NON CONVENTIONAL SOURCES

OF
ENERGY

Solar Radiation: Sunlight and More

Solar radiation is more than the light and heat that we perceive from the sun. The sun is a
star, after all, and it produces energy in many forms, from perceptible heat, visible and
invisible spectrums of light, radiation, and more. Life on earth would be impossible without
the sun, but our atmosphere also protects us from the more dangerous aspects of solar
radiation.

What is Solar Radiation?

Loosely defined, solar radiation is the total frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
produced by the sun. This spectrum covers visible light and near-visible radiation, such as x-
rays, ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, and radio waves. The visible light and heat of
the sun makes life possible, and is called “daylight” or “sunshine.” The earth’s atmosphere
deflects or filters the majority of the sun’s harmful radiation, and our near-perfect positioning
in the solar system allows us to receive the benefits proximity to the Sun without being baked
or broiled like Venus or Mercury.

Life on Earth:

Solar radiation is the basis for all life on earth. Autotrophs, organisms that produce their own
food from the sun (mainly plants), use solar energy along with carbon dioxide and water to
produce simple sugars in a process called photosynthesis. Heterotrophs, organisms that eat
other organisms (like animals and fungi), depend on autotrophs to form the bottom level of
the food chain. Heterotrophs couldn’t exist without autotrophs, and autotrophs couldn’t exist
without the sun, so life as we know it depends on electromagnetic radiation.

Seasons and Climate:

The Earth’s seasonal climate variation occurs as a result of minute changes in our planet’s
distance from the sun during orbit. Solar radiation is also a contributing factor to the process
of global warming. Even before modern human activity and fossil fuels began heating up the
atmosphere, the elliptical path of the Earth’s orbit was creating 100,000-year cycles of
warming and cooling that led to the ice ages and tropical periods of the distant past. Sunlight
affects different parts of the Earth in different ways, with extremes manifesting in equatorial
regions and the poles.
Our Relationship with the Sun:

As human beings, we tend to have a love-hate relationship with the sun – on one hand,
sunlight keeps us warm, creates food and shelter for us via plant life, and gives us light. On
the other hand, as greenhouse gases trap more heat and the ozone layer allows more
dangerous UV radiation in, the sun’s rays can be distinctly dangerous. UV rays cause skin
cancer in humans and animals, but can contrastingly improve other skin conditions like
psoriasis. We need the sun biologically, as well; as it causes our bodies to produce vital
vitamin D.
Solar radiation and sunlight make it possible for the Earth to house life. The negative aspects
of our relationship with the sun are primarily the result of human irresponsibility: we develop
skin cancer when we ignore our bodies’ signals to avoid sunlight, and we struggle with global
warming because we’ve ignored the environmental concerns of our actions. When we don’t
give solar radiation the respect it deserves, we are literally playing with fire.

Solar radiation is becoming increasingly appreciated because of its influence on living matter
and the feasibility of its application for useful purposes. It is a perpetual source of natural
energy that, along with other forms of renewable energy, has a great potential for a wide
variety of applications because it is abundant and accessible. Solar radiation is rapidly
gaining ground as a supplement to the nonrenewable sources of energy, which have a finite
supply.
Recent developments in the areas of photochemistry and photobiology have also helped in
bringing attention to solar radiation. The significant depletion of the stratospheric ozone
layer, which shields the earth from much of the biologically injurious solar ultraviolet
radiation (UVR), is apparently due to human activity and has now become a popular topic.
Adverse biological effects of UVR on man include, among others, sunburn (erythema),
conjunctivitis, and skin cancer (WHO 1979). In contrast, the vital phenomenon of
photosynthesis is an example of the beneficial effects of sunlight in the natural environment.
Other beneficial and harmful effects on a variety of living beings, especially microorganisms,
are well documented (Jagger 1976; Chamberlin and Mitchell 1978; Harm 1980; Senger
1980). Solar radiation has, therefore, a prominent ecological role.
Most photobiological investigations have been confined to laboratory work based on the use
of monochromatic UVR produced artificially. Because these model studies do not completely
reflect the natural situation, the recent trend is to supplement them with experimental work
employing sunlight as a natural UV source. This gives results with more realistic, practical
values. However, the polychromatic nature of solar radiation, its variable intensity, and the
limited knowledge of its distribution at the local level tend to hamper such efforts and
complicate the interpretation of the results.

The solar radiation spectrum:

The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun shows a wide range of wavelengths. It can
be divided into two major regions with respect to the capability of ionizing atoms in
radiation-absorbing matter: ionizing radiation (X-rays and gamma-rays) and nonionizing
radiation (UVR, visible light, and infrared radiation). Fortunately, the highly injurious
ionizing radiation does not penetrate the earth's atmosphere.
Solar radiation is commonly divided into various regions or bands on the basis of wavelength
(Table 1). Ultraviolet radiation is that part of the electromagnetic spectrum between 100 and
400 nm. It is, in turn, divided rather arbitrarily from the viewpoint of its biological effects
into three major components (Fig. 1).The Spectral bands of incoming solar energy and
atmospheric effects.

Fig. 1. Spectra of nonionizing solar radiation (A) and ultraviolet radiation (B) showing main
radiation bands, their nomenclature, and approcimate wavelength limits. Other synonyms:
UV-A, black light; UV-B, sunburn or erythemal radiation; UV-C, germicidal radiation
(compiled from WHO 1979; Parmeggiani 1983; Harvey et al. 1984).

Atmospheric interventions:

Solar radiation is partially depleted and attenuated as it traverses the atmospheric layers,
preventing a substantial portion of it from reaching the earth's surface. This phenomenon is
due to absorption, scattering, and reflection in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), with its
thin layer of ozone, and the lower atmosphere (troposphere), within which cloud formations
occur and weather conditions manifest themselves (Table 1) (Brooks and Miller 1963,
McVeigh 1977 Sabins 1978; Michels 1979; WHO 1979).
The stratospheric ozone layer has a strong absorption affinity for solar UVR, depending on
wavelength. Absorption, being more effective for the shorter wavelengths, tends to reach its
peak at 250 nm and drops rapidly with an increase in wavelength, even beyond 350 nm.
Thus, the biological harmful radiations below 280 nm (vacuum UV and UV-C) are
completely shielded by the ozone layer; only a fraction of the UV-B and UV-A wavelength
bands reach ground level. Depletion of the protective ozone layer beyond the critical level by
certain atmospheric pollutants (fluorocarbons and nitrogen oxides) that interact
photochemically with ozone will promote the transmission of highly injurious UVR (El-
Hinnawi and Hashmi 1982).
The troposphere is an attenuating medium. The solar radiation is reflected and scattered
primarily by clouds (moisture and ice particles), particulate matter (dust, smoke, haze, and
smog), and various gases. The two major processes involved in tropospheric scattering are
determined by the size of the molecules and particles and are known as selective scattering
and nonselective scattering. Selective scattering is caused by smoke, fumes, haze, and gas
molecules that are the same size, or smaller, than the incident radiation wavelength.
Scattering in these cases is inversely proportional to wavelength and is most effective for the
shortest wavelengths. The degree of scattering decreases in the following order: UV-B > UV-
A > violet > blue > green > yellow > orange > red > infrared.
When the atmosphere is clear and relatively transparent, selective scattering is less severe
than when it is extensively polluted. Selective scattering of sunlight in the blue region of the
spectrum under clear-sky conditions accounts for the blue sky when the degree of scattering
is sufficiently high. This is determined by the length of the atmospheric path traversed by
sunlight.
With the sun overhead at noon, the sky appears white because little scattering occurs at the
minimum atmospheric path length. At sunrise and sunset, however, the solar disc appears red
because of the increased atmospheric path associated with blue light scattering and relatively
little scattering of the red component. Selective scattering may range from 10% in the early
morning to 20% in the late afternoon (McVeigh 1977).
Nonselective scattering is caused by dust, fog, and clouds with particle sizes more than 10
times the wavelength of the incident radiation. As scattering in this case is not wavelength-
dependent, it is equal for all wavelengths. Because of this, clouds appear white. Clouds also
reflect incident solar radiation back into space; this varies with their thickness and albedo
(ratio of reflected to incident light).
Thin clouds may reflect less than 20% of the incident solar radiation, whereas a thick and
dense cloud may reflect over 80%. Absorption of radiation by even thick cloud formations is
less than 10%. Whereas gases, water vapour, and particulate matter cause depletion mainly in
the short-wave region of the spectrum, atmospheric gases and clouds deplete absorption at
specific wavelength intervals called absorption bands.
These occur largely in the longer-wave region and are in contrast to the intervening regions
characterized by their transmission bands, or atmospheric windows. The gases involved in the
absorption phenomenon in the red and infrared regions are ozone and carbon dioxide (Table
1).
The total solar radiation received at ground level consists of direct and indirect radiation
(scattered, diffused, or reflected). The UVR component does not exceed 5% of the total
incident radiation at sea level under cloudless atmospheric conditions. The intensity of
sunlight at ground level varies with latitude, geographic location, season, cloud coverage,
atmospheric pollution, elevation above sea level, and solar altitude. The 23.5° tilt of the
earth's axis affects the angle of incidence of solar radiation on the earth's surface and causes
seasonal and latitudinal variations in day length. At high altitudes, the intensity of UVR is
significantly higher than at sea level. The spectral distribution of solar energy at sea level is
roughly 3,44, and 53% in the UV, visible, and infrared regions, respectively. In practice,
therefore, these variables need to be considered for the use of solar energy, including its UVR
component.

Transmission through different media:

Solar energy impinging upon a transparent medium or target is partly reflected and
partly absorbed; the remainder is transmitted. The relative values are dependent upon the
optical properties of the transparent object and the solar spectrum (Dietz 1963).
Transmission of the incident solar energy through glass is a function of the type and
thickness of the glass, the angle of incidence, and the specific wavelength bands of radiation.
Ordinary glass of the soda-lime-silica type (window or plate glass) can transmit more than
90% of the incident radiation in the UV-A and visible regions of the spectrum, provided the
Fe2O3 content is lower than 0.035%; if it is higher, the transmittance is somewhat decreased.
Increased thickness of glass diminishes transmittance. The transmittance is uniform at a high
level for angles of incidence ranging from 0 to 40° and drops sharply as the angle approaches
90° (Dietz 1963). Ordinary glass is opaque to radiation in the UV-B and UV-C regions;
Pyrex glass (borosilicate type) is opaque to radiation in the UV-B band and attains a
maximum transmission level at 340 nm and beyond (Acra et al. 1984).
The coefficient of transparency for borosilicate glass, 1.0 cm in thickness, is 0.08 at
310 nm, rises sharply to 0.65 at 330 nm, and attains a peak level of 0.95-0.99 from 360 to 500
nm (Weast 1972). The transmission properties of Pyrex are exceeded only by quartz (Dietz
1963; Kreidl and Rood 1965; Weast 1972).
Transparent plastic materials such as Lucite and Plexiglas are good transmitters in the
UV and visible ranges of the spectrum (Dietz 1963). Translucent materials such as
polyethylene can also transmit the germicidal components of sunlight (Fujioka and Narikawa
1982). Solar energy passing through water is also attenuated by reflection and absorption.
The proportion of transmitted sunlight in water depends on water depth; turbidity
caused by organic and inorganic particles in suspension; optical properties as modified by the
presence in solution of light-absorbing substances such as colouring materials, mineral salts,
and humates; and wavelength of the incident radiation. Up to 10% of the solar UV-B
intensity at the surface of clear seawater may penetrate to a depth of 15 m (Calkins 1974),
inactivating Escherichia coli to a depth of 4 m (Gameson and Saxon 1967).
The exponential attenuation values of UVR (200-400 nm) in distilled water are less
than in seawater and range from 10/m at 200 nm to a minimum of 0.05/m at 375 nm. Values
rise sharply in the visible and infrared regions of the spectrum, showing that solar UV-A has
a greater penetration power in water than UV-B or visible light (Stewart and Hopfield 1965).
The absorption of UVR (210-300 nm) by materials in natural water seems to be
related to chemical oxygen demand (Ogura 1969). At the surface of tertiary sewage lagoons,
for example, the solar UV-B intensity drops exponentially to 20% at a depth of 10 cm,3% at
20 cm, 0.6% at 30 cm, and 0.1 % at 40 cm (Moeller and Calkins 1980).
Most of the UV-B absorbance in wastewater effluents is caused by the dissolved
humic substances, whereas the suspended particles absorb and scatter UVR and protect
bacteria during UV disinfection (Qualls et al. 1983).

Textiles used in clothing are not necessarily complete absorbers of natural UVR and
may give a false sense of security against sunburn and skin cancer. The average white shirts
worn by men may transmit 20% of the solar UVR, whereas lighter weaves favoured by
women may allow up to 50% to penetrate to the covered skin (WHO 1979). Transmission of
UVR through various samples of fabrics ranges from 64% for 100% nylon to 5% for black
cotton, the values being reduced by thickness and dyes and increased with the intensity of
UVR (Hutchinson and Hall 1984). The depths of penetration of UVR and visible light into
the human skin are as follows: 0.01-0.1 mm for UV-B, 0.1-1.0 mm for UV-A, and 1.0-10.0
mm for the visible spectrum (Largent and Olishifski 1983).

Artificial sources of ultraviolet radiation:

Artificial sources of UVR are often used for a variety of purposes, ranging from
experimenting to suntanning. Gas-discharge arcs, fluorescent lamps, and incandescent
sources are some of the common artificial UVR sources, and their potential health hazards
are attributable to the significant amounts of biologically effective UVR emitted (WHO 1979;
Harvey et al. 1984; Pierce et al. 1986).
Photobiological research has been confined largely to laboratory work based on the use of
UVR produced artificially in preference to solar radiation. The recent trend, however, is
toward the use of sunlight as a supplementary source in radiation experiments.

Relevant units:
In accordance with the International System of Units, the units for the intensity of
solar radiation, or any of its biologically active components, are watts per square metre
(W/m2), or joules per square metre (J/m2) (WHO 1979). Wavelength (lambda) is expressed in
nanometres (1 x 109). For photobiological research, the term UV fluence (F) is recommended
instead of UV dose (Harm 1980) and its units are watts per hour per square metre (W/h per
m2). Fluence is quantitatively the product of radiation intensity (I) and exposure time (T) (F =
IT). Another photobiological unit of recent origin is the sun unit (SU), related to the
erythemal effect of UV-B radiation (WHO 1979).
World distribution of solar radiation:

Solar radiation is unevenly distributed throughout the world because of such variables
as solar altitude, which is associated with latitude and season, and atmospheric conditions,
which are determined by cloud coverage and degree of pollution. The following guidelines
are useful for the broad identification of the geographic areas with favourable solar energy
conditions in the Northern Hemisphere based on the collection of the direct component of
sunlight. Similar conditions apply for the Southern Hemisphere (Acra et al. 1984).
The most favourable belt (15-35° N) encompasses many of the developing nations in
northern Africa and southern parts of Asia. It has over 3 000 h/year of sunshine and limited
cloud coverage. More than 90% of the incident solar radiation comes as direct radiation.
The moderately favourable belt (0-15° N), or equatorial belt, has high atmospheric humidity
and cloudiness that tend to increase the proportion of the scattered radiation. The global solar
intensity is almost uniform throughout the year as the seasonal variations are only slight.
Sunshine is estimated at 2 500 h/year.
In the less favourable belt (35-45° N), the scattering of the solar radiation is
significantly increased because of the higher latitudes and lower solar altitude. In addition,
cloudiness and atmospheric pollution are important factors that tend to reduce sharply the
solar radiation intensity. However, regions beyond 45° N have less favourable conditions for
the use of direct solar radiation. This is because almost half of it is in the form of scattered
radiation, which is more difficult to collect for use. This limitation, however, does not strictly
apply to the potentials for solar UVR applications.
World maps illustrating the isolines of the mean global solar radiation (both direct and
diffuse radiations) and solar UVR impinging on a horizontal plane at ground level are
available (Landsberg 1961; Schulze 1970; WHO 1979). A set of values for average daily
influx of solar UVR as a function of wavelength, latitude, and time of year have also been
published (Johnson et al. 1976). The tabulated data pertain to sea level and clear-sky
conditions and are distributed at intervals of latitude from 0 to 65° N and S for selected
wavelengths from 285 to 340 nm.
The calculated values for the erythemal effect corresponding to 307 and 314 nm have
been included for comparison. These data indicate that for all UVR wavelengths from 285 to
340 nm, the solar UVR flux decreases as the latitude increases. Assuming cloudless
conditions, the solar UVR intensity at sea level is expected theoretically to be significantly
greater at the equator than at the higher latitudes. In addition, at each latitude, the maximum
intensity would be reached in summer; the minimum, in winter. A similar pattern will be
followed by the erythemal-response wavelengths of 307 and 314 nm. The variation with
latitude or season in the calculated influx is much sharper for shorter wavelengths.
Fig. 2. Seasonal and annual variations in relative solar UV-A radiation (340 nm) for different
latitudes (based on Johnson et al. 1976).

Fig. 3. Variations in angles of solar tilt and altitude worldwide (A) and for Beirut (B), as a
function of time of year.
Fig. 4. Seasonal and annual variations in relative solar UV-A radiation at 357deg;N (based on
Johnson et al. 1976).
These data (Johnson et al. 1976) were transcribed into values relative to those pertaining to
the equator. Relative values (ratios) for the solar UV-A component at 340 nm as a function of
latitude are shown in Fig. 2. The important inferences include the following:
 the latitudinal trends vary with season and solar angle, attaining a minimum
declination in December (winter solstice) and a maximum inclination in June
(summer solstice);
 the trends for the other months fall within these two limits; and
 The annual mean values show a declining trend.
These phenomena are dictated by the solar angle and its variation as a function of latitude and
month (Fig. 3). Also illustrated are the seasonal variations in the angles of the earth's tilt and
of the sun's altitude at noon, indicating the minimum and maximum levels attained
worldwide and at 34° N in Beirut. Computations are based on the following relationships
(Michels 1979):
At equinoxes: solar altitude = 90° - latitude
At solstices: solar altitude = (90° - latitude) + 23.5°
This means that, for any latitude, the relative intensity in each month is appreciably greater
for the longer UV-A wavelengths than it is for the shorter ones (Fig. 4).
CIRCUITS OF SOLAR ENERGY:

Solar Cell Circuits Solar Monitor Circuits:

Solar radiation describes the visible and near-visible (ultraviolet and near-infrared) radiation
emitted from the sun. The different regions are described by their wavelength range within
the broad band range of 0.20 to 4.0 µm (microns). Terrestrial radiation is a term used to
describe infrared radiation emitted from the atmosphere. The following is a list of the
components of solar and terrestrial radiation and their approximate wavelength ranges:
Ultraviolet: 0.20 - 0.39 µm

Visible: 0.39 - 0.78 µm

Near-Infrared: 0.78 - 4.00 µm

Infrared: 4.00 - 100.00 µm

Approximately 99% of solar, or short-wave, radiation at the earth's surface is contained in
the region from 0.3 to 3.0 µm while most of terrestrial, or long-wave, radiation is contained
in the region from 3.5 to 50 µm.
Outside the earth's atmosphere, solar radiation has an intensity of approximately 1370
watts/meter2. This is the value at mean earth-sun distance at the top of the atmosphere and is
referred to as the Solar Constant. On the surface of the earth on a clear day, at noon, the
direct beam radiation will be approximately 1000 watts/meter2 for many locations.
The availability of energy is affected by location (including latitude and elevation), season,
and time of day. All of which can be readily determined. However, the biggest factors
affecting the available energy are cloud cover and other meteorological conditions which
vary with location and time.
Historically, solar measurements have been taken with horizontal instruments over the
complete day. In the Northern US, this results in early summer values 4-6 times greater than
early winter values. In the South, differences would be 2-3 times greater. This is due, in part,
to the weather and, to a larger degree, the sun angle and the length of daylight.

Flate-Plate solar collector:

Flate Plate Collector

A flat-plate solar collector is one of three main types of solar collectors, which are key
components of active solar heating systems. The other main types are evacuated tube
collectors and batch solar heaters (also called integrated collector-storage systems).
 Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar collectors for use in solar water-
heating systems in homes and in solar space heating. A flat-plate collector consists basically
of an insulated metal box with a glass or plastic cover (the glazing) and a dark-
colored absorber plate. Solar radiation is absorbed by the absorber plate and transferred to a
fluid that circulates through the collector in tubes. In an air-based collector the circulating
fluid is air, whereas in a liquid-based collector it is usually water.

Flat-plate collectors heat the circulating fluid to a temperature considerably less than
that of the boiling point of water and are best suited to applications where the demand
temperature is 30-70°C (86-158°F) and/or for applications that require heat during the winter
months.
Air-based collectors are typically used for heating buildings and drying crops. Liquid-
based may be glazed or unglazed. Glazed liquid collectors are the commonest type of solar
collector for providing domestic and commercial water and for heating indoor swimming
pools. Unglazed collectors are most often used for heating outdoor pools. A special type of
unglazed collector called a perforated plate collector is used to preheat ventilation air for
commercial buildings or, in some cases, for drying crops.

Flat collectors can be mounted in a variety of ways, depending on the type of

building, application, and size of collector. Options include mounting on a roof, in the roof
itself, or free-standing.

FOCUSSING SOLAR COLLECTOR:

A focussing solar collector is described including a solar-radiation reflector and a

solar-radiation absorber disposed to receive the solar-radiations directly and those reflected
from the reflector, characterized in that the reflector is of a cylindrical configuration having a
semi-circular cross-section of constant radius of curvature, and that the absorber is of
flattened cross-section having a height of from 0.1 to 0.5 times the radius of curvature of the
reflector and a width substantially less than its height, the absorber being disposed within the
reflector with one end of the absorber at the mid-point of the reflector inner surface and with
the height axis of the absorber aligned with the reflector radius from said mid-point. In the
described preferred embodiment, the absorber is a flattened pipe for conducting therethrough
a heat-transfer fluid medium to be heated by the solar radiation, the flattened pipe having a
height: width ratio in the range of 2.5:1 to 3.5:1.

What is claimed is:

1. A focussing solar collector including a solar-radiation reflector and a solar-radiation

absorber disposed to receive the solar-radiations directly and those reflected from the
reflector, characterized in that said reflector is of a cylindrical configuration having a semi-
circular cross-section and a constant radius of curvature, and that said absorber is of flattened
cross-section having a height of no less than 0.1, but no more than 0.5 times the radius of
curvature of the reflector and a width substantially less than its height, said absorber being
disposed within the reflector with one end of the absorber at the mid-point of the reflector
inner surface and with the height axis of the absorber aligned with the reflector radius from
said mid-point.

2. A solar collector according to claim 1, wherein said absorber is a flattened pipe for
conducting therethrough a heat-transfer fluid medium to be heated by the solar radiations,
said flattened pipe having a height: width ratio in the range of 2.5:1 to 3.5:1.

3. A solar collector according to claim 2, wherein said flattened pipe is formed with a pair of
planar side walls joined at their ends by concave, semi cylindrical end walls.
4. A solar collector according to any one of claims 1-3 wherein said absorber has a height
equal to 0.5 times the radius of curvature of the reflector.

DESCRIPTION:
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION:

The present invention relates to focussing solar collectors, and particularly to those
including a solar-radiation reflector and a solar-radiation absorber disposed to receive the
solar radiations directly and from the reflector. The invention is particularly useful with
respect to solar collectors wherein the absorber is a conduit for a fluid, i.e., a liquid or gas,
heat-transfer medium to be heated by the solar radiations, and the invention is therefore
described below particularly with respect to this application.
A large number of focussing solar collectors of the above type have been developed
of many various configurations. However, efforts are continuously being made to increase the
efficiency and to reduce the cost of such collectors, since both of these factors greatly
influence the economic feasibility of using collectors in many different applications.
An important factor contributing to the efficiency of a solar collector is its
"Concentration Ratio" (C.R.), i.e., the ratio of area of intercepted solar radiations to area of
the absorber. It will be appreciated that the area of interception of solar radiations will be at a
maximum when the radiation impinges the absorber surface exactly at a right angle, i.e., at an
0°

LIST OF SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANTS:

The first three units of Solnova in the foreground, with the two towers of
the PS10 and PS20 solar power stations in the background

SOLAR THERMAL POWER STATIONS:

This is a list of solar thermal power stations. These include the

354 megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems power installation in the
USA, Solnova Solar Power Station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol solar power station (Spain,
150 MW) and Extresol Solar Power Station (Spain, 100 MW). The 370 MW Ivanpah Solar
Power Facility, located in California's Mojave Desert, is the world’s largest solar thermal
power plant project currently under construction. The Solana Generating Station is a 280
MW solar power plant which is under construction about 70 miles (110 km) southwest
of Phoenix, Arizona. The Mojave Solar Park is a 280 MW solar thermal power facility under
construction in the Mojave Desertin California, which should be completed in 2014. There
are plans to build many other large solar thermal plants.
 The solar thermal power industry is growing rapidly, with about 1.17 gigawatts (GW)
of concentrating solar power (CSP) plants online as of 2011.[2] 582 megawatts of them are
located in Spain, and the United States has 507 MW of capacity. About 17 GW of CSP
projects are under development worldwide, and the United States leads with about 8 GW.
Spain ranks second with 4.46 GW in development, followed by China with 2.5 GW.

ENERGY STORAGE FOR HEATING AND COOLING:

Energy efficiency, energy security and climate change are vital issues. This is where
science meets everyday life, both in the short and long term. The quest for sustainable
energy solutions is intense and companies, researchers and innovators are tackling the
problem with a wide variety of approaches, as reflected in the volume of environmental
articles appearing regularly in the press.

In Sweden, housing accounts for more than one-third of national energy consumption,
the bulk of which is for heating, cooking, lighting and powering household appliances. In
offices, hotels and industrial premises, cooling systems and ventilation account for the lion’s
share of total energy usage.
During the summer there is a surplus of heat, and in many large buildings energy is
used to lower inside temperatures. During the winter the opposite is true. So saving surplus
summer energy for the cold season would appear to be an intelligent exploitation of the
thermodynamic rules of the game.
Thermal Energy Storage (TES) is a 30-year-old technology. There are that has
evolved into two main types of systems based on different principles. One, called Aquifer
Thermal Energy System (ATES), is based on energy storage in underground aquifers or in
surface water. You can read more about this on the Advantage Environment homepage in the
article ’Natural Heating and Cooling.’ The second principle is called Borehole Thermal
Energy Storage (BTES).

SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE METHODS:

Solar energy like some other renewable energy problems has one disadvantage that is
slowing down the development of solar industry on global level, namely the storage problem.
Why is it important to store solar energy? The answer is more than obvious, namely the sun
doesn't shine at night so solar energy has the problem in providing the continuous availability
of energy throughout the whole day.
Many energy experts believe that most promising solar energy storage method is
using molten salts like this was done in the case of the famous Solar Two project. Solar Two
project was the result of upgrading the pilot solar-thermal project Solar One built in the
Mojave Desert. Solar One's method of collecting energy was based on concentrating the sun's
energy onto a common focal point to produce heat to run a steam turbine generator. Solar
One used oil and water as storage mediums while Solar Two used for the first time molten
salts as storage mediums (combination of 60% sodium nitrate and 40% potassium nitrate).
The image below will give you more insight into the working procedure of this system.
The molten salt is much better choice for storage medium because it allowed the
energy to be stored in large tanks for future use, and the most important thing with Solar Two
project was that this project proved it could run continuously around the clock producing
power, not to mention that it also convinced many energy experts that solar molten salt
technology can provide long-term, cost effective thermal energy storage for electricity
generation. This is currently the most promising solar energy storage technology that could
actually make solar power dispatchable, meaning it can be turned on/off on demand, and with
the problem of solar energy as the intermittent energy source would be eliminated. I should
also mention that salts have relatively low cost, high heat capacity and can deliver heat at
temperatures compatible with conventional power systems (relatively easy implementation).
Off-grid photovoltaic (PV) systems usually use rechargeable batteries to store excess
electricity. Rechargeable batteries are not so quite effective storage mechanisms like molten
salts. Efficiency of storage that rechargeable batteries can provide is about 75% because
around 25% of energy produced is used during the electrochemical conversion process of the
battery (Solar Two project on the other hand had the efficiency of around 99%). I should also
point out here that most of today's PV systems use lead acid batteries, except in cases where
very high reliability is needed, in these cases the most common choice are nickel cadmium
batteries.
One of the options for solar energy storage could also be combining different power
sources in one plant. The German scientists from Kassel have already tested a so called
"combined power plant" by linking solar energy, wind energy, biofuels and hydrostorage to
provide load-following power around the clock, entirely from renewable sources.
Storage issue is one of the most important issues that partially hide the gigantic potential that
solar power has, and science needs to work on possible solutions to solve this issue.
Technology that uses molten salts as storage mediums definitely deserves more attention, and
with the further development in this technology, our energy future could entirely belong to
solar power.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY:

Any large-scale project carries with it some inherent disadvantages. Solar thermal power
plants fall victim to several challenging, though not insurmountable, obstacles not common to
other endeavors. Environmental benefits are offset by valid concerns, while the technology
needed to truly advance solar as a viable energy source lags under the weight of difficult-to-
find financing.

Environmental Concerns:

A product’s carbon footprint is determined not just by what the product itself
produces but by the amount of energy required to manufacture it. Solar collectors are made in
factories largely powered by fossil fuels using materials mined using fossil fuels, so that
although electricity generated at a solar thermal plant is emissions-free, the manufacturing
process still has a significant impact on the environment both on land and in the air.

Additionally, power generation from any energy source is water intensive. Solar
thermal plants require water for steam to power the generator as well as for cooling and
washing of the equipment. According to a U.S. Department of Energy report to Congress,
older “once through” cooling systems used up to 27,000 gallons of water per megawatt, or
MW, of energy produced. Newer evaporative cooling techniques reduce the number to
approximately 500 to 600 gallons per MW, which is roughly equal to the water usage at a
typical coal-fired.

Storage Issues:

No true breakthrough in solar power generation is it concentrated solar power, or

CSP, or photovoltaic solar power, is possible without an adequate and cost-effective means of
power storage. Solar thermal plants obviously produce electricity only when the sun is
shining, making cloudy days and nighttime hours a hindrance to the steady flow of electricity
that the nation’s power grid needs.

Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are experimenting with

inexpensive catalysts that can split water into hydrogen and oxygen, with electricity produced
during the day so that solar thermal power plants can use the energy stored in the chemical
bonds of the hydrogen to generate power at night by means of fuel cells, but the work is far
from complete. Alternatively, experimental heat transfer materials like molten salt can trap
the heat energy generated by a solar thermal power plant for use later during nighttime hours.
However, the most successful plant to do so, as of 2010, the Andasol station in Spain, gains
only an extra six hours of power generation from the process. It’s a healthy start, but 24-hour
per day power via some sort of storage technology must become a reality in order to make
solar viable worldwide.

Cost:

One of the advantages solar thermal power generation enjoys over its close cousin,
photovoltaic solar power, or PV, is that it can be done at much larger scales less expensively
than PV. The advantage becomes a disadvantage, however, when it comes to financing these
large-scale projects. The costs are still far higher than coal plants based on units of energy
produced, which makes initial cash outlays scary for potential investors. More money has
flowed into smaller PV projects because of lower risk and less cash up front, according to
Jonathan Fahey writing for "Forbes Magazine" in July.

CONCLUSION

I think that solar power is a good alternative energy source. It has many advantages
over fossil fuels. One is that the sun is free and does not have to be bought like other fuels. It
also doesn’t hurt the environment and it is a renewable energy source. There are a few
drawbacks to solar power. One is that it can be expensive to make and can be hard to use on
cloudy days. Solar power is also difficult and expensive to store. Another bad thing is that
silicon the material that solar cells are made of can be hard to find.
If there is another energy crisis like the United States experienced in the 1970’s, solar power
will be greatly increased. Federal funding will be increased to promote the studies of solar
power. This will make solar power more efficient which will cause it to become cheaper.
After the last energy crisis, most federal funding was decreased or stopped. This is very
unfortunate because solar power would be far more advanced with more funding.