Ar.

Prashansha Srivastava
Assistant Prof.
 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE
Objective – The objective to study climate on global region, local levels and
relating climate to design and human thermal comfort, including day lightning
studies to understand the lightning of indoor spaces.

Climate: (from Greek:Klima) is defined as region with certain conditions of

temperature,dryness,wind,light etc’.
Scientific definition is: an integration in time of the physical states of the
atmospheric environment, characteristic of a certain geographical location.

Weather: It is the momentary state of the atmospheric environment at a certain

location ,climate could be defined as’ the integration in time of weather
conditions.

Solar radiation Quality: The earth receives almost all the energy from the sun
in the form of radiation ,thus the sun is the dominating influence on .+
spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2300 nm(nanometre=10¯9
m).According to human means of perception we can distinguish
•Ultra-violet radiation,290 to 380 photochemical
effects,bleaching,sunburn,etc.
•Visible lights,380 (violet to 700nm(red)
•Short infra-red radiation,700 to 2300 nm,radiant heat with some photo
chemical effects.

Solar Radiation Quantity: The intensity of radiation reaching the upper

surface of the atmosphere is taken as the solar constant 1395 W/ m²,which
varies ± 2% due to variation in the output of the sun itself and ± 3.5% due to
changes in the earth – sun distance.
• The earth moves around the sun in a slightly elliptical orbit the solar
distance is 152 million km aphelion and 147 km at perihelion.
• One revolution of the earth takes 365 days,5 hours,48 minutes and 46
seconds.

Tilt of the earth axis

•The earth rotates around its own axis ,each rotation making one 24 hours
day. The axis of this rotation (the line joining the north and the south poles) is
tilted to the plane of the elliptical orbit,at an angle of 66.5 ⁰(I,e. a tilt of 23.5 ⁰
from the normal) and the direction of this axis is constant.
•Due to the tilted position, the area receiving the maximum intensity moves north
and south,between the tropic of cancer(latitude 23.5 ⁰N) and the tropic of
capricorn(latitude 23.5⁰S). This is the main cause of seasonal changes.
• On 21 March and 23 September area along the equator are normal to the sun
rays and experience a zenith path of the sun.For all areas of the earth these are
the equinox days( day and night of equal length)
 21 JUNE 21 DECEMBER

Areas along latitude 23.5 N are Areas along latitude 23.5 N –

normal to the suns rays –
longest daylight – summer
solstice in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Areas along latitude 23.5 N –
Shortest day and a radiation
minimum- winter solstice in the
southern hemisphere.
Shortest day and a radiation
minimum – winter solstice in the
Northern hemisphere.
Areas along latitude 23.5 S are
normal to the sun’s rays- longest
daylight- summer solstice in the
Southern hemisphere.

Radiation at the Earth Surface

This earth-sun relationship affects the amount of radiation
received at a particular point on three ways:
1. The cosine law- which states that the intensity on a tilted
surface equals the normal intensity times the cosine of the
angle of incidence. Figure shows how the same amount of
radiation is distributed over a larger areas,therefore less
radiation falls on unit area.
2.Atmospheric deplition- the absorption of radiation by ozone ,vapour and
dust particles in the atmosphere (a factor of 0.2 to 0.7 ). The lower the solar
altitude angle, the longer the path of ratio through the atmosphere, thus a
smaller part reaches the earth surface. Figure 3 indicates this geometrical
relationship and figure 4,shows this effect in quantitative terms for points at
different height above sea-level.This atmospheric depletion is also affected by
the momentary state of the atmosphere: Its purety,vapour,dust,smoke etc
content.
THE EARTH’S THERMAL BALANCE
The total amount of heat absorbed by the earth each year is balanced by a
corresponding heat loss.Without this cooling the thermal balance of the earth
could not be maintained,the temperature of the earth and its atmosphere would
increase and would soon cease to be favourable to most forms of life.
Figure 5 illustrates the distribution of incoming radiation and figure 6 shows how
the earth’s surface release heat by three process:
a) By long wave radiation to cold outer space(some 84% of this reradiation is absorbed
in the atmosphere,only 16% escapes to space).
b) By long wave radiation to cold outer surface (some 84% of this reradiation is
absorbed in the atmosphere,only 16% escapes to space).
c) By evaporation: the earth’s surface is cooled,as liuid water changes into
vapour and mixes with air.
d) By convection:air heated by contact with the warm earth surface
becomes lighter and rises to the upper atmosphere , where it dissipates its
heat to space.
ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE

Temperature- The temperature of air is measured in degree celsius(⁰C ) ,most

often with a mercury thermometer. The dry bulb or true air temperature is a value
taken in the shade,the thermometer being mounted inside a louvered wooden
box,known as stevenson screen.

Humidity – The humidity of air can be described

as absolute humidity(AH), i.e. the amount of
moisture
actually present in unit mass or unit volume
of air,in terms of g/kg or g/metre cube.

Relative humidity: The amount of

moisture the air can hold.It is the ration
of the actual amount of moisture
present,to the amount of moisture the
air could hold at the given temperature.
RH = AH/ SH x 100
Precipitation – It is the collective term used for raim,snow , hail,dew and
frost,that is for all sorts of water deposited (precipitated) from the
atmosphere.It is measured by rain gauge,i.e. calibrated receptacles,and
expressed in millimetresper a time unit(mm/month, mm/day)

Sky Condition – it is usually described in terms of presence or absence of

clouds.On average,two observation are made per day, when the proportion
of sky covered by cloud is expressed as a percentage.

Solar Radiation- Average daily amounts of solar radiation (MJ/m²day) for

each month of the year would give a fair indication of climatic condition
,including seasonal variations .Solarimetre,heliometre,actinometre,and
pyranometre is used for the measurement.
CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CLIMATE

•Tropical climate are those climate where heat is the dominant problem, where
for the greater part of the year building serve to keep the occupants cool,rather
than warm,where the annual mean temperature is not less than 20⁰c.

•In general tropical climates cover a large portion of the earth surface between
latitudes 25 ⁰ N and S.

•In most of this region ,temperature change at least as much from day to night
as from summer to winter.

•Radiation intensity is relatively high all year .

•Precipitation defines the climatic regions with in the tropics.Between these

extremes lie the vast areas with a rainy season and a dry season.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL CLIMATE
The tropical region of the earth are divided into three major climatic zones and
three sub groups.
TROPICAL CLIMATE

WARM HUMID HOT-DRY DESERT OR COMPOSITE OR

EQUATORIAL CLIMATE SEMI DESERT CLIMATE MONSOON CLIMATE

WARM HUMID ISLAND

HOT DRY MARITIME TROPICAL UPLAND
OR TRADE WIND
DESERT CLIMATE CLIMATE
CLIMATE
WARM HUMID EQUATORIAL CLIMATE
Warm humid climates are found in a belt near the Equator extending to about
15⁰N and S.
Air temperature varies between 21 and 27⁰C,humidity remains high about
75% for most of the time.
Precipitation vary from 2000 to 5000 mm,skyconditions are fairly cloudy
throughout the year.Wind velocities are typically low 30 m/s have been reported.
 WARM –HUMID CLIMATE WARM HUMID ISLAND OR
TRADE WIND CLIMATE

location Belt near equator 15 0 N-S Islands within the equatorial belt and in
Mombasa, Singapore, Jakarta etc.. the trade wind zone.
Caribbean's and Philippines
Seasonal variation Very little, the only punctuation is Are negligible.
periods with more or less rain,
occurrence of gusty winds and
electric storms.

Air temperature Mean

max------- 27 0 -32 0 C 290-320 C
min--------- 21 0 -27 0 C 18 0 -24 0 C
Diurnal changes---- Quite narrow about 80 C

Humidity HIGH
RH-------------- 55-100% (about 75%) 55-100%
VP------------- 2500-3000N /M 2 . 1750-2500N /M 2 .

Precipitation High High

Annual rain fall 2000-5000mm 1250-1800mm

Sky conditions Fairly cloudy 60-90% Normally clear

 WARM –HUMID CLIMATE
Solar radiation Diffused radiation but strong and
mainly cause painful sky glare.
Because of high cloud and vapor
content heat is not easily
dissipated.
wind Low velocity,calm periods are
frequent but strong wind during
rain squall.
Gusts of 30m/s usually in 1 or 2
directions reported
vegetation Grows quickly, red & brown
laterite soil generally poor for ag.
Sub soil water table is high.
Special characters High humidity accelerates mould
and algal growth,rusting and
rooting.
Organic building material tend to
decay rapidly.
WARM HUMID ISLAND OR
TRADE WIND CLIMATE
Strong and mainly direct
Trade winds blow predominantly at 6/7
m/s.provide relief from heat and
humidity.much higher velocity during
cyclones.
Is less luxuriant and of lighter green
color than of w-h climate.
Sub soil water table is fairly low.
Serious seasonal hazards due to the
tropical cyclones
High salt content encourages the
corrosion in costal areas.
HOT DRY DESSERT CLIMATE
These climates occur in two belts at latitudes between approximately 15 and 30⁰
north and south of the equator. Air temperature varies between 43 to
49⁰C,humidity varies between 10 to 55%.Precipitation is slight and variaable
throughout the year from 50 to 155 N/m².
Wind are usually local.
 HOT-DRY DESERT OR SEMI HOT DRY MARITIME DESERT
DESERT CLIMATE CLIMATE

location Latitude 15 0- 300 N-S of equator. Same latitudes where the sea adjoins
Baghdad,phoenix the land mass. Kuwait,Karachi

Air temperature Mean Hot period cool period Hot period Cool Period
max------- 430-490 C 27 0 -32 0 C about300 C 21 0 c 26 0 c
min--------- 240-300 C 10 0 -18 0 C 240-300 c 10 0 c 18 0 c
Diurnal changes---- 17 0 -22 0 C 09 0 -12 0 C

Humidity
RH-------------- 10-55% 50-90%
VP------------- 750-1500N /M 2 . 1500-2500N /M 2 .
high evaporation can create
uncomfortable conditions
Precipitation Slight and variable. 50- Very low
Annual rain fall 155mm
Flash rain fall may occur in
some areas while some may
not receive fall for years.
Sky conditions Normally clear As in desert climate but little more
cloud in the form of thin transparent
haze can cause glare.
 HOT-DRY DESERT OR SEMI HOT DRY MARITIME DESERT
DESERT CLIMATE CLIMATE

Solar radiation Strong and mainly direct. Strong with higher diffuse component
Diffused radiation only during dust than desert climate due to thin cloud
haze periods. and suspended moisture.

wind Usually local. Due to temperature Mostly local. Costal winds due to
inversion local whirl winds often unequal heating and cooling of land
created. and water surface
Winds are hot, caring dust and
sand,often develop in to dust
storm.

vegetation Is sparse due to lack of rain and low Is sparse, not more than some dry
humidity.soil , dusty and dry.would grass. Ground and rocks are brown and
generally be fertile if irrigated. red.
Water table is very low.

Special characters During certain months dust and Dust and sand storms may occur.
sand storms may be frequent. Salt content encourages the corrosion.
The high day time temperatures
and rapid cooling at night may
cause materials to crack and break
up.
COMPOSITE OR MONSOON CLIMATE

These climate usually occurs in large land masses near the tropics of cancer and
capricorn, which are sufficiently far from the equator to experience marked
seasonal changes in solar radiation and wind direction. Two season occur
normally, approximately two-thirds of the year is hot –dry and the one-third is
warm-humid.
 COMPOSITE OR MONSOON TROPICAL UPLAND CLIMATE
CLIMATE

location Occur in large land mass near the Mountainous regions and plateaux
tropic of cancer and tropic of more than 900- 1200m above sea
Capricorn level.
Lahore,New Delhi Mexico city,Nairobi
2/3 –hot dry, 1/3-warm
Air temperature Mean Hot dry WH cool dry
max------- 32⁰c - 43⁰c
min---------
Diurnal changes----

Humidity Dry wet

RH-------------- 20 – 55% 55% - 95% 45-99%
VP------------- 1300 – 1600 n/m² 2000 – 2500n/m² 800-1600N /M 2 .

Precipitation Monsoon rainfall intense Variabvle

and prolonged.
Annual rain fall
500-1300MM with 200-
Rarely less than 100nm
250

Sky conditions Mostly vary with season.heavily Normally clear or partly cloudy.(40%)
overcast and dull during monsoon During monsoon sky is overcast.
and clear in dry seasons.
 COMPOSITE OR MONSOON TROPICAL UPLAND CLIMATE
CLIMATE

Solar radiation Alternate between warm humid and Strong and mainly direct during
dessert climate clear periods.
Diffuse as cloud cover increases.

wind Hot & dusty during dry period. Are variable,predominantly N-S
Directional changes in the easterly.
prevailing wind at the beginning of Velocity rarely exceeds 15m/s
warm humid season bringing rain
clouds and humid air from sea.
Monsoon winds are fairly strong
and study.

vegetation Is sparse with brown & red I s green

barren ground.changes
rapidly with rain
.landscape become green
and fertile
Special characters Seasonal changes in RH cause Heavy dew at night. Thunder storms
rapid weaken of building materials. with fair
Dust and storms may occur. proportion of electric discharge.
Termites are common
MAJOR CLIMATIC ZONES IN INDIA
Regions having similar characteristic
features of climate are grouped under one
climatic zone.
According to a recent code of Bureau of
Indian Standards, the country may be
divided into five major climatic zones:
Hot & Dry (mean monthly temperature
>30 and relative humidity <55%);
Warm & Humid (mean monthly
temperature >25-30 and relative
humidity >55-75%);
Temperate/Moderate (mean monthly
temperature 25- 30 and relative humidity
<75%);
Cold (mean monthly temperature <25
and relative humidity – all values);
Composite (This applies, when six
months or more do not fall within any of
the other categories)
HOT & DRY.. The hot and dry zone lies in the western and the central
part of India; Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Sholapur are some of the towns that
experience this type of climate.
In such a climate, it is imperative to control solar radiation and movement of hot
winds.
The design criteria should therefore aim at -
•Resisting heat gain by providing shading
•Reducing exposed area
•Controlling and scheduling ventilation
• Increasing thermal capacity
•The presence of “water bodies” is desirable as they can help increase the
humidity, thereby leading to lower air temperatures.
•The ground and surrounding objects emit a lot of heat in the afternoons and
evenings.
•As far as possible, this heat should be avoided by appropriate design features.
Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:

Appropriate orientation and shape of building.

Insulation of building envelope.

Massive structure.

Air locks, lobbies, balconies, and verandas.

External surfaces protected by overhangs, fins,and trees.

Pale colours and glazed china mosaic tiles.

Windows and exhausts.

Courtyards, wind towers,and arrangement of openings.

Trees, ponds, and evaporative cooling.

Outdoor spaces:
• As most day-to-day activities take place
outside, it is important to treat the external
spaces just as carefully as the indoors.
• Adjacent buildings, pavements, roads heat up
quickly and cause a glare onto the building
during the day and at night, they radiate the
heat stored during the day.
• One way to avoid this is to place walls
protecting external spaces, to keep out dust and
winds.
• Also, landscaping like trees, plants and water
in enclosed spaces will cool the air by
evaporation.
• But the best solution is courtyards. In these a
pool of night air is retained, as this is heavier
than surrounding warm air
• A small courtyard is excellent as a thermal
regulator.
Opening and windows
• Openings and windows are
necessary for natural lighting and
ventilation.
• More windows should be provided in
the north facade of the building as
compared to the east, west and south as
it receives lesser radiation throughout
the year.
• Windows should be shaded either by
shading devices, roof overhangs or by
deciduous trees.
• The size of the windows on the west
and east sides should be minimized in
order to reduce heat gains into the
house in the early morning and late
afternoon.
WARM & HUMID.. are found in a belt near the equator extending to
about 150 North and South.
Air Temperature reaches mean maximum during the day of between 27⁰ and 32⁰C
At night the mean minimum varies between 21⁰ and 27⁰C.
The warm and humid zone covers the coastal parts of the country, such as Kerala,
Tamil Nadu & Goa.
High humidity, strong sun, glare from the sky and horizon.
Precipitation high generally in excess of 1200mm/yr.

Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:

Resisting heat gain
a) Decreasing surface area of building exposed to outside.
b) Using that material that take longer time to heat up.
c) Increasing shading of the building in general.
d) Using material that reflect heat.
Open spaces & build form
a) Buildings should be spread out with large open spaces in between for
unrestricted air movement.
b) In cities, buildings on stilts can promote ventilation and cause cooling at ground
Orientation
a) A north-south direction is ideal from the point of view of blocking solar
radiation.
b) The width of street should be such that the intense solar radiation during
late morning and early afternoon is avoid during the summers.
c) The buildings could be long and narrow to allow cross-ventilation.
a singly loaded corridor plan.
 Roof
a) In addition to provide shelter from rain and heat, the form of roof
should be planned to promote air flow.
b) Vents at the rooftop effectively induce ventilation and draw hot air out.
 Wall
a) The walls must also be designed to promote air flow so as to counter the
prevalent humidity.
b) Baffle walls, both inside and outside the building can help to divert the
flow of wind inside.
c) They should be protected from the heavy rainfall prevalent in such
areas.
 Fenestration

a) Cross ventilation is of atmost importance in warm and humid climatic

regions.
b) All doors & windows should preferably be kept open for maximum
ventilation for most of years.
c) These must be provided with venetian blinds to shelter the rooms from the
sun and rain, as well as for control of movement.
d) The opening should be shaded by external overhangs.
e) Outlets at higher level serve to vent hot air.
MODERATE CLIMATE.. Areas having a moderate
climate are generally located on hilly or high-plateau regions with fairly
abundant vegetation.
The solar radiation in this region is more or less the same throughout the
year. Being located at relatively higher elevations.

The design criteria in the moderate zone are

to reduce heat gain by providing shading, and to promote heat loss by
ventilation.
High ceilings reduce the effect of heat that would radiate down from the roof
which would get hot under the sun.
This will also allow the warm air to rise and escape through ventilators, high
up in the walls.
COLD CLIMATE.. The design criteria are to resist heat loss by
insulation and controlling infiltration.
Simultaneously, heat gain needs to be promoted by admitting and trapping solar
radiation within the living space.

Design Criteria
• Increase thermal resistance
• Increase thermal capacity
• Increase buffer spaces
• Decrease air exchange rate Roof insulation,
wall insulation and double glazing
• Thicker walls
• Air locks / lobbies
• Reduce shading
• Utilize heat from appliances
• Trapping heat
• Orientation and shape of the building
• Uses of trees as wind barriers.
COMPOSITE
CLIMATE.. covers the central part
of India.
Composite climate displays the
characteristics of hot & dry,
warm & humid as well as cold climates.
Design here are guided by longer prevailing
climatic conditions Their characteristics
change from season to season alternating
between long hot, dry periods to shorter
periods of concentrated rainfall & high
humidity.
India being a tropical country, most of
design decisions would pertain to cooling.
The general recommendations of hot & dry
climates would be
applicable for New Delhi for most of the year Represents the regions having
except Monsoon Composite
where Ventilation is essential. Eg:Kanpur,
Allahabad.
Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are :
FORM & PLANNING
• Open spaces such as courtyards are beneficial.
•Buildings should be grouped in such a way as to take advantage of prevailing
breezes during the short periods when air movement is necessary.
• A moderately dense low rise is also suitable for this climate , which will ensure
protection of outdoor spaces.
•Mutual sharing of external walls , shelter from the wind in the cold season, shelter
from dust and reduction of surfaces exposed to solar radiation.
ROOFS
•The roof pond system requires a body of
water to be located in the roof, protected
Controlled by exterior movable insulation
• This body of water is exposed to direct
solar Gain which absorbs & Stores. Since
Thermal storage of ceiling of the building
It will radiate uniform low temperature
MICROCLIMATE/SITE CLIMATE
A microclimate is a local set of atmospheric conditions that differ from those in the
surrounding areas, often with a slight difference but sometimes with a substantial
one. The term may refer to areas as small as a few square meters or square feet (for
example a garden bed or a cave) or as large as many square kilometers or square
miles. These conditions are generally grouped under the term of ‘microclimate’, which
includes wind, radiation, temperature, and humidity experienced around a building. A
building by its very presence will change the microclimate by causing a bluff obstruction to
the wind flow, and by casting shadows on the ground and on other buildings. A designer has
to predict this variation and appropriately account for its effect in the design.
The microclimate of a site is affected by the following factors:
(A) landform
(B) vegetation
(C) waterbodies
(D) street width and orientation
(E) open spaces and built form

(A) Landform
Landform represents the topography of a site. It may be flat, undulating or sloping. Major
landforms affecting a site are mountains, valleys and plains. Depending on the macroclimate
and
season, some locations within a particular landform experience a better microclimate than
others.
• In valleys, the hot air (being lighter) rises while cooler air having higher density,
settles into the depressions, resulting in a lower temperature at the bottom. Upward
currents form on sunny slopes in the morning. By night, the airflow reverses
because cold ground surfaces cool the surrounding air, making it heavier and
causing it to flow down the valley. Moreover, the wind flow is higher along the
direction of the valley than across it due to unrestricted movement.
• On mountain slopes, the air speed increases as it moves up the windward side,
reaching a maximum at the crest and a minimum on the leeward side. The
difference in air speed is caused due to the low pressure area developed on the
leeward side.
(B) Waterbodies
• Waterbodies can be in the form of sea, lake, river, pond or fountains. Since
water has a relatively high latent heat of vapourisation, it absorbs a large
amount of heat from the surrounding air for evaporation. The cooled air can
then be introduced in the building. Evaporation of water also raises the
humidity level. This is particularly useful in hot and dry climates.
• Since water has a high specific heat, it provides an ideal medium for
storage of heat that can be used for heating purposes.
• Large water bodies tend to reduce the difference between day and night
temperatures because they act as heat sinks. Thus, sites near oceans and
large lakes have less temperature variation between day and night, as well
as between summer and winter as compared to inland sites. Also, the
maximum temperature in summer is lower near water than on inland sites.
• The wind flow pattern at a site is influenced by the presence of a large
waterbody in thefollowing way. Wind flow is generated due to the
difference in the heat storing capacity of water and land, and the
consequent temperature differentials. During the day, the land heats up
faster than the water, causing the air over the land to rise and be replaced
by cool air from water. Hence, the breeze blows towards the land from
water during the day and in the reverse direction at night. (as land cools
more rapidly than water).
(C) Vegetation
Vegetation plays an important role in changing the climate of a city, as seen in section
2.5. It is also effective in controlling the microclimate. Plants, shrubs and trees cool the
environment when they absorb radiation for photosynthesis. They are useful in shading
a particular part of the structure and ground for reducing the heat gain and reflected
radiation. By releasing moisture, they help raise the humidity level. Vegetation also
creates different air flow patterns by causing minor pressure differences, and thus can
be used to direct or divert the prevailing wind advantage.
Based on the requirement of a climate, an appropriate type of tree can be selected.
Planting deciduous trees such as mulberry to shade east and west walls would prove
beneficial in hot and dry zones. In summer, they provide shade from intense morning
and evening sun, reduce glare, as well as cut off hot breezes. On the other hand,
deciduous trees shed their leaves in winter and allow solar radiation to heat the
building. The cooling effect of vegetation in hot and dry climates comes predominantly
from evaporation, while in hot humid climates the shading effect is more significant.
Trees can be used as windbreaks to protect both buildings and outer areas such as lawns
and patios from both hot and cold winds. The velocity reduction behind the windbreak
depends on their height, density, cross-sectional shape, width, and length, the first two
being the most important factors. When the wind does not blow perpendicular to the
windbreak, the sheltered area is decreased.
The rate of infiltration in buildings is proportional to the wind pressure.
Therefore, it is more important to design windbreaks for maximum wind speed
reduction in extreme climates, than to attempt to maximize the distance over which the
windbreak is effective. In cold climates, windbreaks can reduce the heat loss in
buildings by reducing wind flow over the buildings, thereby reducing convection and
infiltration losses. A single-row of high density trees in the form of a windbreak can
reduce infiltration in a residence by about 60% when planted about four tree heights
from the building. This corresponds to about 15% reduction in energy costs
(D) Street width and orientation
The amount of direct radiation received by a building and the street in an urban area is
determined by the street width and its orientation. The buildings on one side of the
street tend to cast a shadow on the street on the opposite building, by blocking the sun’s
radiation. Thus the width of the street can be relatively narrow or wide depending upon
whether the solar radiation is desirable or not. For instance in Jaisalmer (hot and dry
climate), most of the streets are narrow with buildings shading each other to reduce the
solar radiation, and consequently the street temperature and heat gain of buildings
shows the street temperatures in summer and winter in Jaisalmer as compared to
temperatures recorded at the meteorological station. It is seen that street temperatures
can be upto 2.5oC lower than the ambient air temperatures due to mutual shading of
buildings. At high latitudes in the northern hemisphere, the solar radiation is
predominantly from the south, hence wider east-west streets give better winter solar
access.
(E) Open spaces and built form
The form of a building and the open spaces in its neighbourhood affect the radiation
falling on the building’s surface and the airflow in and around it. Open spaces such as
courtyards can be designed such that solar radiation incident on them during daytime
can be reflected on to building façades for augmenting solar heat. This is desirable in
cold climates, and it is possible if the surface finish of the courtyard is reflective in
nature.
Inside a courtyard, wind conditions are primarily dependent on the proportion
between building height and courtyard width in the section along the wind flow line.
Courtyards can also be designed to act as heat sinks.
Grass and other vegetation in a courtyard can provide cooling due to evaporation and
shading.
Water sprayed on the courtyards would cause cooling effect due to evaporation.
Consequently, the air temperature in the courtyard can be much lower compared to
street or outdoor air temperatures in a hot and dry climate.

MACROCLIMATE
the overall climate of a region usually a large geographic area —distinguished from
microclimate.
URBAN CLIMATE
Man-made environments can create microclimates of their own, deviating from
Urban climate the macroclimate of the region to a degree depending on the extent
of man's intervention. Such intervention with the natural environment is greatest
in large towns or cities, thus it is justifiable to speak of an 'urban climate'.

The factors causing deviations of the urban climate from the regional macro-
climate are the following:

•changed surface qualities (pavements and buildings) – increased absorbance of

solar radiation; reduced evaporation
•buildings – casting a shadow and acting as barriers to winds, but also channelling
winds possibly with localised increase in velocity or by storing absorbed heat in
their mass and slowly releasing it at night.
• energy seepage – through walls and ventilation of heated buildings; the output
of refrigeration plants and air conditioning (removing heat from the controlled
space to the outside air); heat output of internal combustion engines and electrical
appliances; heat loss from industry, especially furnaces and large factories
•atmospheric pollution – waste products of boilers and domestic and industrial
chimneys; exhaust from motor-cars; fumes and vapours, which both tend to
reduce direct solar radiation but increase the diffuse radiation and provide a
barrier to outgoing radiation. The presence of solid particles in urban atmosphere
may assist in the formation of fog and induce rainfall under favourable conditions
The extent of deviations may be quite substantial.
Air temperature in a city can be 8 degC higher than in the surrounding
countryside and a
difference of 11 degC has been reported.
Relative humidity is reduced by 5 to 10%, due to the quick run-off of rain-water
from paved areas, to the absence of vegetation and to higher temperature.
Wind velocity can be reduced to less than half of that in the adjoining open
country, but the funnelling effect along a closely built-up street or through gaps
between tall slab blocks can more than double the velocity. Strong turbulences
and eddies can also be set up at the leeward corners of obstructions.
THERMAL COMFORT…
Our life cycle comprises Activity, fatigue and recovery.
• Recovery is essential to counter balance against mental and physical fatigue
through recreation, rest and sleep.
• This can be affected by unfavorable climatic conditions and the resulting stress
on body and mind causes discomfort, loss of efficiency and breakdown of health.
• Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the
thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation
(ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55).
• The task of the designer is to create the best possible indoor climate or even
the environment for the users as they judge the quality of design based on
physical and emotional point of view.

THE BODY’S HEAT PRODUCTION

Heat is continuously produced by the body.Most of the biochemical processes
involved in tissue- building, energy conversion and muscular work are exotherm,
i.e. heat producing.The processes involved in converting foodstuff into living
matter and useful form of energy are known as metabolism.
Of all the energy produced in the body,only about 20% is utilised,the
remaining 80% is ‘surplous’ heat.
The human body continuously generates excess heat,but at varying
rate,which must be dissipated.
Thermoregulation is the process that allows the human body to maintain
its core internal temperature.
• The state of having an even internal temperature is called homeostasis. All
thermoregulation mechanisms are designed to return the body to
homeostasis.
 A healthy, safe temperature has a very narrow window – between 98.6°F
(37°C) and 100°F (37.8°C). (Skin temp. is 31 to 34 deg.)

THE BODY’S HEAT LOSS

Convection
is due to heat transmission from the body to the air in contact
with the skin or clothing which then rises and is replaced by
cooler air.
Rate of convective heat loss is increased with faster air
movement, a lower temperature and a higher skin temperature.

Radiant heat loss depends upon temperature of the body

surface and temperature of opposing surface.

 Conduction: Depends on temperature difference of body

surface and the object the body is in direct contact with.

Evaporation
is governed by the rate of evaporation which in turn depends on
the humidity of the air (dryer the air, the faster the evaporation)
and the amount of moisture available for evaporation.
Evaporation takes place through perspiration and sweating and in
lungs through breathing.
 REGULATORY MECHANISMS

Then thermal balance exists when

Met – Evp ± Cnd ± Cnv ± Rad = 0
 THERMAL COMFORT INDICES

When the designer wants to assess the effect of climatic conditions on the
bodys heat dissipation processess,he is faced with the difficulty of having to
handle four independent variables simultaneously.

A single scale which combines the effects of various thermal comfort

factors (such as air temperature, humidity, air movement and radiation)
is called a THERMAL INDEX or COMFORT SCALE.
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE
• It is defined as the temperature of a still and saturated atmosphere which would, in
the absence of radiation, produce the same effect as the temperature in question.
• The first comfort scale was produced by Houghton and Yaglou in 1923, working at
the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers.
• Their findings were plotted on a psychrometric chart, producing ‘equal comfort
lines’.
• This new scale was named Effective Temperature (ET Scale).
• Effective temperature is the temperature in an environment with 100%
humidity and no air movements which will induce the same level of
thermal comfort as in the present situation
• For example, if the effective temperature is said to be 30°C, it means that the
thermal comfort is equivalent to one is an environment with temperature
30°C, 100% humidity and no air movements
• But effective temperature does not take into consideration, the effect of
radiant heat energy
CORRECTED EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE

• The ET scale basically combined air temperature and humidity (later air movement
was added) but it lacked the effects of radiation.
• Thus, CET scale (Corrected Effective Temperature) was created by adding
radiation effects.
• It is the most widely used and the most understood scale at present and the results
are accurate under most conditions.
BIOCLIMATIC CHART

• Under over heated conditions when metabolic rates are low (light work), which
already produce discomfort, it was found out that the DBT values correspond better
with subjective judgments than ET values. (Result of some Australian experiments).

• On this basis and similar other doubts, V. Olgyay concluded that it is pointless to
build a single figure index as each of the four components can be controlled by
different means.

• Thus a bioclimatic chart was created in terms of DBT and RH, and by additional
lines it was shown how comfort zone was pushed up by the presence air movement
and lowered by radiation.
Tropical Summer Index (T.S.I)

This has been developed by Central Building Research Institute (C.B.R.I),

Roorkee, India, from the subjective sensation of 24 observers during the hot
dry and warm humid indoor conditions in north India during summer and
monsoon months.
Tropical Summer Index (T.S.I) is defined as the temperature of calm air, at
50% relative humidity which imparts the same thermal sensation as the
given environment (BIS, 1987). Tropical Summer Index (T.S.I) can be used
for most parts of north India, where it is hot dry and of moderate humidity.