ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES

Fundamentals of Reading Academic Texts

THE FOUR MACRO SKILLS IN ENGLISH COMMUNICATION

We often think communication is limited to what we
say or hear, but that's not the case. Language is
expressed in four ways: reading, speaking, writing
and listening. These are also defined as the
macro skills of communication. These macro
skills are utilized by essentially all languages.
Babies develop language skills by first
listening and then speaking, followed by
reading and writing. When learning a new
language, the best way to do so is by
engaging in a balance of each of these
areas, as they are all interconnected. As with
any skill, the more you practice or exercise,
the stronger and you become. The same is
true with improving communication skills.

Listening
The first one in the 4 macro skills of communication. The process of using the sense
of hearing, in order for the person to know what is happening around him. There
are 3 types of listening, the passive, active, and competitive. Passive listening
happens when a person listens to the speaker without any response at it. He/she
will only listen to the speaker without giving any feedbacks. Active listening
happens when a person listens to the speaker while also acknowledging the
information given by the speaker. Active listeners also give their brief or short
response to the given information of the speaker. Competitive listening happens
when a person listens to the speaker in order for them to give their own opinion to
the speaker, he also promotes his/ her own ideas as if they are arguing with each
other. This kind of listening usually happens during a court hearing or a debate
between two parties.
Speaking
The second communication skill in language. The process of conveying a
message to a receiver verbally, or a process where the listener applies to
him/herself the information he/she have heard. Speaking can be a tool in order
for an individual to express his/her feelings towards what he heard. A listener
applies all the information he received while listening in order for him to
communicate with other persons, or to share their feeling and thought with each
other. Communication will fail if the receiver didn't understand what the sender is
saying. Possible causes are; the sender doesn’t know how to construct sentence
properly or the receiver can't decode the message given to him by the sender.

Reading
The third communication skill in language. It is the process of analyzing symbols
for you to understand the message conveyed by the sender. A person learns to
read by memorizing the alphabets, analyzing the sounds per letter make and
applying it in order for him to decode the message given to him by the sender.
Reading takes a lot of practice in order for an individual to decode the message
given by the sender. if the scenario is like this, the receiver decodes the message
successfully, but he/she didn't understand what he/she is reading,
communication will fail.

Writing
The last and probably the most complex skill in communication. Writing takes time
and practice for you to master the said skill. Writing can be practiced by knowing
the strokes of each letter in the alphabet. Writing is also a process in which a
person can share his thoughts and feelings through symbols. Writing can also be
a tool to develop and strengthen human connections and the society.

PURPOSE OF READING ACADEMIC TEXTS

Academic reading differs from reading for pleasure. You will often not read every
word, and you are reading for a specific purpose rather than enjoyment.
Everyday reading, such as reading a novel or magazine, is usually done for
pleasure. Academic reading is usually quite different from this. When reading
academic texts, your general purpose is likely to be one the following:
• to get information (facts, data, etc.);
 • to understand ideas or theories;
• to understand the author's viewpoint;
• to support your own views (using citations)
Casual reading across genres, from books and magazines to newspapers and
blogs, is something students should be encouraged to do in their free time
because it can be both educational and fun. In college, however, instructors
generally expect students to read resources that have particular value in the
context of a course. Why is academic reading beneficial?
• Information comes from reputable sources: Web sites and blogs can be a
source of insight and information, but not all are useful as academic
resources. They may be written by people or companies whose main
purpose is to share an opinion or sell you something. Academic
sources such as textbooks and scholarly journal articles, on the other hand,
are usually written by experts in the field and have to pass stringent peer
review requirements in order to get published.
• Learn how to form arguments: In most college classes except for creating
writing, when instructors ask you to write a paper, they expect it to be
argumentative in style. This means that the goal of the paper is to research
a topic and develop an argument about it using evidence and facts to
support your position. Since many college reading assignments (especially
journal articles) are written in a similar style, you’ll gain experience
studying their strategies and learning to emulate them.
• Exposure to different viewpoints: One purpose of assigned academic
readings is to give students exposure to different viewpoints and ideas. For
example, in an ethics class, you might be asked to read a series of articles
written by medical professionals and religious leaders who are pro-life or
pro-choice and consider the validity of their arguments. Such experience
can help you wrestle with ideas and beliefs in new ways and develop a
better understanding of how others’ views differ from your own.

Reading Strategies for Academic Texts

Recall from the Active Learning section that effective reading requires more
engagement than just reading the words on the page. In order to learn and
retain what you read, it’s a good idea to do things like circling key words, writing
notes, and reflecting. Actively reading academic texts can be challenging for
students who are used to reading for entertainment alone, but practicing the
following steps will get you up to speed:
 • Preview: You can gain insight from an academic text before you even
begin the reading assignment. For example, if you are assigned a
nonfiction book, read the title, the back of the book, and table of
contents. Scanning this information can give you an initial idea of what
you’ll be reading and some useful context for thinking about it. You can
also start to make connections between the new reading and knowledge
you already have, which is another strategy for retaining information.
• Read: While you read an academic text, you should have a pen or
pencil in hand. Circle or highlight key concepts. Write questions or
comments in the margins or in a notebook. This will help you remember
what you are reading and also build a personal connection with the
subject matter.
• Summarize: After you can read academic text, it’s worth taking the time to
write a short summary—even if your instructor doesn’t require it. The
exercise of jotting down a few sentences or a short paragraph capturing
the main ideas of the reading is enormously beneficial: it not only helps you
understand and absorb what you read but gives you ready study and
review materials for exams and other writing assignments.
• Review: It always helps to revisit what you’ve read for a quick refresher. It
may not be practical to thoroughly reread assignments from start to finish,
but before class discussions or tests, it’s a good idea to skim through them
to identify the main points, reread any notes at the ends of chapters, and
review any summaries you’ve written.

For better understanding please watch the video through this link:

https://youtu.be/faZF9x4A2Vs

FEATURES OF ACADEMIC TEXTS

Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or
theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without
digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as
this it is in the standard written form of the language. There are ten main features
of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent:
complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language
precisely and accurately. It is also well organized and planned.
Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written
language has longer words, it is lexically denser and it has a more varied
vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written
texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical complexity, including
more subordinate clauses and more passives.
Formality
Academic writing is relatively formal. In general, this means that in an essay you
should avoid colloquial words and expressions.
Precision
In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.
Objectivity
Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has
fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main
emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments
you want to make, rather than you. For that reason, academic writing tends to
use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs).
Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. Furthermore, it is
the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the
various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by
the use of different signaling words.
Accuracy
Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with
narrow specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between "phonetics"
and "phonemics"; general English does not.
Hedging
In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about
your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making.
Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.
A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as
a ‘hedge’.
Responsibility
In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide
evidence and justification for, any claims you make. You are also responsible for
demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use.
Organization
Academic writing is well organized. It flows easily from one section to the next in
a logical fashion. A good place to start is the genre of your text. Once you have
decided on the genre, the structure is easily determined.
Planning
Academic writing is well planned. It usually takes place after research and
evaluation, according to a specific purpose and plan.

ACADEMIC TEXT STRUCTURE

The term “text structure” refers to how information is organized in a passage. The
structure of a text can change many times in a work and even within a
paragraph. Students are often asked to identify text structures or patterns of
organization on state reading tests. Also, understanding text structures can help
students make and interpret arguments. For these reasons it is important that
students are exposed to the various patterns of organization.
Cause and Effect
Paragraphs structured as cause and effect explain reasons why something
happened or the effects of something. These paragraphs can be ordered as
causes and effects or as effects and then causes. The cause and effect text
structure is generally used in expository and persuasive writing modes.
To put it another way: when an author gives reasons why something happened,
he or she is explaining what caused an effect (reasons are causes and the thing
that happens is the effect). Also, when a writer explains the results of an action,
he or she is explaining the effects of a cause (results are effects and the thing that
occurs is the cause). The cause and effect text structure is used so commonly that
you have probably written a paragraph using it and not noticed.
Example:
Students are not allowed to chew gum in my class. While some students think that
I am just being mean, there are many good reasons for this rule. First, some
irresponsible students make messes with their gum. They may leave it on the
bottoms of desks, drop it on the floor, or put it on other people’s property. Another
reason why I don’t allow students to chew gum is because it is a distraction. When
they are allowed to chew gum, students are more worried about having it,
popping it, chewing it, and snapping it then they are in listening, writing, reading,
and learning. This is why I don’t allow students to chew gum in my class.
Here are some signal words that may indicate that information in a paragraph is
organized as cause and effect: because, as a result, resulted, caused, affected,
since, due to, effect.
Compare and Contrast
It is a text structure or pattern of organization where the similarities and differences
of two or more things are explored. It is important to remember that with the
compare and contrast text structure the text should be discussing
similarities and differences. If the text only discusses similarities, it is only
comparing. Likewise, if it only discusses ways that the things are different, it is only
contrasting. The text must do both to be considered compare and contrast.
Example: Apples and oranges are both fruits, which means that they have seeds
inside of them. Each has a skin, but orange skins are thick and easy to peel. Apple
skins are thinner and do not peel easily. Oranges also contain more acid than
apples, but both fruits are delicious.

Identifying when the writer is comparing and contrasting is usually not difficult
because the speaker will bounce back and forth between two subjects and this
pattern is generally pretty easy to recognize. However, here are some signal
words that may indicate that the text is written using the compare and contrast
organizational pattern: like, unlike, both, neither, similar, and different.
Order of Importance
Ideas or steps are prioritized by the writer or speaker according to a hierarchy of
value. When using the order of importance pattern of organization, information
can be structured from most important to least important or least important to
most important. Both structures would be considered as the order of importance
text structure.
Example: The company has a clearly laid out hierarchy. All major decisions go
through the president, who controls the entire operation, but most daily decisions
go to the board. Beneath the board members are the regional managers, who
oversee the branch managers, who run each local branch.
Problem and Solution
Problem and Solution is a pattern of organization where information in a passage
is expressed as a dilemma or concerning issue (a problem) and something that
was, can be, or should be done to remedy this issue (solution or attempted
solution). The problem and solution text structure may seem like it would be easy
to recognize, but it can be moderately difficult to identify because it is frequently
confused with the cause and effect pattern of organization, as they both have
relational structures; however, if you read the passage and look specifically for
both a problem and a solution to the problem, you should find it pretty easy to
distinguish from cause and effect, as cause and effect passages do not propose
solutions to any negative occurrences within the passage but rather just explain
why or how they happen.
Example: It seems like there has been a surge in teen pregnancies these days.
Teen pregnancies make it very difficult for young mothers to pursue their dreams
and meet the demands of an infant. Fortunately, most teen pregnancies can be
easily prevented by using birth control; however, even birth control is not 100%
effective. The most effective way to prevent teen pregnancies is abstinence,
which is 100% effective.
Three-Part Essay Structure
The three-part essay structure is a basic structure that consists of introduction,
body and conclusion.
INTRODUCTION
• Opening Sentences
capture your reader’s attention (use a “hook”); introduce general topic and then
narrow to subject of paper; provide background information on topic and/or
materials to be considered (e.g., title/author of book(s), time period of study,
experiment conducted)
• Thesis Statement
A thesis statement is one sentence that expresses the main idea of a research
paper or essay. It makes a claim, directly answering a question.
• Forecast
a sentence or sentences indicating the subtopics or subdivisions of support that
will follow, in the order in which they will appear
BODY
• Topic Sentence
identifies subject of paragraph and relates it to thesis and essay; develops thesis
• Analysis of Topic Sentence
aspect of thesis introduced in topic sentence is developed further
• Evidence/interpretation of Evidence
evidence that supports thesis and topic sentence; interpretation/analysis or
commentary of evidence follows immediately
• Anchor
final sentence of paragraph that connects evidence and interpretation of
evidence to thesis/topic sentence; refreshes reader’s mind about purpose/value
of paper without becoming repetitive; allows for clear connection between
anchor and next body paragraph or conclusion
CONCLUSION
• Summary/Intensified Insight
brief restatement of thesis that does not simply repeat it; brief reminder of points
used to prove thesis; intensified insight statement that deepens the idea of the
thesis without introducing new topic(s) that require additional proof and leaving
the reader with “food for thought”

ACADEMIC TEXT VS. NON-ACADEMIC TEXT

Watch, Listen and Analyze.
Kindly watch the video thru this link.
Academic Texts vs. Non-academic Texts.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_poJgdZYjLY

LANGUAGE AND TEXT STRUCTURE ACROSS DISCIPLINES

Mathematics Texts
Mathematics is easily recognizable because of its unique language features. Its
most prominent language feature is the use of symbols. Math uses symbols in
place of words, such as symbols for operations like’+’for addition, ‘x’ for
multiplication. It often uses letters with special meanings, like ‘x’, ‘y’, and ‘z’ are
used to stand for variables or the unknown. Notations, numbers, and formulas are
typical of math texts. If there are nouns and verbs in ordinary language, in the
language of math, the nouns could be numbers or expressions with numbers and
the verb could be the equal sign =.
To make sense of a math sentence, you have to understand the special meanings
that the discipline of math has assigned to these symbols and expressions. True,
math also uses ordinary language but watch out—these ordinary words could
have different meanings. For example, in statistics, universe is not the outer space
but the total count of the subjects under study. Another example is the linking
verb ‘is.’ In the following sentences, ‘is’ has different meanings:
• 3 is the square root of 9 –> 3 or is the same as the square root of 9.
• 10 is less than 15 –> regular meaning of ‘is’.
• 5 is a prime number –> 4 5 a prime number.
What the above examples suggest is that in math, even short, simple sentences
have to be read closely: What exactly does it say? Keep in mind that math is an
exact, precise language. In math, ask yourself: Is this sentence saying something
about sets? functions? relations? binary operations?
The dominant structure of math texts is problem-solution, except that you, the
reader, are expected to come up with the solution based on the carefully worded
problem, which is often a short description of a given situation. The problem is
posed as a question, the answer to which you arrive at by doing any or several
math operations. Another common text structure is comparison and contrast of
two units or situations: for instance, which has more and by how much? Which is
bigger/faster/cheaper?
Business Texts
Like mathematics, business has a special vocabulary (jargon), so first of all you
have to learn its jargon, like remit, obligate, loan, collateral, interest, stocks, etc.
Some compound nouns are standard expressions in business, like tax collection
system, company car, price list, and bulk buying.
You must also learn some of the conventions, or established practices, of business
writing. For example, business uses a lot of form letters, so you have to be familiar
with the standard forms (meaning the parts) of a business letter, a memo, minutes
of a meeting, a proposal, etc. Some standard parts of business communication
are date, inside address, the salutation, the body or main purpose of the
communication, the complimentary close, etc.
It is important to remember that business requires cordiality to sustain it, to keep
the customer. Hence, even if the content of a communication is negative—like a
complaint or a collection—the communication must be polite. There is careful use
of modal expressions and adverbs. Polite expressions such as the following are
part of the ritual of politeness in business: (Cortes de los Rios, 2010).
• Could you please…
• We are extremely sorry…
• May I suggest…
• Thank you for your inquiry on…
• Please let us know…
Common text structures in business communication are problem-solution in which
the cause(s) of a problem situation is/are explained, followed by the company’s
proposed solution, and description in which the specifications of a product or
offer are given.
Social Science Texts
Just like in reading math and business texts, reading in the social sciences requires
knowledge of the jargon of its specific disciplines, for example: Political Science
(communism, monarchy, and executive branch), Economics (market, profit,
equity, and trade relations), Sociology (migration, social, class, and
discrimination), Psychology (depression, suicidal, personality, and motivation).
Graphs and tables are common features of social science readings, therefore,
knowing how to analyze graphic data is a big advantage.
Text structures or thought patterns common in the social sciences are definition
and example, recount of an event (history), cause-effect, and comparison and
contrast.
Natural Science Texts
In natural science texts such as physics, chemistry, and biology, technical terms,
symbols (ph, NaCI, and CO2) and abbreviations are common. Similar to other
disciplines, common words like power, pressure, force, work, and impulse have a
technical meaning. To help yourself understand many of the technical terms, you
have to know some prefixes (uni, semi, and multi), root words (bio, geo, vis, and
derma), and suffixes. Diagrams and drawings are also characteristic of science
texts.
The typical sentences in science texts are dense; that is, they are information-
heavy. An example is this: Each nucleus is packed with information coded in the
form of a chemical called Deoxyribonucleic Acici (DNA) and organized into
groups called genes which are arranged on thread-like structures, the
chromosomes. The lengthy and dense sentences found in science texts suggest
slow reading for comprehension and retention of facts.
Literature and the Arts
Like the other disciplines, literature and the arts have their content-specific terms
or jargon (examples: gothic mood, symbol, balance, mosaic, hue, etc.) but what
makes them different is the dominant use of connotative language and figures of
speech to describe and convey content. Vivid language is used to create images
and impressions. The importance given to language and structure is due to the
value attached to a work’s ‘style’. In other words, creativity weighs as much as
content in literature and the arts.
Particularly in literature, texts may not have a one-to-one correspondence
between the situation art depicts and reality as you know it. To represent a
particular situation or world, a literary text might even violate language rules. To
make sense of a literary text, the trick is to ‘suspend disbelief, ride along with the
writer, and discover the patterns in the unique use of language.
Common structures in literature and the arts are definition, description, example,
and cause-effect, which may be in the form of a recount (fiction).