C. Line: Solid LF, Dashed HF.
15
1.4.3 Gated Diode

The gated diode is a device having a central MOS body (metal oxide semiconductor)
and a n-type doped side pocket (or p) forming a diode. The device used during the
measurement is Hamamatsu's HPK_2019.01_dd_240um_batch1, p-type substrate and
n-type pocket. The gate contact and the top can be in metal or in poly-silicon, this
material is used to prevent the formation of a Schottky barrier. The structure that
characterizes it is composed of a central metal-oxide-semiconductor body and a n+ type
side pocket on a p-type substrate, see Figure 1.12 (a). Furthermore, close to the bulk
contact, a strongly doped p+ type region is defined. In the Figure 1.12 (b) is present the
Gated Diode in the wafer. Further information regarding the structure and polarization
of the device can be found in the theory book [11].
Figure 1.12: Gated diode structure.
Thanks to the presence of the carriers, with the variation of the voltage V G (gate
voltage) and with fixed VR (greater than the threshold voltage of the diode →
conduction), a leakage current ID is created which flows in the diode, then from the
top_1, contact contact top left, to the bulk.
The polarization regions of the p-type Gated Diode are:
• Accumulation (VG < VFB)

• Deplation (VFB < VG < VT)
• Inversion (VG > VT)
16
→ Accumulation (VG < VFB)

In the case where the VG voltage is less than the flat band potential, we are in
accumulation. In this case, positive charges accumulate on the silicon surface, while
negative charges are placed on the metal surface.
→ Depletion (VFB <VG <VT)

If the VG voltage is slightly higher than the flat-band voltage, we are emptying. The
accumulation of positive charge at the gate ends induces a repulsion of holes from the
silicon surface. The rejected gaps leave a concentration of negative ions in place,
creating an empty region without free carriers. The charge provided by the depleted
region extends deep into the semiconductor.
→ Inversion (VG > VT)

Further increasing the voltage VG, beyond the voltage VT, there is a repulsion of holes
from the semiconductor towards the metal and an approach of a certain number of free
electrons towards the surface of the silicon.
The current flowing between the top terminal and the bulk is influenced by the
charge of the MOS and by the fixed voltage applied to the top terminal (V R).
Considering the voltage applied to the negative gate about Figure 1.13, the resulting
curve will present the polarization regions for p-type Gated Diode in the following
order: accumulation, depletion, inversion. Therefore, considering the I-V curve, if we
move from left to right, the first low high transition of the corresponds to the voltage V G
= VFB, while the second transition is VG = VFB + Vbias. We define an s0, surface velocity,
from the following Eq.1.2. Where: IS = Imax - Iinv; Imax indicates the maximum leakage
current, Iinv the mean of the current in inversion, q elementary charge, ni intrinsic carrier
concentration and the gate area AG. The current IS is shown in Figure 1.13.
When the I-V curves are obtained, it is possible to extrapolate the value of s0, i.e.
the charge surface recombination velocity. As the radiation dose varies, both for p-type
and n-type substrates, the current flowing between the top_1 terminal and the bulk tends
to increase. The Figure 1.13 underlines the difference in terms of amplitude of the
emptied region using a gate voltage of 5 V and 6 V. The Figure 1.14 show the difference
about the amplitude of current between metal or poly-silicon contact.
IS
S0 = Eq. 1.2
ni ⋅q⋅AG
17
Figure 1.13: I-V gated diode (HPK). Vg=5 V solid line | Vg=6 V dashed line.
Figure 1.14: I-V gated diode (HPK). Vg=5 V. Contacts: Metal red - Poly blue.
18
1.4.4 MOSFET transistor

A typical n-type MOS Field Effect Transistor has a structure characterized by a central
MOS body and by two doped side pockets of the n-type (or p-type), see Figure 1.15. The
structure presents 4 contacts: source, top left on pocket n+; drain, top right on the
pocket n+; gate, upper contact of the MOS; bulk, contact on the bottom of the silicon.
Further information regarding the structure and polarization of the device can be found
in the theory book [1].
Figure 1.15: nMOSFET structure.
Starting from a theoretical review of how the MOSFET works, it is useful to consider
the threshold voltage (VTH) for the formation of the channel between the two n+
pockets.
The polarization regions of a nMOSFET are:
• Interdiction (VGS < VTH)

• Linear (VGS > VTH ˄ VDS < VGS – VTH)
• Saturation (VGS > VTH ˄ VDS > VGS – VTH)
→ Interdiction – OFF (VGS < VTH)

In this operating region voltage applied to the gate-source is not sufficient for the
formation of the channel (VGS < VTH), in other words the channel charge density in the
vicinity of the source region is zero. The source and drain terminals can be considered
disconnected, so the current between the two source and drain terminals is zero (ID = 0).
19
→ Linear (VGS > VTH ˄ VDS < VGS – VTH)

In this operating region, the voltage applied between gate-source allows the formation
of the channel, the voltage between drain-source is less than the difference between the
gate-source voltage and the threshold voltage (VGS > VTH ˄ VDS < VGS - VTH). In other
words, the channel charge density near the diffuse regions is different from zero. Then
the current between the two source terminals and drain is different from zero (ID ≠ 0).
→ Saturation (VGS > VTH ˄ VDS > VGS – VTH)

In this operating region, the voltage applied to the gate allows the formation of a
“choked” channel, the channel charge density stops before connecting the two pockets.
The voltage applied between gate-source allows the formation of the channel, the
voltage between drain-source is greater than the difference between the gate-source
voltage and the threshold voltage (VGS > VTH ˄ VDS > VGS - VTH). Then the current
between the two source terminals and drain is different from zero (ID ≠ 0).
The measurements that have been carried out on the MOSFETs are summarized
in terms of I-V curves, drain current as a function of the drain-source voltage, fixed a
certain gate-source voltage at -0.5 V , 0 V, 0.5 V, 1 V, 1.5 V. All the I-V curves are
shown in the Figure 1.18. In the condition in which VGS is equal to -0.5 V the transistor
is off and does not conduct current, see Figure 1.16. As V GS increases beyond the
threshold voltage the transistor starts to conduct current, see Figure 1.17. The drain
current increases with increasing VGS, see Figure 1.18.
For irradiated devices, these mesaurement will be of utmost importance in order
to disentangle the effect of charge at the oxide-silicon interface (QOX), increase in
acceptor concentration (ΔNitACC), donor concentration (ΔNitDON) on the MOSFET's flat-
band voltage shift. In particular, the Mc Whorther Method is used. The method consists
in the search for the increase of the channel formation tension (V TH), this voltage is the
sum of a contribution in terms of charges at the oxide-silicon interface (∆V Nit) and
charge in the oxide (∆VNox), see equation Eq 1.3. Considering Eq.1.4 and Eq.1.5 where
(VS0)1 and (VS0)2 refer to the subthreshold current at different degrees of radiation.
Thanks to the calculation of the ∆VNit, the ∆Nit is obtained through the relation Eq.1.6.
In a very similar way the ∆Nox is obtained through ∆V OX, it is sufficient to replace
Eq.1.7 on Eq.1.8. The capacity of the Cox oxide is found with the relation Eq.1.9. Vmg
means the midgap voltage. After these calculations, the increase in the charge
concentration at the oxide-silicon interface (∆Nox) and in the oxide is available (∆Nit).
20
Δ V TH = Δ V Nit + Δ V Nox Eq. 1.3

Δ V it = (V S0) 2 − (V S0)1 Eq. 1.4
V S0 = V TH − V mg Eq. 1.5
C
Δ N it = Δ V it ⋅ ox Eq. 1.6
q
Δ V ox = (V mg )2 − (V mg )1 Eq. 1.7
C
Δ N ox = Δ V ox ⋅ ox Eq. 1.8
q
C ox = ε Eq. 1.9
t ox
Figure 1.16: I-V nMOSFET produced by IFX. Measurement temp. 20 °C. VGS=-0.5 V.
21
Figure 1.17: I-V nMOSFET produced by IFX. Measurement temp. 20 °C. VGS=1.5 V.
Figure 1.18: I-V nMOSFET produced by IFX. VGS=-0.5 V | 0 V | 0.5 V | 1 V | 1.5 V.
22
Chapter 2
Sentaurus TCAD
The selected simulation tool is SYNOPSYS © Sentaurus TCAD version O-2018.06-
SP2.The TCAD tools capabilities are routinely adopted within the design flow of
semiconductor devices, in order to simulate their electrical characteristics as a response
to external stimuli. Sentaurus TCAD (Technology Computer-Aided Design) allows the
simulation of semiconductor processing, the device operation and the interconnection
characterization for the development and production of a certain technology. TCAD
refers to the use of computer simulations to develop and optimize semiconductor
processing technologies and devices. Synopsys TCAD offers a complete suite of
products including high-level process and device simulation tools, as well as a powerful
GUI-driven simulation environment for managing simulation activities and analyzing
simulation results. The process and device simulation tools support a wide range of
applications such as CMOS, power device, memory, image sensors, solar cells and
analog/RF devices. Furthermore, Synopsys TCAD provides tools for modeling and
extraction of interconnections, providing critical parasitic information to optimize chip
performance. It should be noted that the Sentaurus software package operates in a Linux
environment, the operating system used is CentOS 7.6-1810 (version 2019).
Synopsys TCAD is able to evaluate structures from one to three dimensions and
to simulate the electrical, thermal and optical characteristics of a wide range of
semiconductor devices. Beside that, it includes the definition of robusts numeric
resolution methods and advanced physical models, which can be arbitrarily combined
according to the occurrence, which allows to simulate a vast field of structures, from
MOS submicrometric technologies to bipolar power technologies and even more
complex structures. Some of the great strengths deriving from the use of TCAD tools are
certainly the reduction of development times, a rapid optimization of device
performance, rapid prototyping and the analysis of new device types for which the
manufacturing processes do not have been defined yet. Figure 2.2 illustrates the typical
tool-flow from the layout definition to the device and circuit level simulation of a
semiconductor device.
23
CHAPTER 2. SENTAURUS TCAD
During this work, the advance Sentaurus simulation tools have been studied in
detail. In particular the tools that have been used are:
• Sentaurus Structure Editor
• Sentaurus Device
• Sentaurus Inspect
• Sentaurus Visual
• Sentaurus Workbench
Moreover, the complete list of available Synopsys tools is reported in Figure 2.1.
During the discussion of this chapter the names of the tools used will be shortened:
Sentaurus Structure Editor (SDE), Sentaurus Device (SDEVICE), Sentaurus Inspect
(INSPECT), Sentaurus Visual (SVISUAL), Sentaurus WorkBench (SWB).
Figure 2.1: Synopsys TCAD software documentation.
24
Figure 2.2: Steps to make and simulate an electronic device with Synopsys TCAD.
25
2.1 Sentaurus Structure Editor
Sentaurus Structure Editor is the dedicated tool for the creation of a layout representing
the device to simulate. SDE allows the definition of doping profiles, of contacts
geometry, as well as the generation of a mesh which approximates the device with a
finite number of points and represents the simulation domain. These operations can be
performed graphically or from the command line, located at the bottom of the work
window. Often .cmd files are used to create the device structure. This software allows
three distinct ways of operating: one dimension, two dimensions and three dimensions.
2D and 3D layouts can be created starting from elementary structures, such as
rectangles, polygons, cubes, cylinders, and spheres. Normally, after determining the
shape and the material, the doping profile of the substrate is chosen, for example p-type
(or n-type). Pockets of differently doped material, or different materials such as metal,
insulating materials such as silicon oxide, and others are often added. SDE provides
many materials with different characteristics. Figure 2.3 shows the graphic interface of
SDEVICE.
The most important .cmd functions used to create the device structure are:
define used to declare variables value; sdegeo:create-rectangle to create a
rectangular geometric figure; sdegeo:define-contact-set used to define
contacts; sdegeo:set-current-contact-set has the purpose of current
contacts; sdegeo:set-contact-edges aims a single contact between two or
more points; sdedr:define-refeval-window used to define a refinement
window, grid; sdedr:define-gaussian-profile has the purpose of define a
Gaussian doping profile; sdedr:define-constant-profile aims to define a
constant doping profile; sdedr:define-constant-profile-material aims
to define a constant doping profile; sdedr:define-analytical-profile-
placement aims to define a constant doping profile placement; sde:save-model
has the purpose of save the structure; sde:build-mesh aims to build and save the
mesh. For the sake of completeness, not all the available functions of Sentaurus
Structure Editor were listed, but only those that were used in the simulations. For
further details and explanations, see the Sentaurus Structure Editor manual [5].
26
Figure 2.3: Sentaurus Structure Editor graphic interface.
2.1.1 Mesh definition

After defining the structure, doping profiles and contacts, it is necessary to define the
mesh. This term means the discretization of the structure, which will make it
representable by a finite number of elements. Defining the mesh correctly is very
important in order to have a proper balance between results accuracy and computational
effort. Meshes with few points are not very useful as the simulation results would be not
very precise, on the contrary mesh with too many points can be computationally
expensive. As a result to get a sufficiently accurate description, it is necessary to have a
rather dense grid. The problem with having too many mesh points is to increase
computational complexity. It is therefore important to choose the right number of points,
through a compromise solution, without losing sight of the accuracy and reliability of
the result.
27
There is no optimal grid for all the devices, but we proceed by designing a
denser grid at the junction areas, while in the rest of the structure a grid of points more
spaced apart is sufficient. In summary, a grid with multiple points is used in
correspondence with abrupt changes in the concentration of dopant atoms, or near a
material interfaces, e.g. a junction. While a grid with fewer points is used in the areas of
material continuity, because in these regions having too many points leads to
redundancy. However, it should always be taken into consideration that it is not possible
to define a good grid for all the devices, but each structure and every type of situation
from time to time will prefer one grid over another. For further details and explanations,
see the Sentaurus Structure Editor manual [6].
2.2 Sentaurus Device
Sentaurus Device numerically simulates the electrical behaviour of a single

semiconductor device or multiple physical devices combined in a circuit. The currents,
the voltages and the terminal charges are calculated on the basis of a set of
fundamentals differential equations that govern the charge transport in semiconductor
devices. The command file that will be read by Sentaurus Device is composed by the
following sections: File{...}, Electrode{...}, Physics{...}, Plot{...}, Math{...} and
Solve{...}.
Sentaurus Device receives as input a file with .cmd extension all the information
regarding, among others, the analyzed structure, the analysis conditions, the type of
simulation, the output to be generated. This tool is the most important within the
Synopsys suite of software because it has a vast library and is able to perform the
simulations on a single device (device described by the mesh file).
The SDEVICE input files have the .tdr extension and come from SDE, see
Figure 2.4. While the output files, which can be opened with INSPECT or SVISUAL, are
those with the .plt or .tdr extension. The .plt files are used to display macroscopic
results while the microscopic ones are saved in .tdr files format. The .log file is created
by SDEVICE as an outgoing work file. For further details and explanations, see the
Sentaurus Structure Editor manual [7].
28
Figure 2.4: Input and Output files about Sentaurus Structure Editor and Device.
The main types of simulations that can be performed are two: quasi-stationary
and time-variant. The structure of the .cmd file in input to the Sentaurus Device
software is shown below:
➔ File {...}
➔ Electrode {...}
➔ Physics {...}
➔ Plot {...}
➔ Math {...}
➔ Solve {…}
2.2.1 File section (File {...})

The command file of Sentaurus Device is divided into sections that have a certain order,
as a matter of fact the names of the input and output files involved in the simulation are
specified in the file section, Figure 2.4. The input file has a .tdr extension and contains
information about the geometry of the structure, the regions, the materials, the position
of the contacts, the points of the mesh that characterize it and also the doping profiles.
29
The output files have the extension: .plt collect the results concerning the
macroscopic quantities such as current, voltage, charge at each of the contacts and, in
transient simulations, time; .tdr contain the output files and the microscopic electrical
quantities (electron density, hole density, electric field intensity, intensity of the electric
potential, etc.). The output files will be interpreted by the INSPECT and SVISUAL
software.
Figure 2.5: File section about Sentaurus Device.
The commands showed in the Figure 2.5 are: * input files, comment
indicating incoming files; * output files, comment indicating outgoing files;
Grid = "n@node|layout@_new0_msh.tdr", input file defines the mesh and
various regions of the device structure, including contacts; Parameter =
"@parameter@", indicates a parametric file which contains physical model
parameters of the simulated materials; Plot = "@tdrdat@", indicate microscopic
results; Current = "@plot@", indicate macroscopic results.
2.2.2 Electrode section (Electrode {...})

In order to give information to the Sentaurus Device tool it is necessary to specify
which contacts (electrodes) must be considered for simulation purposes. Any contact
not mentioned in this section will be ignored by Sentaurus Device. There are two types
of contacts: metal or poly-silicon. As far as the metal contact is concerned, it must be
taken into account that a schottky barrier is formed between a silicon structure and this
contact, while the contact in poly-silicon does not form potential barriers.
This section defines a parameter called barrier which indicates the difference in
terms of energy (eV) between the level of detents of the extrinsic poly-silicon and the
level of detentions of the intrinsic poly-silicon.
30
Figure 2.6: Electrode section about Sentaurus Device.
The Electrode section (see Figure 2.6) is composed of several functions:

Name="string"; this electrode is specified by a case-sensitive name that must match
exactly an existing contact name in the structure grid file. Only those contacts that are
named in the Electrode section are included in the simulation; Voltage=0.0, this
boundary conditions must be defined for each electrode, and any value given to a
boundary condition applies in the initial solution; Barrier=-0.55, this is the metal–
semiconductor work function difference or barrier value for a poly-silicon electrode that
is treated as a metal. This is defined, in general, as the difference between the metal
Fermi level in the electrode and the intrinsic Fermi level in the semiconductor. This
barrier value is consistent with n+ poly-silicon doping; and other equations exist, for
more information see Sentaurus Device manual.
2.2.3 Physics section (Physics {...})

This section allows you to select the physical models to be used in the simulation, to
define the physical properties and any simulation conditions of the device. Physical
models can be specified globally throughout the structure, or limited to regions or
materials. A special set of models can be activated at the interface between two different
materials or two different regions. Since physical phenomena at an interface are not the
same as in the bulk of a device, not all models are allowed inside interface-specific
Physics sections. For example, it is not possible to define any mobility models or
bandgap narrowing at interfaces.
The Physics section (see Figure 2.7) is composed of several functions: Fermi
indicates the Fermi statistics. This function can be activated only for the whole device.
Region-specific or material specific activation is not possible, and the keyword Fermi is
ignored in any Physics section other than the general one.
31
For heterostructures, the keyword Fermi must appear in the general Physics
section; Mobility (DopingDependence HighFieldSat Enormal)
indicates mobility models including doping dependence, high-field saturation (velocity
saturation), and transverse field dependence are specified for this simulation;
EffectiveIntrinsicDensity (BandGapNarrowing (OldSlotboom))
is the silicon bandgap narrowing model that determines the intrinsic carrier
concentration; Recombination ( ) defines the generation and recombination
models; Hydrodynamic(eTemperature) selects hydrodynamic transport models
for electrons only. Hole transport is modeled using drift-diffusion;
hHighFieldSaturation(GradQuasiFermi) indicates velocity saturation for
holes; eHighFieldSaturation(CarrierTempDrive) indicates velocity
saturation for electrons; SRH (DopingDep) Shockley-Read-Hall recombination with
doping-dependent lifetime; eAvalanche(CarrierTempDrive) indicates
avalanche multiplication for electrons is driven by an effective field computed from the
local carrier temperature; hAvalanche(Eparallel) indicates avalanche
multiplication for holes is driven by the component of the field that is parallel to the
hole current flow. The default impact ionization model is from van Overstraeten–de
Man; Temperature specifies the lattice temperature (K);
IncompleteIonization indicates the incomplete ionization of individual species;
GateCurrent(<model>) selects a model for gate leakage or (dis)charging of
floating gates.
Figure 2.7: Physics section about Sentaurus Device.
32
2.2.4 Plot section (Plot {...})

In this section it is possible to specify which microscopic data should be saved in the
output files (.tdr). A large number of scalar and vectorial quantities are available. A
typical example of a plot section structure is shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: Plot section about Sentaurus Device.
The Plot section is composed of several functions: eDensity, electron density;

hDensity, hole density; eCurrent, electron current; hCurrent, current of holes;
Potential, electrical potential; SpaceCharge, space charge; ElectricField,
electric field; eMobility, electron mobility; hMobility, hole mobility;
eVelocity, speed of electron recombination; hVelocity, gap recombination
speed; Doping, device doping concentration; DonorConcentration,
concentration of donors; AcceptorConcentration, concentration acceptors.
Obviously the greater the number of data saved, the greater the accuracy with
which the behaviour of a particular device will be described, but also the computational
cost of the simulation will be greater.
2.2.5 Math section (Math {...})

This section allows you to specify which calculation methods and solution methods
must be used during the solution of the equations, as well as to
set the magnitude of the approximation error. The two main types of instructions are:
Device Specific, refer to parameters that concern the methods of resolution of the single
device; Global Specific, concern a series of global parameters that must be taken as a
reference in the resolution processes of the entire system, regardless of the
characteristics of each individual device.
33
Sentaurus Device solves the device equations, which are essentially partial
difference equations, in the points that make up the mesh in an iterative way. At each
iteration an error is calculated and the software attempts to converge on a solution that
has an acceptably small error. The Math section (see Figure 2.9) is composed of several
functions: Extrapolate predict the next solution based on the values of the
previous solutions; RelErrControl switches error control during iterations from
using internal error parameters to more physically meaningful parameters;
RecBoxIntegr integrates the beam distribution for optical generation;
AvalDerivatives compute analytic derivatives of avalanche generation; Digits
approximate number of digits to which equations must be solved to be considered as
converged; ExitOnFailure terminates the simulation as soon as a Solve command
fails; ExtendedPrecision increases the calculation resolution;
Number_of_Threads indicates the number of threads used;
Number_of_Solver_Threads indicates the number of threads to be used for
linear solver.
Figure 2.9: Math section about Sentaurus Device.
2.2.6 Solve section (Solve {...})

In this section is possible to specify the type of analysis to perform and the parameters
that the solver must consider. You can choose to carry out a quasi-stationary simulation,
which allows you to gradually change the state of a device by acting on its boundary
conditions, such as on the voltage at a node. It starts from an initial value of the
considered static variable, the fundamental equations are solved in these conditions, the
34
step is incremented in small steps (step boundary) and at each increment the system of
equations is solved again, as the conditions change and so the resolution cycle
continues. If you want to work in time-variant mode, you must first establish at which
time range to extend the simulation and the relative increment steps. As a matter of fact
Sentaurus Device allows the simulation of transients, then it solves the equations given
as a function of time steps.
Figure 2.10: Solve section about Sentaurus Device.
The Solve section (see Figure 2.10) is composed of several functions:

Poisson, which specifies that the initial solution is of the nonlinear Poisson equation
only; Coupled, which introduces the continuity equation for electrons, with the initial
bias conditions applied. In this case, the electron current continuity equation is solved
fully coupled to the Poisson equation; Quasistationary specifies the conditions
under which the quasi-stationary analysis should occur. Each step is solved by taking
the solution from the previous step. If Extrapolate is specified in the Math section,
the initial guess for each bias step is calculated by extrapolation from the previous two
solutions.
It is necessary to underline the fact that not all the available functions of the
Sentaurus Device have been listed, but only those that were used in the simulations. For
further details and explanations, see the Sentaurus Device manual [7].
2.3 Sentaurus Inspect
Sentaurus Inspect is a software that allows the visualization of macroscopic quantities in

an X-Y graph. It is usually the last tool that is added to the WorkBench and it is used to
do mathematical operations on a certain set of data from SDEVICE.
35
It is possible to manipulate the curves, to improve visibility, using a large set of

mathematical functions, including integration and derivation. Additionally, by selecting
a particular curve it is possible to display the numerical data that characterize it, see
Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: Sentaurus Inspect graphic interface.
The Inspect functions used are: load_library extend uploads a library

extension; gr_setAxisAttr set chosen axis; gr_setLegendAttr set legend
attributes; gr_formatAxis set mathematical format of the numbers used; set
FileName set the file name; proj_load load a .plt project; cv_createDS create
and display a curve; set CurveName set the curve name set the curve name;
cv_display show the curve on the graph; cv_write csv create the .csv file. For
more information about how to use the INSPECT refer to the manual [8].
36
2.4 Sentaurus Visual
The Synopsys SentaurusTM Visual tool is part of Sentaurus Workbench Visualization. It

is a plotting software for visualizing data from simulations and experiments. Sentaurus
Visual enables users to work interactively with data using both a user interface and a
scripting language for automated tasks, see Figure 2.12. Sentaurus visual makes it
possible to read files at a macroscopic level, to plot characteristic quantities, and
microscopically, to visualize what happens in the structure following an electrical
excitation. At a structural level it is possible to make cuts on different points of the
structure, this allows for example to have the doping concentration on different structure
points. SVISUAL supports different types of input files which are: .csv, .plt, .plx, .tdr, .tif.
The programming language for svisual is the Tool Command Language (.tcl). Each
command from the scratch interface corresponds to a line of code. For practical reasons,
.tcl scripts are often used which make it possible to plot curves in an orderly manner.
For more information about how to use the SVISUAL refer to the manual [9].
Figure 2.12: Sentaurus Visual graphic interface.
37
2.5 Synopsys Sentaurus Workbench
The Synopsys Sentaurus Workbench tool is a graphical interface that integrates all the
Sentaurus TCAD simulation software in the same environment.
Sentaurus Workbench offers a convenient framework for designing and
organizing TCAD simulation projects. The Workbench user interface allows the
realization of various simulations and the simultaneous display of the results. The
software has been introduced in recent times and allows to carry out projects using all
the tools made available by Sentaurus TCAD. Its graphic interface divided into cells
allows adding, modifying or deleting variables.
Starting a new project involves creating a new workspace, then doing Project →
New → New Project. After creating a new workspace, you need to add the necessary
tools to create and simulate the device. The tools are added from the "Tool Row" line of
the workbench, i.e. the gray bar, by right clicking → tool it will be possible to add a
TCAD tool (see Figure 2.13). Obviously it will be necessary to add the .cmd file
(created according to the selected tool), to do this just go with the right button on the
tool → Edit Input → Commands, then write the code, alternatively just import the file at
the time of tool creation. Usually, if the device structure is not available, it must be
created using SDE. For further information on the use of Sentaurus Structure Editor, see
paragraph 2.1. After defining the structure, the SDEVICE tool is added in order to
perform simulations AC (alternating current), DC (direct current), TV (time-variant).
Finally, to extract and visualize the simulation results, the SDEVICE or INSPECT tool is
added to the WorkBench. To launch the tools simply select the last node of the tool and
press the run button. By double clicking on the simulated node it is possible to get
information about that simulation. For more information about how to use the
WorkBench refer to the manual [10].
2.6 How to make a MOS capacitor on TCAD
This section shows an example a simulation of a simple electronic device, MOS

capacitor, using Sentaurus TCAD. First the implementation of the command file on
SDE is explained, then how the device is analyzed on SDEVICE and finally the data
analysis on INSPECT.
38
Figure 2.13: Sentaurus WorkBench work environment.
2.6.1 MOS Capacitor command file - SDE

In this part of the report the command file used on SDE is analyzed, see Code 2.1. In the
first part of the code the size of the device is set: width (l) and thickness (y).
Furthermore, the geometric figures are created which will constitute the layout of the
device. Below, in the Defining and Assigning Contacts section, contacts
are declared and activated and then assigned to specific sides of the device. Contacts are
set up in the section Define and assign contacts. In Defining
Refinement Windows refinement line and rectangles are created, to be used as
doping implantation window and windows where specific mesh strategies can be
applied, respectively. In the Constant Doping section the substrate doping is
defined. In the Analytical Profile Placement Doping section the p+
contact is defined on the lower side of the device. Finally on Defining
Refinement Definitions the grid to be used for the mesh is specified. In the last
part Saving structure the structure files and the mesh are saved.
Code 2.1: Command file of Sentaurus Structure Editor.
(sde:clear)
## New Replace Old

(sdegeo:set-default-boolean "ABA")
39
#--------------------------------------------------
## Structures Definition
(define l @l@)
(define y @<y>@)
#Substrate
(sdegeo:create-rectangle (position (- 0 l) 0 0) (position l y 0)
"Silicon" "region_1")
#Oxide
(sdegeo:create-rectangle (position (- 0 l) 0 0.0) (position l @tox@
0.0) "SiO2" "region_2")
#--------------------------------------------------
# Defining and Assigning Contacts
(sdegeo:insert-vertex (position (* (- 0 l) 0.35) @tox@ 0))
(sdegeo:insert-vertex (position (* l 0.35) @tox@ 0))
(sdegeo:define-contact-set "gate" 4 (colour:rgb 1 0 0 ) "##" )
(sdegeo:set-current-contact-set "gate")
(sdegeo:set-contact-edges (list (car (find-edge-id (position 0 @tox@
0)))) "gate")
(sdegeo:define-contact-set "substrate" 4 (colour:rgb 1 0 0 ) "##" )
(sdegeo:set-current-contact-set "substrate")
(sdegeo:set-contact-edges (list (car (find-edge-id (position 0 y 0))))
"substrate")
#--------------------------------------------------
#Defining Refinement Windows
(sdedr:define-refeval-window "WholeLayout" "Rectangle" (position (- 0
(* l 5)) -1 0) (position (* l 5) (+ y 1) 0))
(sdedr:define-refeval-window "p+_substrate" "Line"(position (- 0 (* l
5)) y 0) (position (* l 5) y 0))
(sdedr:define-refeval-window "Ref_Top" "Rectangle" (position (- (- 0
(/ l 4)) -1) -1 0) (position (+ (/ l 4) 1) 5 0))
(sdedr:define-refeval-window "Ref_Bottom" "Rectangle" (position (- 0
(* l 5)) (+ y 1) 0) (position (* l 5) (- y 10) 0))
(sdedr:define-refeval-window "spray" "Line" (position (- 0 l) 0 0)
(position l 0 0))
#--------------------------------------------------
# Constant Doping
(sdedr:define-constant-profile "ConstantProfileDefinition_1"
"BoronActiveConcentration" @Nsub@)
(sdedr:define-constant-profile-material "ConstantProfilePlacement_1"
"ConstantProfileDefinition_1" "Silicon")
#--------------------------------------------------
# Analytical Profile Placement Doping (define N+ 1e+19)

#ohmic contact
(sdedr:define-gaussian-profile "GaussianProfileDefinition_2"
"BoronActiveConcentration" "PeakPos" 0 "PeakVal" N+ "ValueAtDepth"
40
@Nsub@ "Depth" 2 "Gauss" "Factor" 0.8)

(sdedr:define-analytical-profile-placement
"AnalyticalProfilePlacement_2" "GaussianProfileDefinition_2"
"p+_substrate" "Negative" "NoReplace" "Eval")
#--------------------------------------------------
#Defining Refinement Definitions
(sdedr:define-refinement-size "RefinementDefinition_1" 5 5 1 1)
(sdedr:define-refinement-placement "RefinementPlacement_1"
"RefinementDefinition_1" (list "window" "WholeLayout" ) )
(sdedr:define-refinement-function "RefinementDefinition_1"
"DopingConcentration" "MaxTransDiff" 1)
(sdedr:define-refinement-function "RefinementDefinition_1" "MaxLenInt"
"SiO2" "Contact" 0.01 1.2 "DoubleSide")
"Silicon" "Contact" 0.02 2 "DoubleSide")
"SiO2" "Silicon" 0.01 1.2 "DoubleSide")
(sdedr:define-refinement-size "RefinementDefinition_2" 5 3 1 1)
(sdedr:define-refinement-placement "RefinementPlacement_2"
"RefinementDefinition_2" (list "window" "Ref_Top" ) )
(sdedr:define-refinement-function "RefinementDefinition_2"
"DopingConcentration" "MaxTransDiff" 1)
"Silicon" "Contact" 0.01 1.2 "DoubleSide")
#Saving structure
(sde:save-model "n@node@_msh")
(sde:build-mesh "snmesh" "-a -c boxmethod" "n@node@_msh")
(sde:build-mesh "snmesh" "-u -AI" "n@node@_msh")
Code 2.1: Command file of Sentaurus Structure Editor.
2.6.2 MOS Capacitor command file - SDEVICE

Analyzing the structure of the Sentaurus command file, see Code 2.2, the device
underlines the fact that many parameters are controlled based on the mathematical
model chosen for the simulation.
In the file section the input and output files are specified. In the
Electrode{...} part is set the gate aluminum contact and its starting bias voltage.
In the general section Physics {...} the equations of stops are solved, the working
temperature of the device, the mobility model and the recombination model are selected.
In the Physics {...} section of the oxide-silicon interface the reasoning is more
complex because it involves a model of traps. As a matter of fact the Traps
function (...) allows to define the type of trap through the subfunctions.
41
Concerning the concentration of charge trapped in the oxide following its irradiation
(FixedCharge) is given by the sum of the charge trapped in the oxide before
irradiation (Qox_pre) and that after irradiation (DNox). The Acceptor and Donor
subfunctions define the model with regard to acceptor and donor traps present at the
oxide-silicon interface. Under the Acceptor item, a uniform concentration of
acceptors equal to Dit_acc and an EnergyMid equal to EnergyMidA defined
from the conduction band are selected, while the capture cross sections for electrons
(eXsection) 1e-16cm2 and for holes 1e-15cm2.
Instead, under the Donor heading a uniform donor concentration of Dit_don
is selected and an EnergyMid equal to EnergyMidD defined by the valence band,
while the capture cross sections for electrons (section eX) 1e-15cm2 and for the
holes 1e-16cm2. The last important function is Add2TotalDoping which adds the
trap concentration to the acceptor (donor) total doping concentration, thus affecting
carriers mobility and lifetime.
As for the Sections {...}, Math {...} and Solve {...} sections, a
standard calculation model is used. To simplify the code, only one
Quasistationary is reported as the subsequent ones uniquely depend on the type
of irradiation suffered by the device and therefore varies the maximum voltage of the
range. In the Quasistationary shown in the code it ranges from a voltage equal to
0V to -Vg / 4, with Vg set by the user, MinStep = 1e-5, InitialStep = 1e-4,
MaxStep = 0.005. The simulations performed also depend on the frequency, as a
matter of fact in the MOS the frequency of the C-V curve changes.
Code 2.2: Command file of Sentaurus Device.
** EnergySig Acceptor Band (from WorkBench)**

** Acceptor Band **
#set EsD 0.6
** EnergyMid **
#set EnergyMidA @<(0+EsA)/2>@
#set EnergyMidD @<0.3>@
** From Nit to Dit **

#if "@Fluence@" == 0
#set Dit_acc [format %.2e @<Nit_acc_pre/0.3>@]
#set Dit_don [format %.2e @<Nit_don_pre/0.3>@]
#else
42
#set Dit_acc [format %.2e @<(Nit_acc+Nit_acc_pre)/EsA>@]

#set Dit_don [format %.2e @<(Nit_don+Nit_don_pre)/0.3>@]
#endif
Device MOScap {
File{
Grid = "n@node|layout@_new0_msh.tdr"
Parameter = "@parameter@"
Plot = "@tdrdat@"
Current = "@plot@"
TrappedCarPlotFile = "Traps_n@node@"
}
Electrode{
Name="gate" Voltage= 0.0 Material="Aluminum"}
{ Name="substrate" Voltage= 0.0 }
}
Physics{
Fermi
Temperature=@T@
Mobility( DopingDep HighFieldSat )
EffectiveIntrinsicDensity( OldSlotboom )
Recombination( SRH (TempDependence DopingDependence) Avalanche
Band2Band(Model= Hurkx))
}
Physics(MaterialInterface="Silicon/Oxide"){
Recombination(surfaceSRH)
Traps(
FixedCharge Conc=@<Qox_pre+DNox>@)
Acceptor Conc=@Dit_acc@ Uniform EnergyMid=@EnergyMidA@
EnergySig=@EsA@ fromCondBand eXsection=1e-16 hXsection=1e-15
Add2TotalDoping)
Donor Conc=@Dit_don@ Uniform EnergyMid=@EnergyMidD@ EnergySig=@EsD@
fromValBand eXsection=1e-15 hXsection=1e-16 Add2TotalDoping)
)
}
}
System{
MOScap MOScap ("substrate"=n0 "gate"=n1)
Vsource_pset Vgate (n1 0) {dc=0}
Vsource_pset Vsub (n0 0) {dc=0}
}
Plot{
eDensity hDensity
eMobility hMobility
eTrappedCharge hTrappedCharge
eLifeTime hLifeTime
Doping
43
ElectricField/Vector
SpaceCharge
Potential
DonorConcentration
AcceptorConcentration
Potential Polarization
SRHRecombination eSRHRecombination hSRHRecombination
eInterfaceTrappedCharge hInterfaceTrappedCharge
}
Math {
Extrapolate
Derivatives
RelErrControl
RecBoxIntegr
Derivatives
AvalDerivatives
Digits=5
ExitOnFailure
ExtendedPrecision(128)
ErrRef(electron)=1e10
ErrRef(hole)=1e10
Number_of_Threads = 4
Number_of_Solver_Threads = 4
NumberOfAssemblyThreads=4
Method=Blocked
SubMethod=Super
ACMethod=Blocked
ACSubMethod=Super
}
Solve{
Poisson
Coupled (Iterations=20 NotDamped=10) { Poisson Electron Hole }
Save(FilePrefix="@node@_init")
Load(FilePrefix="@node@_init")
Quasistationary (
MinStep=1e-5 InitialStep=1e-4 MaxStep=0.005
Goal {Parameter=Vgate.dc Value=@<-Vg/4>@ }
Plot {Range = (0 1) Intervals=50}
)
{ ACCoupled (
StartFrequency=@freq@ EndFrequency=@freq@
NumberOfPoints=1 Decade
Node(n1 n0) Exclude(Vgate Vsub)
ACExtract="neg_@acplot@"
ACCompute (Time = (Range = (0 1) Intervals = 50))
)
{ Poisson Electron Hole Circuit Contact}
}
Code 2.2: Command file of Sentaurus Device.
44
2.6.3 MOS Capacitor command file - INSPECT

The inspect command file makes use of many functions already explained in paragraph
2.3. At the beginning of the Code 2.3 a geometric area factor is set which is the ratio
between the real gate area and the simulated one. Subsequently there is an if operator
which asks if the simulation frequency is equal to 1 or not, in the affirmative case it
writes the curves, in the negative case it does not write any file. This type of script
requires the simulation to be done first in low frequency and then in high. The set
function is used to set the curve in high or low frequency.
The proj_load function loads the files present on a certain node of the
WorkBench, while the cv_createDS function create the curves. After calculating a
series of parameters we arrive at the series resistance (Rseries) which will be used to
calculate a parameter called Hgain. To derive the .csv curves in high and low
frequency one makes use of the curves created previously and these are multiplied by an
area factor and then by Hgain. Usually Hgain is a verification parameter and must
always return to one, if the parameter is not equal to one it means that the simulation has
gone wrong. For verification Hgain appears on the WorkBench.
Code 2.3: Command file of Sentaurus Inspect.
# Start of the script
load_library extend
gr_setAxisAttr X {Time (s)} {helvetica 19} {} {} black 1
{helvetica 16} 0 5 0 black
gr_setAxisAttr Y {Current (A)} {helvetica 19} {} {} black 1 {helvetica
16} 0 5 0 black
gr_setLegendAttr 1 helvetica 16 {} white black black 1 plot ne
set COLORS [list black red blue green turquoise orange magenta violet
brown]
set colour [lindex $COLORS [expr @node@%[llength $COLORS]]]
set Agate @Agate_real@
set Agate_simul @<2*l*0.35>@
set AFgeom [format %.0f @<Agate_real/(2*l*0.35*1e-8)>@]
ft_scalar AFgeom $AFgeom
if {"@freq@" == "1"} {
set ProjectNameLFpos "pos_@acplot|AC_Case02@"
set CurveNameLFpos "pos_@node|AC_Case02@_ac"
set ProjectNameLFneg "neg_@acplot|AC_Case02@"
set CurveNameLFneg "neg_@node|AC_Case02@_ac"
set ProjectNameHFpos "pos_@acplot|AC_Case02:+1@"
45
set CurveNameHFpos "pos_@node|AC_Case02:+1@_ac"

set ProjectNameHFneg "neg_@acplot|AC_Case02:+1@"
set CurveNameHFneg "neg_@node|AC_Case02:+1@_ac"
proj_load $ProjectNameLFneg $ProjectNameLFneg
cv_createDS "negCLFn@node|AC_Case02@" "$ProjectNameLFneg NO_NODE
v(n1)" \ "$ProjectNameLFneg NO_NODE c(n1,n1)" y
proj_load $ProjectNameLFpos $ProjectNameLFpos
cv_createDS "posCLFn@node|AC_Case02@" "$ProjectNameLFpos NO_NODE
v(n1)" \ "$ProjectNameLFpos NO_NODE c(n1,n1)" y
proj_load $ProjectNameHFneg $ProjectNameHFneg
cv_createDS "negCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@" "$ProjectNameHFneg NO_NODE
v(n1)" \ "$ProjectNameHFneg NO_NODE c(n1,n1)" y
proj_load $ProjectNameHFpos $ProjectNameHFpos
cv_createDS "posCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@" "$ProjectNameHFpos NO_NODE
v(n1)" \ "$ProjectNameHFpos NO_NODE c(n1,n1)" y
proj_load $ProjectNameHFneg "GHFneg_@acplot|AC_Case02:+1@"
cv_createDS "negGHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@" "$ProjectNameHFneg NO_NODE
v(n1)" \ "$ProjectNameHFneg NO_NODE a(n1,n1)" y
proj_load $ProjectNameHFpos "GHFpos_@acplot|AC_Case02:+1@"
cv_createDS "posGHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@" "$ProjectNameHFpos NO_NODE
v(n1)" \ "$ProjectNameHFpos NO_NODE a(n1,n1)" y
# Calculate parameter D=[G/(wC)], in accumul.

set epsilonOX [expr 3.9*8.854e-14]
puts "epsilonOX [format %.3e $epsilonOX]"
set tOX [expr @<-tox*1e-4>@]
puts "tOX [format %.3e $tOX]"
set AgateCM [expr @<2*l*0.35*1e-8>@]
puts "Agate in cm [format %.3e $AgateCM]"
set COXnom [expr $epsilonOX/$tOX*$AgateCM]
puts "nominal COX [format %.3e $COXnom]"
set COXhf [ds_getValue $ProjectNameHFneg "NO_NODE c(n1,n1)" end]
puts "last value of negative CHF [format %.3e $COXhf]"
set Ghf [ds_getValue $ProjectNameHFneg "NO_NODE a(n1,n1)" end]
puts "last value of negative GHF [format %.3e $Ghf]"
set w [expr 2*3.14*@freq:+1@]
puts "w = $w"
set D [expr $Ghf/($w*$COXhf)]
puts "D = [format %.3e $D]"
# Calculate Rseries=[D^2/((1+D^2)*G)], in accumul.

set Rseries [expr $D*$D/((1+$D*$D)*$Ghf)]
puts "Rseries [format %.3e $Rseries]"
# Curve a_r=[G-(G^2+(wC)^2)*Rseries], accumul. -> inversion

cv_createWithFormula neg_a_rn@node|AC_Case02:+1@ "<negGHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>-(<negGHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>*<negGHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>+($w*<negCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>)*($w*<negCHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>))*$Rseries" A A A A
cv_createWithFormula pos_a_rn@node|AC_Case02:+1@ "<posGHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>-(<posGHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>*<posGHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>+($w*<posCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>)*($w*<posCHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>))*$Rseries" A A A A
cv_display neg_a_rn@node|AC_Case02:+1@ y
cv_display pos_a_rn@node|AC_Case02:+1@ y
46
# Curve CHF_adjusted=[((G^2+(wC)^2)*C)/(a_r^2+(wC^2))]
cv_createWithFormula negCHF_Rser_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@
"((<negGHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>*<negGHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>+
($w*<negCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>)*($w*<negCHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>))*<negCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>)/(<neg_a_rn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>*<neg_a_rn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>+($w*<negCHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>)*($w*<negCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>))" A A A A
cv_createWithFormula posCHF_Rser_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@
"((<posGHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>*<posGHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>+
($w*<posCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>)*($w*<posCHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>))*<posCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>)/(<pos_a_rn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>*<pos_a_rn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>+($w*<posCHFn@node|
AC_Case02:+1@>)*($w*<posCHFn@node|AC_Case02:+1@>))" A A A A
cv_display negCHF_Rser_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@ y
cv_display posCHF_Rser_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@ y
cv_createWithFormula Hgain_n@node|AC_Case02@n@node|AC_Case02:+1@
"<negCLFn@node|AC_Case02@>/<negCHF_Rser_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@>" A A A A
puts "y: [cv_getValsY Hgain_n@node|AC_Case02@n@node|AC_Case02:+1@]"
set hgainAll [cv_getValsY Hgain_n@node|AC_Case02@n@node|
AC_Case02:+1@]
set hgain [lindex $hgainAll 0]
ft_scalar Hgain [format %.3f $hgain]
cv_createWithFormula "neg_n@node|AC_Case02@_ac_ADJ"
"<negCLFn@node|AC_Case02@>*$AFgeom" A A A A
cv_createWithFormula "pos_n@node|AC_Case02@_ac_ADJ"
"<posCLFn@node|AC_Case02@>*$AFgeom" A A A A
cv_createWithFormula "neg_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@_ac_ADJ"
"<negCHF_Rser_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@>*$hgain*$AFgeom" A A A A
cv_createWithFormula "pos_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@_ac_ADJ"
"<posCHF_Rser_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@>*$hgain*$AFgeom" A A A A
cv_write csv IMMAGINI/LF_n@node|AC_Case02@_ac_RseriesADJ.csv
{pos_n@node|AC_Case02@_ac_ADJ neg_n@node|AC_Case02@_ac_ADJ}
cv_write csv IMMAGINI/HF_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@_ac_RseriesADJ.csv
{pos_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@_ac_ADJ neg_n@node|AC_Case02:+1@_ac_ADJ}
exit} else {exit}
Code 2.3 Command file of Sentaurus Inspect.
47
Chapter 3
Comparison between experimental

measurements and simulations
The main goal of this work is to develop a general model for the study of surface
radiation damage effects in silicon detectors. To this purpose, the main parameters to be
used in TCAD simulation have been extracted from measurements carried out on simple
test structures. Then, the electrical behaviour of test devices (e.g. gated diodes, MOS
capacitors) has been simulated after the effect of the irradiation and the simulation
results have been compared with actual measuremnts carried out on X-rays irradiated
devices. Real device measurements have been carried out using the probe station (for
more information about the probe station, see Chapter 1). The goal is to make the
simulated device as similar as possible to the measured device. It is important to have
precise measurements regarding: device thickness, device width, device area,
dimensions of any doped tasks of different material, knowing the depth of p-spray, and
other information based on the complexity of the device. As far as the knowledge on the
physical level of the device is concerned, it is important to know: the substrate doping
(NSUB), the oxide thickness (tOX), the charge trapped in the oxide before irradiation
(QOX_PRE) and the concentration of acceptors and donors before irradiation (respectively
NitACC_PRE and NitDON_PRE).
The comparison between has been done done by relating the measured curves to
the simulated ones, for example for MOS capacitor the C-V curves are analyzed, while
on other devices such as Gated Diodes the I-V curves are analyzed. The devices under
study are:
➔ MOS capacitors IFX

➔ Gated Diodes HPK
➔ Gated Diodes HPK with p-spray
48
CHAPTER 3. COMPARISON: MEASUREMENTS - SIMULATIONS
Since analyses are carried out on irradiated devices, it is interesting how the
device behaviour changes af increasing irradiation doses.
Therefore, in order to simulate an irradiated device it is important to know the
concentration of charges in the oxide (NOX) and the concentration of acceptors and
donors at the oxide-silicon interface (respectively NitACC and NitDON).
3.1 MOS capacitor IFX
The real device is a p-type MOS capacitor manufactured by Infineon Technologies

(IFX_09_TS15), with a square gate area of 0.25 cm2, a nominal oxide thickness of 0.75
μm and 300 μm depth. By taking advantage of the simmetry of the device it is possible
to simulate a 2D scaled approximations of the actual MOS, thus reducing the simulation
computational cost. In Figure 3.1 it is possible to notice the simulated structure, to note
the gate contacts (top) and bulk contacts (bottom).
After describing the structure of the device, the details of the simulation are
analyzed. For substrate doping a concentration NSUB=1e12 atoms/cm3 is used. After
many simulations, it is concluded that damage to the substrate is found for high
radiation doses. In fact, a higher substrate doping concentration N SUB=3e12 atoms/cm3 is
considered for high radiation doses.
Figure 3.1: MOS capacitor p-type of Infineon Technologies (IFX_09_TS15) simulation

structure. Width 100 μm, thick 52 μm. Substrate p-type with doping concentration 1e12
atoms/cm3.
49
The curves of interest are the C-V, on the x-axis there will be the V GB voltage
applied to the gate, the bulk of the devices is grounded, while on the ordinate axis there
will be the MOS capacitance. As the voltage varies, the p-type MOS will be found in the
polarization regions: accumulation, depletion, inversion. The experimental
measurements report the results of high frequency (HF) and low frequency (LF)
measurements.
The simulation model adopted on SDEVICE takes into account the traps at the
oxide-silicon interface (SiO2-Si). The Code 3.1 show the Physics section of the
SDEVICE .cmd file, the most important keywords used are:
MaterialInterface="Silicon/Oxide" assigns the physics of material to the
silicon/oxide interface. Recombination(surfaceSRH) describe pure interface
phenomena; Traps() The most important keywords used to Traps definition are:
eXsection=1e-16 (cm2) indicate the electron capture cross section;
hXsection=1e-15 (cm2) indicate the hole capture cross section;
Add2TotalDoping helps to improve the modeling of interfacial traps due to
irradiation damage; EnergyMid (eV) indicate the central energy band gap;
EnergySig width of the trap distribution; fromCondBand zero point for
conduction band; fromValBand zero point for valence band.
Taking into account the irradiation suffered, the parameters used to model the
energy band-gap are EnergySig and EnergySig. In the case of acceptors,
EnergyMid=EsA/2 and EnergySig=EsA are considered. While for donors
EnergyMid=0.3 eV and EnergySig=EsD are considered (EsA=0.56 eV and EsD=0.6
eV). The band energy model is described in the Figure 3.2 (a), while from the Figure 3.2
(b) the overlap between the acceptor band and the donor band is shown.
Code 3.1: Physics section used in the .cmd file of SDEVICE.

Physics(MaterialInterface="Silicon/Oxide"){
Recombination(surfaceSRH)
Traps(
FixedCharge Conc=@<Qox_pre+DNox>@)
Acceptor Conc=@Dit_acc@ Uniform
EnergyMid=@EnergyMidA@ EnergySig=@EsA@ fromCondBand eXsection=1e-16
hXsection=1e-15 Add2TotalDoping)
Donor Conc=@Dit_don@ Uniform
EnergyMid=@EnergyMidD@ EnergySig=@EsD@ fromValBand eXsection=1e-15
hXsection=1e-16 Add2TotalDoping)
)
}
Code 3.1: Physics section used in the .cmd file of SDEVICE.
50
Figure 3.2: Energy model of silicon/oxide interface used on SDEVICE.
For each irradiation dose, some parameters used for the simulation are indicated:
• Temperature: 293K (20°C) equal for all doses

• EsA: band-gap acceptors (eV)
• EsD: band-gap donors (eV)
• Dose: expresses the amount of irradiation received by the device (rad)
• QEFF: parameter obtained from the experimental measurements is the sum of the
charge trapped in the oxide and the interfacial traps (cm-2), QEFF = QIT + QOX
• QIT: parameter derived from experimental measurements indicates interfacial
traps (cm-2)
• QOX_PRE: charge trapped in the oxide in not irradiated device (cm-2)
• ΔQOX: increase of the oxide trap density due to the irradiation exposure (cm-2)
• NitACC_PRE: acceptors concentration in not irradiated device (cm-2)
• ΔNitACC: acceptors concentration increase after irradiation device (cm-2)
• NitDON_PRE: donors concentration in not irradiated device (cm-2)
• ΔNitDON: donors concentration increase after irradiation device (cm-2)
• Frequency: frequency with which simulations are performed (Hz)
51
The oxide trapped charge (NOX) is defined as the sum of the oxide trapped charge
in the pre-radiation device (QOX_PRE) and of the oxide trapped charge in the post-
radiation device (ΔQOX), see Eq. 3.1. The acceptors concentration (NitACC) is defined as
the sum of the acceptors concentration in the pre-radiation device (NitACC_PRE) and of the
acceptors concentration in the post-radiation device (ΔNitACC), see Eq. 3.2.
The donors concentration (NitDON) is defined as the sum of the donors
concentration in the pre-radiation device (NitDON_PRE) and of the donors concentration in
the post-radiation device (ΔNitDON), see Eq. 3.3.
N OX = Q OX PRE + ΔQ OX Eq. 3.1

Nit ACC = Nit ACC PRE + ΔNit ACC Eq. 3.2
Nit DON = Nit DON PRE + ΔNit DON Eq. 3.3
From the experimental measurements on the MOS p-type capacitor the C-V
curves are obtained. Through data analysis on C-V curves the charge concentration in
the oxide (NOX) and the concentration of donor traps (NitDON) are obtained, while the
concentration of acceptor traps (NitACC) is not obtainable.
For each irradiation dose, simulations were performed with the experimental
values, i.e. the results of the measurements, and with the most correct simulation value
in order to “align” the simulated curve with the measured one. An important goal is to
succeed in having a function that models the trend of N OX, NitACC and NitDON according
to the dose. The parameters of the table will be adapted according to the device we want
to simulate, in particular dose and fluence. They will be analyzed neatly according to
the degree of irradiation:
➔ Not irradiated
➔ 50 krad
➔ 100 krad
➔ 500 krad
➔ 1 Mrad
➔ 10 Mrad
➔ 100 Mrad
52
3.1.1 Not irradiated MOS

The not-irradiated MOS device is characterized by zero dose values, NitACC_PRE=1e9 cm-2
and NitACC_DON=1e9 cm-2. Moreover the parameters NOX, NiACC, NitDON are equal to zero.
But the oxide traps are not zero, in fact the QOX=1e9 cm-2. Table 3.1 shows the
characteristic parameters of the simulation of not irradiated devices..
Table 3.1: Parameters used for the not-irradiated MOS and corresponding figure.
QOX_PRE NitACC_PRE NitDON_PRE
Simulation 1.00E+09 1.00E+09 1.00E+09 Figure
parameters ΔQOX ΔNitACC ΔNitDON 3.3
0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
Figure 3.3: C-V curve of a not-irradiated p-type MOS capacitor. Brown simulation,
black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid line low frequency. VFB-MEAS =
-0.6 V | VFB-SIM = -0.64 V.
53
3.1.2 50 krad irradiated MOS

In the first case an irradiation dose of 50 krad has been analyzed. The first line of the
Table 3.2 indicates the experimental values (QEFF=1.6e11 cm-2 and ΔNitDON=4e11 cm-2),
while the second line indicates the values used in order to obtain the best agreement
between simulations and measurements (ΔQOX=5e8 cm-2, ΔNitACC=5e11 cm-2 and
ΔNitDON=2.5e11 cm-2). Since the measured curves and the simulated curves are
translated between them, NOX is decreased to 5e8 cm-2. Given that the results with this
single modification are not entirely correct, we try to improve the simulation by
decreasing the concentration of donor-type traps. Then ΔNitDON is decreased from 4e11
cm-2 to 2.5e11 cm-2, resulting in a good agreement between simulation and
measurement.
Table 3.2: Parameters used for 50 krad MOS and corresponding figures.
Experimental QEFF ΔNitACC ΔNitDON Figure
parameters 1.60E+011 - 4.00E+11 3.4
Simulation ΔQOX QIT ΔNitACC ΔNitDON Figure

parameters 5.00E+08 0.00E+00 5.00E+11 2.50E+11 3.5
Figure 3.4: C-V curve of a 50 krad p-type MOS capacitor with experimental
parameters. Cyan simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid line
low frequency. VFB-MEAS = -4.3 V | VFB-SIM = -9.33 V.
54
Figure 3.5: C-V curve of a 50 krad p-type MOS capacitor with simulation parameters.
Cyan simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid line low
frequency. VFB-SIM=-4.3 V | VFB-MEAS =-4.67 V.

In the second case an irradiation dose of 100 krad has been analyzed. The first line of
the Table 3.3 indicates the experimental values (QEFF=2e11 cm-2 and ΔNitDON=8.6e11
cm-2), while the second line indicates the values used in order to obtain the best
agreement between simulations and measurements (ΔQOX=1e9 cm-2, ΔNitACC=7.5e11
cm-2 and ΔNitDON=3.5e11 cm-2). Since the measured curves and the simulated curves are
decreasing the concentration of donor-type traps. Then ΔNit DON is decreased from
8.6e11 cm-2 to 3.5e11 cm-2, resulting in a good agreement between simulation and
measurement.
parameters 2.00E+11 - 8.60E+11 3.6

parameters 1.00E+09 0.00E+00 7.50E+11 3.50E+11 3.7
55
parameters. Blue simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid line
low frequency. VFB-MEAS=-5.5 V | VFB-SIM=-14.67 V.
Figure 3.7: C-V curve of a 100 krad p-type MOS capacitor with simulation parameters.
Blue simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid line low
frequency. VFB-MEAS=-5.5 V | VFB-SIM=-6 V.
56

In the third case an irradiation dose of 500 krad has been analyzed. The first line of the
Table 3.4 indicates the experimental values (QEFF=4e11 cm-2 and ΔNitDON=1.2e12 cm-2),
while the second line indicates the values used in order to obtain the best agreement
between simulations and measurements (ΔQOX=7e9 cm-2, ΔNitACC=1.2e12 cm-2 and
ΔNitDON=1e12 cm-2). Since the measured curves and the simulated curves are translated
between them, NOX is decreased to 7e9 cm-2. Given that the results with this single
modification are not entirely correct, we try to improve the simulation by decreasing the
concentration of donor-type traps. Then ΔNitDON is decreased from 1.2e12 cm-2 to 1e12
cm-2, resulting in a good agreement between simulation and measurement.
parameters 4.00E+11 - 1.20E+12 3.8

parameters 7.00E+09 0.00E+00 1.20E+12 1.00E+12 3.9
parameters. Red simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid line
low frequency. VFB-MEAS=-14.7 V | VFB-SIM=-18 V.
57
Figure 3.9:C-V curve of a 500 krad p-type MOS capacitor with simulation parameters.
Red simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid line low
3.1.5 1 Mrad irradiated MOS

In the fourth case an irradiation dose of 1 Mrad has been analyzed. The first line of the
Table 3.5 indicates the experimental values (QEFF=5.1e11 cm-2 and ΔNitDON=1.3e12
agreement between simulations and measurements (ΔQOX=1.1e10 cm-2, ΔNitACC=1.3e12
translated between them, NOX is decreased to 1.1e10 cm-2. Given that the results with
this single modification are not entirely correct, we try to improve the simulation by
decreasing the concentration of donor-type traps. Then ΔNitDON is not modified from
experimental measure.
Table 3.5: Parameters used for 1 Mrad MOS and corresponding figures.
parameters 5.10E+11 - 1.30E+12 3.10

parameters 1.10E+10 0.00E+00 1.30E+12 1.30E+12 3.11
58
Figure 3.10: C-V curve of a 1 Mrad p-type MOS capacitor with experimental
parameters. Green simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid
line low frequency. VFB-MEAS=-15.8 V | VFB-SIM=-18 V.
Figure 3.11: C-V curve of a 1 Mrad p-type MOS capacitor with simulation parameters.
Green simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid line low
59

In the fifth case an irradiation dose of 10 Mrad has been analyzed. The first line of the
agreement between simulations and measurements (ΔQOX=9e11 cm-2, ΔNitACC=1.3e12
decreasing the concentration of donor-type traps. Then ΔNit DON is increase from 1.6e12
cm-2 to 1.8e12 cm-2, resulting in a good agreement between simulation and
measurement.
parameters 1.60E+12 - 1.60E+12 3.12

parameters 9.00E+11 0.00E+00 1.30E+12 1.80E+12 3.13
parameters. Magenta simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid
60
Figure 3.13: C-V curve of a 10 Mrad p-type MOS capacitor with simulation
parameters. Magenta simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid

In the sixth case an irradiation dose of 100 Mrad has been analyzed. The first line of the
agreement between simulations and measurements (ΔQOX=1.4e12 cm-2, ΔNitACC=1.8e12
cm-2 and ΔNitDON=2e12 cm-2). Since the measured curves and the simulated curves are
translated between them, NOX is decreased to 1.4e12 cm-2. Given that the results with
this single modification are not entirely correct, we try to improve the simulation by
decreasing the concentration of donor-type traps. Then ΔNit DON is increase from 1.4e12
cm-2 to 2e12 cm-2, resulting in a good agreement between simulation and measurement.
parameters 2.20E+12 - 1.40E+12 3.14

parameters 1.40E+12 0.00E+00 1.80E+12 2.00E+12 3.15
61
parameters. Orange simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid
Figure 3.15: C-V curve of a 100 Mrad p-type MOS capacitor with simulation
parameters. Orange simulation, black measurement. Dashed line high frequency, solid
62
3.2 Gated Diode
The Gated Diode analyzed was made by the Hamamatsu Photonics (HPK_2019.01).
The device has a structure composed by: p-type substrate, n-type task and central MOS
body. For the operating principle of this device, refer to Chapter 1. The actual device is
240 μm depth, the length is 80 μm and the pitch is 80 μm. by exploiting the device
simmetry, the simulated layout consists in half the gate and half the diode as illustrated
in Figure 3.16 (a) with the gate contact (top right), top (top left) and bottom (bottom).
Making a zoom in the upper part of the device (Figure 3.16 (b)) it is possible to observe
(from left to right) the n+ type task is defined by 0 to 25 μm. The top contact goes from
0 to 10 μm. The oxide region ranges from 15 μm to 40 μm, the same dimensions for the
gate contact. The bottom contact is defined from 0 to 40 μm. Near the bottom contact,
the concentration of p-type doping increases, so there is a p+ contact (see graph legend).
The Physics section of SDEVICE is the same as that used for Infineon MOS.
After describing the structure of the device, the details of the simulation are
analyzed. Starting from substrate doping (NSUB), a concentration of 1e12 atoms/cm3 and
an oxide thickness (tOX) of 0.75 μm are used.
The results are represented in ascending order based on the irradiation dose:
➔ Not irradiated
➔ 50 krad
➔ 100 krad
➔ 500 krad
➔ 1 Mrad
➔ 10 Mrad
For each irradiation dose, some parameters used for the simulation are indicated:
• Temperature: 293K (20°C) equal for all doses

63
Figure 3.16 (a): Gated Diode of Hamamatsu Photonics (HPK_2019.01) simulation

structure. Width 40 μm, thick 240 μm. Substrate p-type with doping concentration
1e12 atoms/cm3.
Figure 3.16 (b): Zoom top of the device. Gated Diode of Hamamatsu Photonics
(HPK_2019.01) simulation structure.
64
3.2.1 Not irradiated Gated Diode

The not-irradiated Gated Diode device is characterized by zero dose and fluence values.
Also the parameters ΔQOX, ΔNitACC, ΔNitDON are equal to zero. But the oxide traps
charge is not zero, in fact the QOX_PRE=1e9 cm-2. Furthermore, the concentration of traps
at the interface is different from zero, in fact: Nit ACC_PRE=1e9 cm-2 and NitDON_PRE=1e9
cm-2. The Table 3.8 shows the characteristic parameters of the simulation and
corresponding figure.
Table 3.8: Parameters used for not-irradiated GD and corresponding figures.

0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
Figure 3.17: I-V curve of a not-irradiated Gated Diode. For this device the
measurement is not available, therefore only the simulation is represented.
65
3.2.2 50 krad irradiated Gated Diode

By analyzing the first case of irradiation that has a dose of 50 krad. The values of
ΔQOX=1.8e11 cm-2 and ΔNitDON=1.7e11 cm-2 are derived from the measurements. Since
the simulated curve is aligned with the measured one, ΔQ OX is not modified. As the
measurement is overestimated the acceptors are decreased. A better result is achieved by
increasing the ΔNitDON from 1.7e11 cm-2 to 2e11 cm-2. With the modifications made, the
measurement values are not changed unless there is a 20% increase in the donors.
Despite these changes, the simulations are correct. Table 3.9 shows the characteristic
parameters of the simulation.
Table 3.9: Parameters used for 50 krad GD and corresponding figures.

ΔQOX ΔNitACC ΔNitDON Figure
Experimental
1.80E+11 - 1.70E+11 3.18
parameters
Simulation
1.80E+11 3.00E+12 2.00E+11 3.19
parameters
Figure 3.18: I-V curve of a 50 krad Gated Diode with experimental parameters. Cyan
simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=27.9 cm/s | s0 -SIM=35.57 cm/s.
66
Figure 3.19: I-V curve of a 50 krad Gated Diode with simulation parameters. Cyan
simulation, black measurement s0-MEAS=27.9 cm/s | s0-SIM=27.83 cm/s.

By analyzing the second case of irradiation that has a dose of 100 krad. From the
measurements the values of ΔQOX=2e11 cm-2 and ΔNitDON=5e11 cm-2 are extrapolated.
Since the simulated curve is not aligned with the measured one, ΔQ OX is modified. Then
we add the fact that the simulation overestimates the measurement, so the acceptors are
decreased. ΔQOX is increased from 2e11 cm-2 to 1.8e11 cm-2, improving the alignment.
The donors are modified, in fact ΔNit DON goes from 5e11 cm-2 to 4e11 cm-2. With the
modifications made, the measurement values are not changed, in fact ΔQOX is decreased
by 10% and ΔNitDON by 20%. Despite these changes, the simulations are correct. Table
3.10 shows the characteristic parameters of the simulation.
Experimental
2.00E+11 - 5.00E+11 3.20
parameters
Simulation
1.80E+11 3.00E+11 4.00E+11 3.21
parameters
67
Figure 3.20: I-V curve of a 100 krad Gated Diode with experimental parameters. Blue
simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=43.8 cm/s | s0-SIM=86.44 cm/s.
Figure 3.21: I-V curve of a 100 krad Gated Diode with simulation parameters. Blue
simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=43.8 cm/s | s0-SIM=45.55 cm/s.
68

By analyzing the third case of irradiation that has a 500 krad dose. From the
measurements the values of ΔQOX=7.5e11 cm-2 and ΔNitDON=7.7e11 cm-2 are
extrapolated. Since the simulated curve is not aligned with the measured one, ΔQ OX is
modified. Then we add the fact that the simulation overestimates the measurement, so
the acceptors are decreased. ΔQOX is increased from 7.5e11 cm-2 to 3e11 cm-2, improving
alignment. ΔNitDON remains unchanged. With these modifications the simulated curve
aligns with the measurement. It should be noted that ΔQOX is decreased by 60%
compared to the measurement values, the result is still considered correct because on the
MOS of the same technology (HPK) the increase ΔQOX, for 500 krad, is about 3e11 cm-
2
. Table 3.11 shows the characteristic parameters of the simulation.
Experimental
7.50E+11 - 7.70E+11 3.22
parameters
Simulation
3.00E+11 4.00E+11 7.70E+11 3.23
parameters
Figure 3.22: I-V curve of a 500 krad Gated Diode with experimental parameters. Red
simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=110 cm/s | s0-SIM=228.42 cm/s.
69
Figure 3.23: I-V curve of a 500 krad Gated Diode with simulation parameters. Red
3.2.5 1 Mrad irradiated Gated Diode

By analyzing the fourth case of irradiation that has a 1 Mrad dose. The values of
ΔQOX=5.5e11 cm-2 and ΔNitDON=1e12 cm-2 are extrapolated from the measurements.
Since the simulated curve is not aligned with the measured one, ΔQOX is modified. The
simulation overestimates the measurement, so the acceptors are decreased. The ΔQOX
concentration is increased from 5.5e11 cm-2 to 3.5e11 cm-2, improving alignment. With
these modifications the simulated curve aligns with the measurement. It should be noted
that ΔQOX is decreased by 63.64% with respect to the measurement values, the result is
still considered correct because on the MOS of the same technology (HPK) the increase
ΔQOX, for 1 Mrad is about 4e11 cm-2. Table 3.12 shows the characteristic parameters of
the simulation.
Table 3.12: Parameters used for 1 Mrad GD and corresponding figures.

Experimental
5.50E+11 - 1.00E+12 3.24
parameters
Simulation
3.50E+11 5.00E+11 1.00E+12 3.25
parameters
70
Figure 3.24: I-V curve of a 1 Mrad Gated Diode with experimental parameters. Green
Figure 3.25: I-V curve of a 1 Mrad Gated Diode with simulation parameters. Green
71
3.2.6 10 Mrad irradiated Gated Diode

By analyzing the fifth case of irradiation that has a dose of 10Mrad. From the
measurements the values of ΔQ OX=1.3e12e11 cm-2 and ΔNitDON=1.9e12 cm-2 are
extrapolated. Since the simulated curve is not aligned with the measured one, ΔQ OX is
modified. ΔQOX is increased from 5.5e11 cm-2 to 3.5e11 cm-2, improving alignment.
Since the objective is to have the same multiplicative factor for all the doses, it is
necessary to increase the concentration of the acceptors, on the contrary compared to
what has been done so far. With these modification the simulated curve aligns with the
measurement. It should be noted that ΔQ OX is decreased by 56.25% compared to the
measured values, the result is still considered correct because on the MOS of the same
technology (HPK) the increase ΔQOX, for 10 Mrad is about 4.5e11 cm-2. Table 3.13
shows the characteristic parameters of the simulation.
Table 3.13: Parameters used for 10 Mrad GD and corresponding figures.

Experimental
8.00E+11 - 1.90E+12 3.26
parameters
Simulation
4.50E+11 2.00E+12 1.90E+12 3.27
parameters
Figure 3.26: I-V curve of a 10 Mrad Gated Diode with experimental parameters.
Magenta simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=485 cm/s | s0-SIM=407.7 cm/s.
72
Figure 3.27: I-V curve of a 10 Mrad Gated Diode with simulation parameters. Magenta
simulation, black measurement. s0MEAS=485 cm/s | s0SIM=452.88 cm/s.
3.3 Gated Diode p-spray

The Gated Diode with p-spray taken into analysis has a structure characterized by a p-
type substrate, a n-type task, a central MOS body and a p-spray system. For the
principle of operation of this device, see Chapter 1. The simulated dimensions used are:
thickness 240 μm and width 40 μm. From Figure 3.28 (a) it is possible to notice the gate
contact (top right), top (top left) and bottom (bottom). By zooming in the upper part of
the device (Figure 3.28 (b)) the n+ type task from 0 to 25 μm is defined. The top contact
goes from 0 to 10 μm. The oxide region ranges from 15 μm to 40 μm, the same
dimensions for the gate contact. Below the oxide the p-spray region which ranges from
15 to 40 μm is defined. Near the Top contact, the p-type doping concentration increases
by defining a p+ type contact (see legend Figure 3.28 (b)). The bottom contact is
defined from 0 to 40 μm.
After having described the structure of the device, the details of the simulation
are described. Starting from substrate doping (N SUB) the concentration is 1e12
atoms/cm3 and the oxide thickness (tOX) is 0.75 μm. The p-spray region is defined with
the Gaussian peak centered at 0.2 μm, the Gaussian offset equal to 2 μm and a peak
doping concentration equal to 4e15 cm-2. The parameters used for the simulations are
the same as those used for the GD device without p-spray, see paragraph 3.2.
73
Figure 3.28 (a): Gated Diode with p-spray of Hamamatsu Photonics

(HPK_2019.01) simulation structure. Width 40 μm, thick 240 μm. Substrate p-type
with doping concentration 1e12 atoms/cm3.
Figure 3.28 (b): Zoom top of the device. Gated Diode with p-spray of
Hamamatsu Photonics (HPK_2019.01) simulation structure.
74
The parameters listed may not have been derived from the I-V measurements of
the Gated Diode, but the parameters of the Gated Diode simulations without p-spray are
used. In particular ΔQOX used for GD p-spray simulations remains unchanged from GD
without p-spray. While, regarding the following parameters: ΔNitACC undergoes
changes; ΔNitDON differs from ± 10% compared to the Gated Diode without p-spray. The
goal is always to have a simulated s 0 (surface velocity) similar to the measured s0, with a
minimum percentage offset. The Physics section of SDEVICE is the same as that used
for Infineon MOS. Furthermore, two simulations were made for each irradiation dose:
the first with the values used for the Gated Diode without p-spray; the second with the
values used to align between measurement and simulation.
The results are represented in ascending order based on the irradiation dose:
➔ Not irradiated
➔ 50 krad
➔ 500 krad
➔ 1 Mrad
➔ 10 Mrad
3.3.1 Not irradiated Gated Diode p-spray

The not-irradiated Gated Diode device with p-spray is characterized by zero dose and
fluence values. Also the parameters ΔQOX, ΔNitACC, ΔNitDON are equal to zero. But the
oxide traps charge is not zero, in fact the QOX_PRE=1e9 cm-2. Furthermore, the
concentration of traps at the interface is different from zero, in fact: NitACC_PRE=1e9 cm-2
and NitDON_PRE=1e9 cm-2. The Table 3.8 shows the characteristic parameters of the
simulation and corresponding figure.
Table 3.14: Parameters used for not-irradiated GD p-spray and corresponding figures.
0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
75
Figure 3.29: I-V curve of a not-irradiated Gated Diode. For this device the
measurement is not available, therefore only the simulation is represented.
3.3.2 50 krad irradiated Gated Diode p-spray

By analyzing the first case of irradiation that has a dose of 50 krad. The starting
parameters for gated diode p-spray simulations are those used for simulations of gated
diode without p-spray, the parameter values are: ΔQOX=1.8e11 cm-2, ΔNitACC=3e11 cm-2
and ΔNitDON=2e11 cm-2. Since the simulated curve is not aligned with the measured one,
ΔQOX is changed from 1.8e11 cm-2 to 2.5e11 cm-2 . As the measurement is overestimated
the acceptors are decreased. A better result is achieved by decreasing ΔNit ACC from 3e11
cm-2 to 1.5e11 cm-2 and the ΔNitDON from 2e11 cm-2 to 1.7e11 cm-2 . The simulations
carried out lead to an excellent agreement between measurements and simulations.
Table 3.15 shows the characteristic parameters of the simulation.
Table 3.15: Parameters used for 50 krad GD p-spray and corresponding figures.
Parameters of
1.80E+11 3.00E+11 2.00E+11 3.30
GD p-stop
Parameters
2.50E+11 1.50E+11 1.50E+11 3.31
GD p-spray
76
Figure 3.30: I-V curve of a 50 krad Gated Diode p-spray with experimental parameters.
Cyan simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=22.62 cm/s | s0-SIM=44.3 cm/s.
Figure 3.31: I-V curve of a 50 krad Gated Diode p-spray with simulation parameters.
Cyan simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=22.62 cm/s | s0-SIM=23.97 cm/s.
77
3.3.3 500 krad irradiated Gated Diode p-spray

By analyzing the second case of irradiation that has a 500 krad dose. From the Gated
Diode p-spray simulations the starting parameters are: ΔQOX=3e11 cm-2 , ΔNitACC=4e11
cm-2 and ΔNitDON=7.7e11 cm-2 . Since the simulated curve is not aligned with the
measured one, ΔQOX is changed from 3e11 cm-2 to 4e11 cm-2. As the measurement is
overestimated the acceptors are decreased. A better result is achieved by decreasing
ΔNitACC from 4e11 cm-2 to 3e11 cm-2 and decreasing the ΔNitDON from 7.7e11 cm-2 to
7e11 cm-2 . The simulations carried out lead to an excellent agreement between
measurements and simulations. Table 3.16 shows the characteristic parameters of the
simulation.
Table 3.16: Parameters used for 500 krad GD p-spray and corresponding figures.
Parameters of
3.00E+11 4.00E+11 7.70E+11 3.32
GD p-stop
Parameters
4.00E+11 2.50E+11 6.80E+11 3.33
GD p-spray
Figure 3.32: I-V curve of a 500 krad Gated Diode p-spray with experimental
parameters. Red simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=104.28 cm/s | s0-SIM=222.6
cm/s.
78
Figure 3.33: I-V curve of a 500 krad Gated Diode p-spray with simulation parameters.
Red simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=104.28 cm/s | s0-SIM=107.7 cm/s.
3.3.4 1 Mrad irradiated Gated Diode p-spray

By analyzing the third case of irradiation that has a 1 Mrad dose. From the Gated Diode
p-spray simulations the starting parameters are: ΔQOX=3.5e11 cm-2 , ΔNitACC=5e11 cm-2
and ΔNitDON 1e12 cm-2 . Since the simulated curve is not aligned with the measured one,
ΔQOX is changed from 3.5e11 cm-2 to 4.7e11 cm-2. As the measurement is overestimated
the acceptors are decreased. A better result is achieved by decreasing ΔNitACC from 5e11
cm-2 to 4e11 cm-2. The simulations carried out lead to an excellent agreement between
measurements and simulations. Table 3.17 shows the characteristic parameters of the
simulation.
Table 3.17: Parameters used for 1 Mrad GD p-spray and corresponding figures.
Parameters of
3.50E+11 5.00E+11 1.00E+12 3.34
GD p-stop
Parameters
4.70E+11 4.00E+11 9.00E+11 3.35
GD p-spray
79
Figure 3.34: I-V curve of a 1 Mrad Gated Diode p-spray with experimental parameters.
Green simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=154.15 cm/s | s0-SIM=271.3 cm/s.
Figure 3.35: I-V curve of a 1 Mrad Gated Diode p-spray with simulation parameters.
Green simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=154.15 cm/s | s0-SIM=153.7 cm/s.
80
3.3.5 10 Mrad irradiated Gated Diode p-spray

By analyzing the fourth case of irradiation that has a dose of 10Mrad. From the Gated
Diode p-spray simulations the starting parameters are: ΔQ OX=1.10e12 cm-2,
ΔNitACC=2e12 cm-2 , ΔNitDON=1.9e12 cm-2 . Since the simulated curve is not aligned with
the measured one, ΔQOX is changed from 1.10e12 cm-2 to 1.20e12 cm-2. As the
measurement is overestimated the acceptors are decreased. A better result is achieved by
increasing ΔNitACC from 2e12 cm-2 to 3e12 cm-2 . The simulations carried out lead to an
excellent agreement between measurements and simulations. Table 3.18 shows the
characteristic parameters of the simulation.
Table 3.18: Parameters used for 10 Mrad GD p-spray and corresponding figures.
Parameters of
4.50E+11 2.00E+12 1.90E+12 3.36
GD p-stop
Parameters
1.20E+12 2.50E+12 1.90E+12 3.37
GD p-spray
Figure 3.36: I-V curve of a 10 Mrad Gated Diode p-spray with experimental
parameters. Magenta simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=596.47 cm/s | s0-SIM=424.5
cm/s.
81
Figure 3.37:I-V curve of a 10 Mrad Gated Diode p-spray with simulation parameters.
Magenta simulation, black measurement. s0-MEAS=596.47 cm/s | s0-SIM=594.8 cm/s.
82
Chapter 4
Surface radiation damage TCAD model

development
In this chapter a TCAD models are designed for the simulation of electronic devices of
two companies: Infineon Technologies (IFX) and Hamamatsu Photonics (HPK). Thanks
to the data obtained from the simulations carried out at the various irradiation doses, see
Chapter 3, it is possible to realize a physical model for the realization of electronic
devices such as: diodes, MOS capacitors, MOSFET transistors, etc. Regardless of the
type of device that wants to be realized, there are two types of parameters essential to
the realization:
• Editable
• Not editable
Regarding the non-editable parameters, the following are considered: the type of
device, i.e. p-type for both technologies; the substrate doping of the device, NSUB; the
concentration of charge trapped in the oxide, Q OX; the concentration of acceptors at the
SiO2-Si interface before irradiation, NitACC_PRE; the concentration of donors at the SiO 2-
Si interface before irradiation, NitDON_PRE; Physical model and basic .cmd file used on
SDEVICE; Energy model used for Infineon and Hamamatsu simulations of Chapter 3.
Among the modifiable parameters there are the parameters necessary for the structural
realization of the device. For example, width and thickness of the device, any tasks, p-
spray systems. The increase in the concentration of charge trapped in the oxide, ΔQ OX;
the increased concentration of acceptors at the SiO2-Si interface, ΔNitACC; the increase in
the concentration of donors at the SiO2-Si interface, ΔNitDON.
Another important parameter is the temperature which can vary depending on
the type of device operation to be simulated, for example on the MOS capacitors and on
the Gated Diodes a temperature of 20°C is used, while for the strips the is -25°C.
83
CHAPTER 4. PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTAL MODELS OF TCAD SIMULATION
The models created are based on the reading and interpretation of three main
plots, namely: NOX, NitACC and NitDON, as a function on the irradiation dose. From the
graphs it is possible to obtain an estimate of the N OX, NitACC and NitDON values; these
parameters fall within the error margin defined by the error bar. The oxide trapped
charge (NOX) is defined as the sum of the oxide trapped charge in the pre-radiation
device (QOX_PRE) and of the oxide trapped charge in the post-radiation device (ΔQ OX), see
Eq. 4.1. The acceptors concentration (NitACC) is defined as the sum of the acceptors
concentration in the pre-radiation device (NitACC_PRE) and of the acceptors concentration
in the post-radiation device (ΔNitACC), see Eq. 4.2. The donors concentration (NitDON) is
defined as the sum of the donors concentration in the pre-radiation device (NitDON_PRE)
and of the donors concentration in the post-radiation device (ΔNitDON), see Eq. 4.3.

Two parametrizations of the model are analyzed for two different manufacturers of
electronic devices:
➔ Infineon Model
➔ Hamamatsu Model
The models shown in this chapter allow you to create electronic devices and
compare them with experimental measurements. In order to realize the device it is
necessary to know which irradiation dose must be simulated. By looking at thethe
characteristic graphs for the chosen model, it is possible to extract the characteristic
parameters such as NOX, NitACC and NitDON. Since the graphs have an error bar, it is
possible that there is a deviation between experimental measurement and simulation, so
it is advised to perform “corner” simulations. As summarized in the steps of Figure 4.1.
The procedure used in these cases consists in choosing the minimum and maximum
parameters NOX, NitACC and NitDON, then making all the possible combinations of these
parameters, i.e. eight simulations. In detail, the TCAD simulations to be performed are:
1) NOX=MAX, NitACC=MAX, NitDON=MAX; 2) NOX=MAX, NitACC=MAX, NitDON=min;
3) NOX=MAX, NitACC=min, NitDON=MAX; 4) NOX=MAX, NitACC=min, NitDON=min; 5)
NOX=min, NitACC=MAX, NitDON=MAX; 6) NOX=min, NitACC=MAX, NitDON=min; 7)
84
NOX=min, NitACC=min, NitDON=MAX; 8) NOX=min, NitACC=min, NitDON=min. From the

results of these simulations it will be possible to observe infer the guidelines for the
design activity (i.e. in terms of max and min device observable entities such as leakage
current) and how to trimm the parameters to align the simulations with the experimental
measurements.
Figure 4.1: Steps for the realization of electronic devices starting from the model for
the parameters: NOX, NitACC and NitDON. Following the available steps it will be possible
to realize the device according to a certain margin of error.
85
4.1 Infineon Model
The Infineon model was created starting from a MOS p-type capacitor using the large
sets of available experimental measurements. From the simulations, the values of the
flat-band voltage were extrapolated, seeking an agreement between measurements and
simulations that fell within a low margin of error. The knobs used to align the flat-band
voltage are: NOX, NitACC, NitDON. The radiation doses available from the measurements
are 50 krad, 100 krad, 500 krad, 1 Mrad, 10 Mrad, 100 Mrad; for further details on how
the characteristic parameters were obtained, refer to Chapter 3. From the six available
irradiation doses, the characteristic parameters have been obtained and through
interpolation the characteristic curves for the three parameters have been realized. The
interpolating curve is represented by a continuous line, while the curves representing the
“error bar” boundaries are dashed. A goal of the model implementation is to be able to
predict the NOX, NitACC and NitDON values for doses not available from the
measurements. In order to simulate doses not available from the measurements it is
necessary that the characteristic parameters remain within the error bar. From Figures
4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 it is possible to observe that the parameters used in the simulations fall
within the error bar of the interpolating curve. The Table 4.1 indicates the parameters
used to create the fitting curves. The Figure 4.2 shows the comparison between
measurements and simulations for the irradiation doses used in order to realize the
model, the parameters used for the simulations are those present in the Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Infineon simulation parameters used for creating curves: NOX(Dose),
NitACC(Dose), NitDON(Dose). The device used for the simulations is a MOS capacitor.
QOX_PRE ΔQOX NitACC_PRE ΔNitACC NitDON_PRE ΔNitDON
Not-Irrad 1.00E+09 0.00E+00 1.00E+09 0.00E+00 1.00E+09 0.00E+00
50 krad 1.00E+09 5.00E+08 1.00E+09 5.00E+11 1.00E+09 2.50E+11
100 krad 1.00E+09 1.00E+09 1.00E+09 7.50E+11 1.00E+09 3.50E+11
500 krad 1.00E+09 7.00E+09 1.00E+09 1.20E+12 1.00E+09 1.00E+12
1 Mrad 1.00E+09 1.10E+10 1.00E+09 1.30E+12 1.00E+09 1.30E+12
10 Mrad 1.00E+09 9.00E+11 1.00E+09 1.30E+12 1.00E+09 1.80E+12
100 Mrad 1.00E+09 1.40E+12 1.00E+09 1.80E+12 1.00E+09 2.00E+12
86
Figure 4.2: Simulations made of a Infineon MOS capacitor for the irradiation doses
available from the experimental measurements, refer to the chart legend. The solid line
indicates the simulations, while the dashed line shows the experimental measurements.
Figure 4.3: Nox(Dose) curve for the IFX technology. The solid blue line represents the
fitting of the simulation parameters, while the black dotted lines are the error bars.
87
Figure 4.4: NitACC(Dose) curve for the IFX technology. The solid green line represents
the fitting of the simulation parameters, while the black dotted lines are the error bars.
Figure 4.5: NiDON(Dose) curve for the IFX technology. The solid orange line represents
88
4.2 Hamamatsu Model
The Hamamatsu model was created by extrapolating the results of the simulations of 3
devices: Gated Diode with p-spray, Gated Diode without p-spray and MOS capacitor.
For these devices the experimental measurements that have been compared with the
simulations have been made available. Following the simulations, the values of surface
velocity (s0) were extrapolated, seeking an agreement between measurements and
simulations that fell within a low margin of error. The knobs used to align the surface
velocity are: NOX, NitACC, NitDON. The radiation doses available from the measurements
are 50 krad, 100 krad, 500 krad, 1 Mrad, 10 Mrad; for further details on how the
characteristic parameters have been obtained, refer to Chapter 3. From the five available
irradiation doses, the characteristic parameters have been obtained and by interpolation
the characteristic curves for the three parameters have been realized. A goal of the
model implementation is to be able to predict the N OX, NitACC and NitDON values for
doses not available from the measurements. In this case, for the characteristic
parameters (NOX, NitACC and NitDON) there are two values for each irradiation dose, one
value is obtained from GD with p-spray and the other value from GD without p-spray.
The following images show the trends of N OX, NitACC and NitDON depending on the dose.
In order to ensure greater precision in deriving the characteristic parameters from the
graphs, the Hamamatsu model is divided into three types:
➔ Model A (Hamamatsu Model without p-spray)

➔ Model B (Hamamatsu Model with p-spray)
➔ Model C (Hamamatsu generic Model)
The difference between models A and B is described by the presence of the p-

spray, in fact model A does not have a p-spray system, while model B has a p-spray
system. A three-model approach is preferred because it guarantees a lower margin of
error. Model A was constructed from a Gated Diode with p-type substrate without p-
spray, while model B was built from a Gated Diode with p-type substrate with a p-spray
plant. Instead, the Model C represents the synthesis of Hamamatsu technology. Thanks
to the Model C remaining within a certain margin of error it is possible to simulate all
the devices of this foundry.
89
4.2.1 Hamamatsu Model without p-spray

Following the simulations, the values of surface velocity (s 0) were extrapolated, seeking
an agreement between measures and simulations that fell within a low margin of error.
The knobs used to align the surface velocity are: NOX, NitACC, NitDON. The radiation
doses available from the measurements are 50 krad, 100 krad, 500 krad, 1 Mrad, 10
Mrad; for further details on how the characteristic parameters have been obtained, see
Chapter 3. From the five available irradiation doses, the characteristic parameters have
been obtained and through interpolation the characteristic curves for the three
parameters have been realized. In the figures that characterize the model the
error bar are dashed.
A goal of the model implementation is to be able to predict the N OX, NitACC and
NitDON values for doses not available from the measurements. In order to simulate doses
not available from the measurements it is necessary that the characteristic parameters
remain within the error bar. From Figures 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9 it is possible to observe that
the parameters used in the simulations (points in the graph) fall within the error bar of
the interpolating curve. The Table 4.2 indicates the parameters used to create the fitting
curves. The Figure 4.6 shows the comparison between measurements and simulations
for the irradiation doses used in order to realize the model, the parameters used for the
simulations are those present in the Table 4.3.
Table 4.2: Hamamatsu simulation parameters used for creating curves: N OX(Dose),
NitACC(Dose), NitDON(Dose). The device used for the simulations is a Gated Diode
without p-spray.
Not-Irrad 6.50E+10 0.00E+00 2.00E+09 0.00E+00 2.00E+09 0.00E+00
50 krad 6.50E+10 1.80E+11 2.00E+09 3.00E+11 2.00E+09 2.00E+11
100 krad 6.50E+10 1.80E+11 2.00E+09 3.00E+11 2.00E+09 4.00E+11
500 krad 6.50E+10 3.00E+11 2.00E+09 4.00E+11 2.00E+09 7.70E+11
1 Mrad 6.50E+10 3.50E+11 2.00E+09 5.00E+11 2.00E+09 1.00E+12
10 Mrad 6.50E+10 4.50E+11 2.00E+09 2.00E+12 2.00E+09 1.90E+12
90
Figure 4.6: Simulations made of a HPK GD (no p-spray) for the irradiation doses
available from the experimental measurements, refer to the chart legend. The solid line
indicates the simulations, while the dashed line shows the experimental measurements.
Figure 4.7: Nox(Dose) curve for the HPK technology. The solid blue line represents the
fitting of the simulation parameters, while the black dotted lines are the error bars.
91
Figure 4.8: NitACC(Dose) curve for the HPK technology. The solid green line represents
Figure 4.9: NitACC(Dose) curve for the HPK technology. The solid blue line represents
92
4.2.2 Hamamatsu Model with p-spray

Following the simulations, the values of surface velocity (s 0) were extrapolated, seeking
an agreement between measures and simulations that fell within a low margin of error.
The knobs used to align the surface velocity are: NOX, NitACC, NitDON. The radiation
doses available from the measurements are 50krad, 500krad, 1Mrad, 10Mrad; for
further details on how the characteristic parameters have been obtained, refer to Chapter
3. From the four available irradiation doses, the characteristic parameters have been
obtained and by interpolation the characteristic curves for the three parameters have
been realized. In the figures that characterize the model the interpolating curve is
represented by a continuous line, while the curves representing the error bar are dashed.
remain within the error bar. From Figures 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13 it is possible to observe
that the parameters used in the simulations (points in the graph) fall within the error bar
of the interpolating curve. The Table 4.3 indicates the parameters used to create the
fitting curves. The Figure 4.10 shows the comparison between measurements and
simulations for the irradiation doses used in order to realize the model, the parameters
used for the simulations are those present in the Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Hamamatsu simulation parameters used for creating curves: NOX(Dose),
NitACC(Dose), NitDON(Dose). The device used for the simulations is a Gated Diode with
p-spray.
Not-Irrad 6.50E+10 0.00E+00 2.00E+09 0.00E+00 2.00E+09 0.00E+00
50 krad 6.50E+10 2.50E+11 2.00E+09 1.50E+11 2.00E+09 1.50E+11
500 krad 6.50E+10 4.00E+11 2.00E+09 2.50E+11 2.00E+09 6.80E+11
1 Mrad 6.50E+10 4.70E+11 2.00E+09 4.00E+11 2.00E+09 9.00E+11
10 Mrad 6.50E+10 1.20E+12 2.00E+09 2.50E+12 2.00E+09 1.90E+12
93
Figure 4.10: Simulations made of a HPK GD p-spray for the irradiation doses available
from the experimental measurements, refer to the chart legend. The solid line indicates
the simulations, while the dashed line shows the experimental measurements.
Figure 4.11: NOX(Dose) curve for the HPK technology. The solid blue line represents
94
Figure 4.12: NitACC(Dose) curve for the HPK technology. The solid green line
represents the fitting of the simulation parameters, while the black dotted lines are the
error bars.
Figure 4.13: NitDON(Dose) curve for the HPK technology. The solid orange line
error bars.
95
4.2.3 Hamamatsu generic Model

The generic model consists of putting together all the simulation data concerning
Hamamatsu technology, so the devices under examination are Gated Diode without p-
spray, Gated Diode with p-spray and MOS. Thanks to the results of the simulations, the
NOX, NitACC and NitDON values were obtained for the various radiation doses. The basic
parameters are averaged based on the radiation dose. Finally, the interpolating curve and
the relative error bars are created. In the figures that characterize the model the
error bar are dashed.
remain within the error bar. From Figures 4.15, 4.16 and 4.17 it is possible to note that
the parameters used in the simulations (points in the graph) fall within the error bar of
the interpolating curve. The points in the graphs N OX(Dose), NitACC(Dose) and
NitDON(Dose) represent: diamond HPK GD without p-spray, circle HPK GD with p-
spray and triangle HPK MOS. The Table 4.4 indicates the parameters used to create the
fitting curves.
Table 4.4: Hamamatsu simulation parameters used for creating curves: NOX(Dose),
NitACC(Dose), NitDON(Dose). The devices used for the simulations are: Gated Diode
without p-spray, Gated Diode with p-spray and MOS capacitor.

Not-Irrad 6.50E+10 0.00E+00 2.00E+09 0.00E+00 2.00E+09 0.00E+00
50 krad 6.50E+10 2.15E+11 2.00E+09 2.25E+11 2.00E+09 1.75E+11
100 krad 6.50E+10 2.50E+11 2.00E+09 3.00E+11 2.00E+09 4.00E+11
500 krad 6.50E+10 3.50E+11 2.00E+09 3.25E+11 2.00E+09 7.25E+11
1 Mrad 6.50E+10 4.20E+11 2.00E+09 7.30E+111 2.00E+09 1.00E+12
10 Mrad 6.50E+10 7.00E+11 2.00E+09 1.90E+12 2.00E+09 1.80E+12
96
Figure 4.14: NOX(Dose) curve for the HPK technology. The solid blue line represents
Figure 4.15: NitACC(Dose) curve for the HPK technology. The solid green line
error bars.
97
Figure 4.16: NitDON(Dose) curve for the HPK technology. The solid orange line
error bars.
98
Chapter 5
Combined surface and bulk radiation

damage model: multistrip device
simulation
In this chapter a combined surface and bulk radiation damage model for multistrip
device simulation fabricated by Hamamatsu Photonics is applied. In particular, the
model will be applied to a multistrip, composed of: p-type substrate; oxide region and a
certain number of n-type doped tasks. The device will be studied through a DC
simulation, then its behavior will be analyzed following the passage of a particle and the
collection charge in a time-variant simulation. The structure realized through SDE,
which is represented by Figure 5.1, it is only a portion of strip, because the complete
device is composed of a continuous series of these portions. The simulated device has a
p-type substrate with a concentration of 1e12 cm-2 and four contacts: left, right, middle
and bottom. From the physical point of view different degrees of irradiation of the
device will be analyzed on the basis of different fluences (ϕ): ϕ=0 particles/cm2 (not-
irradiated), ϕ=1e15 particles/cm2, ϕ=3e15 particles/cm2, ϕ=5e15 particles/cm2, ϕ=1e16
particles/cm2.
The simulated dimensions are 100 µm height and 100 µm width. The first n-type
task goes from -50 µm to -35.2 µm, the second task goes from -17.5 µm to +17.5 µm
and the third task goes from 32.5 µm to 50 µm. The description of the n-type tasks is
represented by Figure 5.2. An important aspect concerns the oxide which does not have
a uniform thickness along the x-axis, in fact it is distributed in this way: from -50 µm to
-45 µm the oxide is not present, from -45 µm to -32.5 µm the thickness is of 130 nm;
from -32.5 µm to -17.5 µm the thickness is 220 µm; from -17.5 µm to -5 µm the
thickness is 130 µm; from -5 µm to +5 µm the oxide is not present; from +5 µm to 17.5
µm the thickness is 130 µm; from 17.5 µm to 32.5 µm the thickness is 220 µm; from
32.5 µm to 45 µm the thickness is 130 nm; from 45 µm to 50 µm the oxide is not
present. The description of the oxide is represented by Figure 5.3.
99
CHAPTER 5. MULTISTRIP DEVICE SIMULATION
From the description of the tasks, the oxide and the p-spray it is possible to note
the symmetry of structure, in fact the device is mirrored with respect to x=0 µm,
therefore from -50 µm to 0 µm the device is identical to the part that goes from 0 µm to
50 µm.
The p-spray is present between the n-type tasks and near the bottom contact. The
p-spray present between the n-type doped tasks is described by gaussian peak
concentration of 6e16 cm-2 and is extending 0.5 µm into the bulk. The n-type central
task is 35 µm wide, the doping is 2e19 cm -2 at y=0 and is extending to y=0.7 µm into
the bulk. The p-spray present in the bottom is described by gaussian peak concentration
of 2e19 cm-2 and is extending 0.7 µm into the bulk. The total p-spray concentration is
represented by the graph in Figure 5.4, the first peak of the Gussian curve is at the point
y=0 µm and extends inside the device for 0.5 µm, while the second peak of the
Gaussian is at the point y=100 µm and extends inside the device for 0.7 µm. The p-
spray concentration in the upper part of the device is represented by the graph in Figure
5.5, it is possible to note that from 0.5 µm up to the bottom p-spray the curve aligns
with the substrate doping value of 1e12 cm -2. The p-spray concentration in the lower
part of the device is represented by the graph in Figure 5.6, it is possible to note that
from 99.3 µm up to the top p-spray the curve aligns with the substrate doping value of
1e12 cm-2.
As far as the definition of the contacts is concerned, an overhang structure is
used, i.e. the contacts present in the n-type tasks extend with respect to the width of the
task. In particular, considering the middle contact, the overhang is distributed by 2.5 µm
more than n-type task, contact is defined to y-axis equal to 0 µm and to x-axis start from
-20 µm to +20 µm, in the absence of overhang the x-axis it would have gone from -17.5
µm to 17.5 µm. The left contact is defined to y-axis equal to 0 µm and to x-axis start
from -50 µm to -30 µm. The right contact is defined to y-axis equal to 0 µm and to x-
axis start from +30 µm to +50 µm. The bottom contact is defined to y-axis equal to 100
µm and to x-axis start from -50 µm to +50 µm. The Figure 5.2 shows the structure of
the upper contacts, while the bottom contact is described in Figure 5.1.
100
Figure 5.1: Simulation structure of the electronic device called strip produced by
Hamamatsu Photonics. Width 100 µm, thick 100 µm. Substrate p-type with doping
concentration 1e12 atoms/cm3.
101
Figure 5.2: Zoom top of the device. Strip with p-spray of

Hamamatsu Photonics simulation structure. There are three contacts: left, middle and
right. There are three n-type tasks. The p-spray is present among the n-type tasks.
Figure 5.3: Zoom middle contact of the device. Strip with p-spray of
Hamamatsu Photonics simulation structure. Oxide thickness above the n-type task is:
130 nm. Oxide thickness above the p-spray is: 220 nm. Middle contact is defined as -20
µm to +20 µm, including a 2.5 µm overhang.
102
Figure 5.4: p-spray concentration along the depth of the device (y-axis). The peak of
the p-spray at the top of the device is 6e16 cm-2. The peak of the p-spray at the bottom
of the device is 2e19 cm-2. The constant value of 1e12 cm-2 is the substrate dopig of the
device.
Figure 5.5: Zoom the p-spray concentration on the top of the device. The peak of the p-
spray at the top of the device is 6e16 cm-2.
103
Figure 5.6: Zoom the p-spray concentration on the bottom of the device. The peak of
the p-spray at the bottom of the device is 2e19 cm-2.
5.1 DC simulation
The polarization of the device is done with a DC generator. The voltage applied in the
simulation goes from 0 V to -1000 V. The polarization point at -500 V will be used to
carry out the time-varying simulations. In order to guarantee the simulations
convergense, it was necessary to create a mesh that describes in detail the behavior of
the device in the transition zones, in particular the p-spray, n-type region and oxide
regions.
Concerned which parameters used for the various simulations, the Hamamatsu
model with p-spray is used (see details at Chapter 4). From the model created the basic
parameters are obtained for the realization of the device within a certain margin of error
defined by the bars of error in the graphs.
The analyzed devices have undergone different irradiation fluences. The current-
voltage curves obtained from the DC simulations make it possible to understand that for
non-radiated devices the current flowing is very low, while the current reaches up to
pico ampere for irradiated devices.
104
In order to perform DC simulations, the following parameters are used:
• Temperature: 248 K (-25 °C) equal for all doses

• Fluence: indicates the radiation of the device (particles/cm2)
The oxide trapped charge (NOX) is defined as the sum of the oxide trapped charge
in the pre-radiation device (QOX_PRE) and of the oxide trapped charge in the post-
radiation device (ΔQOX), see Eq. 5.1. The acceptors concentration (NitACC) is defined as
the sum of the acceptors concentration in the pre-radiation device (NitACC_PRE) and of the
acceptors concentration in the post-radiation device (ΔNitACC), see Eq. 5.2. The donors
concentration (NitDON) is defined as the sum of the donors concentration in the pre-
radiation device (NitDON_PRE) and of the donors concentration in the post-radiation device
(ΔNitDON), see Eq. 5.3. The physical interface model used in SDEVICE is the same one
adopted for the simulations of Chapter 3.

The DC simulations are carried out for the various fluences (ϕ):
➔ ϕ=0 particles/cm2
➔ ϕ=1e15 particles/cm2
105
5.1.1 DC simulation ϕ=0 particles/cm2

The not-irradiated device ϕ=0 particles/cm2 was polarized through the DC simulation.
The parameters used for the simulation are present in Table 5.1 and the simulation
results are shown in Figure 5.7. The non-irradiated device goes into breakdown at
approximately -800 V. The current flowing in the device between 50 V and -800 V is in
the order of the ampere stop, very low currents.
Table 5.1: Simulation parameters used for a not-irradiated device.

ϕ=0 1.00E+10 0.00E+00 2.00E+09 0.00E+00 2.00E+09 0.00E+00
Figure 5.7: DC simulation for a not-irradiated device. The simulation starts at 0 V and
ends at -1000 V. The not-irradiated device goes into breakdown at about -800 V.
106
5.1.2 DC simulation ϕ=1e15 particles/cm2

The not-irradiated device ϕ=1e15 particles/cm2 was polarized through the DC
simulation. The parameters used for the simulation are present in Table 5.2 and the
simulation results are shown in Figure 5.8. In the simulation interval -50 V up to -1000
V the irradiated device does not go into breakdown. The current flowing on the device
is in the order of the pico ampere, this current is three orders of magnitude greater than
in the not-irradiated case.
Table 5.2: simulation parameters used for an irradiated device (ϕ=1e15).

ϕ=1e15 1.00E+10 5.00E+11 2.00E+09 1.30E+12 2.00E+09 1.80E+12
Figure 5.8: DC simulation for an irradiated device (ϕ=1e15). The simulation starts at 0
V and ends at -1000 V.
107


ϕ=3e15 1.00E+10 6.00E+11 2.00E+09 1.30E+12 2.00E+09 1.90E+12
108


ϕ=5e15 1.00E+10 6.00E+11 2.00E+09 1.30E+12 2.00E+09 2.00E+12
109


ϕ=1e16 1.00E+10 6.50E+11 2.00E+09 1.30E+12 2.00E+09 2.00E+12
110
5.1.6 DC simulation all fluences

The device in the various fluences is summarized in this paragraph. The parameters
used for the simulations are present in Table 5.6, the results of the simulations are
represented in Figure 5.12.
Table 5.6:
ϕ=0 1.00E+10 1.00E+10 2.00E+09 2.00E+09 2.00E+09 2.00E+09
ϕ=1e15 1.00E+10 5.00E+11 2.00E+09 1.30E+12 2.00E+09 1.80E+12
ϕ=3e15 1.00E+10 6.00E+11 2.00E+09 1.30E+12 2.00E+09 1.90E+12
ϕ=5e15 1.00E+10 6.00E+11 2.00E+09 1.30E+12 2.00E+09 2.00E+12
ϕ=1e16 1.00E+10 6.50E+11 2.00E+09 1.30E+12 2.00E+09 2.00E+12
Figure 5.12: DC simulations for all fluences.
111
5.2 TV simulation
The time-variant simulations are used to understand the behavior of the device
following the passage of the particle. The graphs of interest are expressed as a function
of time, the simulations have been made for the different irradiation fluences and for the
different points of impact of the particle. On average to generate charges following the
impact of a particle, it is necessary to wait a few nano-seconds. In general, if a particle
impacts the device near x=0 µm, i.e. in the middle of the middle contact, the generated
charge will be collected for the most part by the middle contact. On the other hand, if
the particle impacts at a point other than 0 µm, for example 15 µm, the generated charge
will be collected in part by the middle contact and partly by the right contact (or left if
the particle impacts at -25 µm). In general, if the impacting particle is closer to a
contact, this will be the one to collect most of the charge. The collected charge by the
bottom contact is the total charge generated by the impact of the particle, i.e. the sum of
the charges collected by the three contacts.
The I(t) curves obtained from time-variant simulations are used to create two types of
graphs:
➔ Fixed fluence (ϕ) and varying impact point (IP)
➔ Fixed impact point (IP) and varying fluence (ϕ)
5.2.1 Fixed fluence and varying impact point

The following graphs represent the change of charges inside the device following the
passage of the particle. From the current-time graph it is possible to notice that there is a
current peak due to the passage of the particle. Current-time graphs have been created
with ϕ fixed and varying the impact point of the particle (IP). The realized graphs are:
• ϕ=0 particles/cm2 (IP=0 µm, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25) Figure 5.13
2
• ϕ=1e15 particles/cm (IP=0 µm, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25) Figure 5.14
2
• ϕ=3e15 particles/cm (IP=0 µm, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25) Figure 5.15
• ϕ=5e15 particles/cm2 (IP=0 µm, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25) Figure 5.16
• ϕ=1e16 particles/cm2 (IP=0 µm, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25) Figure 5.17
112
Figure 5.13: current-time graph for a not irradiated device (ϕ=0 particles/cm2)
depending on different particle impact points.
Figure 5.14: Current-time graph for an irradiated device (ϕ=1e15 particles/cm2)

113


114

5.2.2 Fixed impact point and varying fluence

The following graphs represent the change of charges inside the device following the
passage of the particle. From the current-time graph it is possible to notice that there is a
current peak due to the passage of the particle. Current-time graphs have been created
with the impact point of the fixed particle and varying ϕ. The realized graphs are:
• IP=0 µm (ϕ=0 particles/cm2, 1e15, 3e15, 5e15, 1e16) Figure 5.18

2
• IP=5 µm (ϕ=0 particles/cm , 1e15, 3e15, 5e15, 1e16) Figure 5.19
2
• IP=10 µm (ϕ=0 particles/cm , 1e15, 3e15, 5e15, 1e16) Figure 5.20
115
Figure 5.18: Current-time graph set the impact point at 0 µm and varying the irradiation
fluence.
Figure 5.19: Current-time graph set the impact point at 5 µm and varying the irradiation
fluence.
116
Figure 5.20: Current-time graph set the impact point at 10 µm and varying the
irradiation fluence.
117
118
5.3 Collected charges and electrons
From the time-variant simulations the I(t) curves are obtained, through the integration
operation the collected charge is obtained. The collected charge can be expressed in two
ways: charge collection efficiency (CCE) or collected electrons (eCharge). The Middle
contact is used as a reference for the realization of the graphs. The collected charge
efficiency and the collected electrons are evaluated with respect to middle contact. The
bottom contact collects all the charges that have been generated in the device following
the passage of the particle. The graphs analyzed are: collected charge efficiency
according to the particle impact point for the different radiation doses; number of
collected electrons as a function of the particle impact point for the different radiation
doses.
5.3.1 Collected charge efficiency

The graph in Figure 5.24 shows the percentage of collected charge efficiency as a
function of the particle impact point on the device. The simulations are for impact
points at 0 µm, 5 µm, 10 µm, 15 µm, 20 µm and 25 µm. The graph in Figure 5.24
shows the ratio between the charge collected by the middle contact and the charge
generated by the passage of the particle. The collected charge by the Middle contact
decreases significantly near the point of impact between 20 µm and 25 µm, in this
interval, if it impacts a particle, the generated charges would be divided between the
middle and the next contact. The collected charge decreases with the increasing increase
of the device irradiation fluence.
5.3.2 Collected electrons

The graph in Figure 5.25 shows the collected electrons by the device as a function of the
particle impact point. The simulations are by impact points at 0 µm, 5 µm, 10 µm, 15
µm, 20 µm and 25 µm. The collected electrons at Middle contact decrease significantly
near the point of impact between 20 µm and 25 µm, in this range, if it impacts a
particle, the charges generated would be divided between the middle and the next
contact. The collected electrons decreases with the increasing increase of the device
119
Figure 5.24: The graph indicates the percentage of collected charge by the middle
contact as a function of the particle impact point. The symbols used in the graph
represent the various irradiation fluences (ϕ), see legend graph.
Figure 5.25: The graph shows the number of collected electrons by the middle contact
as a function of the particle impact point. The symbols used in the graph represent the
various irradiation fluences (ϕ), see legend graph.
120
Conclusions
The topic of this work was the developemt od a radiation damage model to be used in a
commercial TCAD environmnt for the simulation of the surface radiation damage
effects in silicon devices, the model was devised and validated through an extensive
measuremnts campaign. Experimental measurements of electronic devices were made at
the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) of Perugia, including diodes, MOS,
Gated Diode and MOSFET. From the experimental measurements, a detailed data
analysis was performed from which the fundamental parameters for computer
simulations have been derived. Sentaurus TCAD is the software tool for simulating
computer electronic devices. The tools used from the Sentaurus software package were
Sentaurus Structure Editor, Sentaurus Device, Sentaurus Workbench, Sentaurus Visual,
Sentaurus Inspect. To realize and simulate the electrical behavior of the devices, main
steps were followed: create the structures using SDE, simulate the device with
SDEVICE and analyze the results with INSPECT or SVISUAL.
The simulated devices are p-type MOS of Infineon, Hamamatsu Gated Diode
without p-spray and Hamamatsu Gated Diode with p-spray. The simulation results are
compared with the experimental measurements made at the INFN of Perugia. A good
agreement between experimental measurements and simulations has been obtained
using different parameters as figure of merit, for example in the MOS the flat-band
voltage (VFB) is used, while for Gated Diode the surface velocity (s0) is used.
After having reached a good agreement between the measured flat-band voltage
(VFB-MEAS) and the simulated flat-band voltage (VFB-SIM) the mathematical model Infineon
is described the same fundamental parameters, e.g. N OX, NitACC and NitDON as a function
of radiation dose to the device. Moreover, after having reached a good agreement
between s0-MEAS and s0-SIM, the models describing the trend of N OX, NitACC, NitDON are
realized according to the radiation dose suffered by the device.
Finally, the Hamamatsu model with p-spray is used for simulations on the
electronic strip device. After obtaining the NOX, NitACC and NitDON values for the various
fluences, simulations were performed. The strip device is polarized with a DC
simulation. Subsequently, making a time-variant simulation, the charge collected by the
device following the passage of the particle is calculated. The collected charge is
121
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
expressed in CCE (charge collection efficiency) and number of electrons.

The mathematical models and the work done can be of help to anyone who
wants to implement electronic devices, irradiated or not-irradiated. In perspective, the
measuring instruments and the simulator will progress from the technological point of
view, this aspect will make the simulations more realistic. Based on this work it will be
possible to realize other mathematical models for technologies that are not available
now. Progress will bring an ever closer net between the world of experimental
measurements and that of simulations.
122
Appendix A - Technical terms
AC: Alternating Current simulation n+: n-type doping increase

C-V: curve capacitance-voltage p-spray: plant for the increase of the p-type
DC: Direct Current simulation doping
Dose: concentration of device radiation p+: p-type doping increase
(rad) QOX: trapped charge in the oxide in not
FBK: Fondazione Bruno Kessler irradiated device (cm-2)
Fluence: concentration of device radiation ΔQOX: increse of trapped charge in the
(rad/cm3) oxide in irradiated device (cm-2)
GD: Gated Diode Rad: measurement unit about absorbed
HF: High Frequency (Hz) dose of ionizing radiation
HPK: Hamamatsu Photonics SDE: Sentaurus Device Editor
ID: drain current (A) SDEVICE: Sentaurus Device
IFX: Infineon Technologies Si: silicon
INFN: Istitutito Nazionale di Fisica SiO2: silicon oxide
Nucleare SVISUAL: Sentaurus Visual
INSPECT: Sentaurus Inspect SWB: Sentaurus Workbench
I-V: Curve current-voltage s0: surface velocity (cm/s)
LF: Low Frequency (Hz) s0-MEAS: measured surface velocity (cm/s)
MOS: Metal Oxide Semiconductor s0 -SIM: simulated surface velocity (cm/s)
NitACC: acceptors concentration (cm-2) tOX: oxide thickness
NitACC_PRE: acceptors concentration in not TV: Time-Variant simulation
irradiated device (cm-2) VGB: Gate-Bulk voltage (V)
ΔNitACC: increse of acceptors concentration VFB: Flat-Band voltage (V)
in irradiated device (cm-2) VFB-MEAS: measured Flat-Band voltage(V)
NitDON: donors concentration (cm-2) VFB-SIM: simulated Flat-Band voltage (V)
NitDON_PRE: donors concentration in not VT: threshold voltage (V)
irradiated device (cm-2)
ΔNitDON: increse of donors concentration in
irradiated device (cm-2)
NOX: charge trapped in the oxide (cm-2)
NSUB: substrate doping concentration (cm-2)
123
Bibliography
[1] G.Giustolisi, G.Palumbo, INTRODUZIONE AI DISPOSITIVI ELETTRONICI,

Milano, FrancoAngeli, 1a edizione 2005.
[2] A.Morozzi, Simulazione circuitale e di dispositivo di sensori a pixel attivi in
tecnologia di integrazione verticale (3D-IC) CMOS, Perugia, Università degli studi di
Perugia, Facoltà di Ingegneria, A.A.2010-2011.
[3] F.Moscatelli, Studio della resistenza al danno da radiazione dei rilevatori al
silicio di CMS, Perugia, Università degli studi di Perugia, Dipartimento di Fisica,
A.A.1998-1999.
[4] E. H. Nicollian, John R. Brews, Mos Metal Oxide Semiconductor Physics and
Technology, Wiley-Interscience, 7 nov 2002.
[5] SentaurusTM Structure Editor User Guide, version O-2018.06, June 2018.
[6] SentaurusTM Mesh User Guide, version O-2018.06, June 2018.
[7] SentaurusTM Device User Guide, version O-2018.06, June 2018.
[8] SentaurusTM INSPECT, version O-2018.06, June 2018.
[9] SentaurusTM Visual User Guide, version O-2018.06, June 2018.
[10] SentaurusTM Workbench User Guide, version O-2018.06, June 2018.
[11] Anselm Yip, Y.T. Yeow G.S. Samudra and C.H. Ling, Modelling of the “Gated-
Diode” Configuration in Bulk MOSFET's, Australia, Singapore.
Internet material:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleanroom
https://medium.com/@QualitySystemsSrl/44-quali-sono-i-requisiti-per-la-
qualifica-delle-cleanroom-secondo-il-nuovo-annex-1-bd965b4638f9
https://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A912151
https://www.pg.infn.it/sez/laboratori/camera_pulita/clean-roomENG.htm
https://www.pg.infn.it/sez/laboratori/camera_pulita/pa-200ENG.htm
124
Acknowledgment
Ringrazio con affetto la mia fidanzata Federica che mi ha migliorato rendendo
possibile il raggiungimento di questo obiettivo. Gran parte del merito è anche tuo,
grazie.
Grazie alla mia famiglia: mio padre Enrico per avermi insegnato a non mollare
mai di fronte alle difficoltà; mia madre Carla per l'affetto; mia sorella Elena per la
disponibilità e l'aiuto.
Grazie alla mia seconda famiglia: Monia per avermi trasmesso la ricerca della
perfezione nel fare qualsiasi cosa; Brunero per avermi trasmesso il modo di ragionare e
l'intelligenza; Matteo per la calma nell'affrontare le difficoltà.
Sentiti ringraziamenti al Professore Daniele Passeri, all'Ingegnere Arianna

Morozzi e al Professore Francesco Moscatelli per la disponibilità e l'aiuto concesso
durante la scrittura della tesi.
Grazie al mio gatto Tino che nei momenti di difficoltà mi ha sempre rilassato
con le sue fusa.
Ringrazio tutti i componenti della banda G.Puccini di Pozzuolo Umbro.
Grazie ai miei amici di Università Alessandro, Angelo e Luca per tutte le volte
che abbiamo studiato insieme.
Infine, voglio ringraziare tutti coloro che mi hanno aiutato e supportato durante
questi tre anni.
125

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UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI PERUGIA

Development and validation of a TCAD model of

Anno Accademico 2018/2019

p-spray. The strip device is polarized through a DC simulation, then a time-variant

1.1 Clean room

In the semiconductor production process, dust particles in the air irreparably

Figure 1.1: Industrial clean room.

1.2 Wafer fabrication

Figure 1.2: Main steps Czochralski method.

Figure 1.3: Silicon crystal and wafers.

1.3 How measurements are made

Figure 1.4: Probe Station box of INFN Perugia.

Figure 1.5: PA200 – Probe Station of INFN Perugia.

1.3.1 Device positioning

1.3.2 Contact the device

1.4 Measured devices

Figure 1.6: p-n junction Diode structure.

• Direct (VD > 0)

→ Direct (VD > 0)

→ Reverse (VD < 0)

Figure 1.7: I-V Diode, produced by FBK. T=20 °C.

1.4.2 MOS capacitor

Figure 1.8: MOS capacitor structure.

• Accumulation (VGB < VFB)

→ Accumulation (VGB < VFB)

→ Depletion (VFB < VGB < VT)

→ Inversion (VGB >> VFB ˄ VGB < VT)

Figure 1.9: Working regions for p-type MOS.

1.4.3 Gated Diode

Figure 1.12: Gated diode structure.

• Accumulation (VG < VFB)

→ Accumulation (VG < VFB)

→ Depletion (VFB <VG <VT)

→ Inversion (VG > VT)

1.4.4 MOSFET transistor

Figure 1.15: nMOSFET structure.

• Interdiction (VGS < VTH)

→ Interdiction – OFF (VGS < VTH)

→ Linear (VGS > VTH ˄ VDS < VGS – VTH)

→ Saturation (VGS > VTH ˄ VDS > VGS – VTH)

Δ V TH = Δ V Nit + Δ V Nox Eq. 1.3

Figure 1.18: I-V nMOSFET produced by IFX. VGS=-0.5 V | 0 V | 0.5 V | 1 V | 1.5 V.

• Sentaurus Structure Editor

Figure 2.1: Synopsys TCAD software documentation.

2.1 Sentaurus Structure Editor

Figure 2.3: Sentaurus Structure Editor graphic interface.

2.1.1 Mesh definition

2.2 Sentaurus Device

Sentaurus Device numerically simulates the electrical behaviour of a single

2.2.1 File section (File {...})

Figure 2.5: File section about Sentaurus Device.

2.2.2 Electrode section (Electrode {...})

Figure 2.6: Electrode section about Sentaurus Device.

The Electrode section (see Figure 2.6) is composed of several functions:

2.2.3 Physics section (Physics {...})

Figure 2.7: Physics section about Sentaurus Device.

2.2.4 Plot section (Plot {...})

Figure 2.8: Plot section about Sentaurus Device.

The Plot section is composed of several functions: eDensity, electron density;

2.2.5 Math section (Math {...})

Figure 2.9: Math section about Sentaurus Device.

2.2.6 Solve section (Solve {...})

Figure 2.10: Solve section about Sentaurus Device.

EnergySig Acceptor Band (from WorkBench)

From Nit to Dit