VOLUME 2 PART 15

GROUND INVESTIGATION AND ASPECTS OF GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN GUIDE

8 Geophysical Surveys
8.1 Introduction
Geophysics is a very broad category of nondestructive methods of ground
investigation. Geophysical techniques, including electrical, gravity, magnetic, seismic,
or thermal are used to measure the physical, electrical, or chemical properties of the
soil, rock and pore fluids. In general, geophysical surveys are noninvasive and enable
correlation between known points of control. No single typical method can be used in
every instance. Selection of a geophysical method should be based on knowledge of
the existing ground conditions and the information that must be obtained.

Data gathering and data interpretation in geophysical surveys are all-important and
require specialist knowledge and experience. No samples to be handled or stored can
be checked at a later point. Most geophysical methods require processing of data
after they are gathered so that an interpretation can be made. The specification of
the geophysical survey is thus very important, and the selected specialist company
must be able to demonstrate the ability to provide the needed solutions.

Geophysics can provide information over a much broader area than can be obtained
by ground investigation exploratory holes. It can provide mapping of the natural
conditions of a site and establish anomalous conditions that could present increase
risk to road structures or earthworks. For example, geophysics can be used to
investigate possible cavities (dahal) within limestone and gypsum rich strata that
could affect construction or performance of bridge foundations. Geophysics could be
used to determine soils stratigraphy if a preliminary sources study identified a
possible buried channel or similar feature that could affect proposed earthworks or
road structure. Geophysics is a useful technique to reduce the risk of unknown
conditions.

This chapter gives an overview of geophysical techniques typically used in Qatar and
others techniques that may be useful. Further detailed information on the
geophysical methods described can be found in the following sources:

• Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM

D6429-99(2011)e1]
• Geophysics in Engineering Investigations, CIRIA Report C562 (CIRIA, 2002a)
• Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems (Blackhawk
Geosciences, 2003)
• “Setting the Standard for Geophysical Surveys in Site Investigation” (McCann et al.,
1997)

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• Engineering Geology Field Manual (Bureau of Reclamation, 2001)

• Earth Manual, Part 1 (Bureau of Reclamation, 1998).

8.2 Planning
The design and planning of geophysical surveys for transportation projects depends
on factors such as these:

• Physical properties of interest

• Techniques that can provide the information at the resolution required
• Geophysical tools that can perform well under the study conditions
• Techniques that can provide complementary data
• Nongeophysical control to interpret the acquired geophysical survey data

Numerous references are available to assist in planning a geophysical survey.

Guidance can be found in Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods
[ASTM D6429-99(2011)e1]; Standard Guide for Planning and Conducting Borehole
Geophysical Logging [ASTM D5753-05(2010)]; and Circular E-C130, Geophysical
Methods Commonly Employed for Geotechnical Site Characterization (Transportation
Research Board, 2008).

Geophysical surveys can be used as a screening tool to provide a quick understanding

of the ground conditions at a site. They can also be used to provide detail on the
specifics of a site. The first aspect of planning a geophysical survey is to determine
why the survey is to be performed and what questions are to be answered when the
survey is complete. For the various geophysical methods that can be used, each has
its own set of advantages and limitations. Table 8.1 summarizes the common
applications of land-based geophysical surveys in Qatar and the preferred geophysical
methods for that application. See also Table H.1 in Appendix H. For information on
the use of geophysics in the marine environment, refer to Geotechnical and
Geophysical Investigations for Offshore and Nearshore Developments (International
Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering [ISSMGE], 2005).

For the geophysical methods listed in Table 8.1, the interpretation of data should be
calibrated against the ground conditions established from boreholes or trial pits at the
site. Such calibration preferably is performed at the time of original data processing. If
that is not possible and borehole or trial pit information is obtained at a later date,
then the results of the geophysical survey should be reviewed and updated in light of
actual ground conditions as found in the exploratory holes.

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Table 8.1 Summary of Geophysical Survey Techniques and their Application

Geophysical Survey Techniquea
Ground
Seismic MASW/ Penetrating Seismic
Application Refractionb SASWc Resistivity Radar Reflectiond Gravity
Unconsolidated layer or P P — P P —
soil stratigraphy
Rock Stratigraphy S P — S — —
Depth to bedrock P P P P S
Depth to water table P — — P — —
Fractures and fault zones S S S S P S
S
Soils and rock properties P P S — —
(density)
Cavities or sink holes — P P P S P
Saltwater intrusion — — P S — —
Buried objects — — — P — S
Notes:
a Refer also to Table 1 in Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM

D6429-99(2011)e1], and Table 2 in "Setting the Standard for Geophysical Surveys in Site Investigation,"
(McCann et al., 1997).
b See Standard Guide for Using the Seismic Refraction Method for Subsurface Investigation [ASTM D5777-

00(2011)e1].
c MASW = multichannel analysis of surface waves; SASW= spectral Analysis of Surface Waves.
d Standard Guide for Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow Subsurface Investigation [ASTM

D7128-05(2010)].
P = primary method of choice
S = secondary method of choice or alternative

8.3 Seismic
Seismic techniques, including seismic refraction, seismic reflection, and multichannel
analysis of surface waves (MASW), measure the travel time of direct and indirect
acoustic waves as they travel from a sound source at ground surface to a series of
geophone receptors placed on in the ground surface at a range of distances from the
sound source. Acoustic waves are generated by a sledgehammer striking a metal plate
with a weight-drop source or by a large vibratory weight-drop source (Blackhawk
Geosciences, 2003).

Figure 8.1 shows the theory behind seismic data gathering.

The geotechnical practitioner needs to understand the limitations of geophysical

techniques in the ground conditions in Qatar. Notably, the MASW survey generally is
limited to 20 m to 25 m depth below ground, and the use of seismic refraction is
limited in depth to the top of the Midra Shale because of the velocity inversion at this
horizon. A typical MASW survey result is provided in Appendix J.

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Source: Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems (Blackhawk Geosciences, 2003)

Figure 8.1 Refraction Methodology

Table 8.2 summarizes the uses and limitations of frequently used seismic methods.

Table 8.2 Summary of Uses and Limitations of Frequently Used Seismic Methods
Method Data Collected and Uses Limitations Additional Comments
Seismic P wave velocity Layers must be relatively thick Resolution is a function of the
Refraction (compressional wave) to in order to be detected. Only source and the geophone
determine velocity layers of increasing velocity can spacing.
differentiation of be recorded. Weaker materials
geologic layers. Able to at depth will not be recorded
determine differences in (for example, Midra Shale). The
material properties for acoustic (seismic) velocity
thick layers. through water (the water table;
Provides data along 1,400 m/sec) may mask some
continuous lines. weaker weathered rock layers.
Seismic Records the reflection of — Resolution is a function of the
Reflection waves source and geophone spacing.
Groundtruth or information on
ground conditions are required
to change from travel time to
depth.
Multichannel Measures propagation of The acoustic (seismic) velocity Resolution is subject to the
Analysis of surface waves from which through water (that is, the geophone spacing and the
Surface shear wave velocity may water table; 1,400 m/sec) may acoustic frequency being
Waves be interpreted. Able to mask some weaker weathered recorded by the geophone.
obtain data below weak rock layers. Penetration is Data can be collected in noisy
layers. Able to delineate limited by the source of acoustic areas using just the traffic noise
voids or cavities (dahal). waves generated. as an acoustic source if depth of
data collection is not too deep.

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8.4 Electrical Resistivity

Electrical resistivity surveys measure the resistivity of the earth materials relative to a
current induced into the ground. There are numerous types of resistivity surveys, but
all generally induce a current into one electrode and measure the current received at
receptor electrodes. As the current input is known, the apparent resistivity between
the two or more electrodes can be calculated. There are three commonly used
resistivity arrays, the difference being in the spacing of the receiving electrodes:

• Wenner: Four equally spaced electrodes, with current placed on the outer
electrodes and readings on the inner electrodes.
• Schlumberger: Four electrodes, but the inner (potential) electrodes are less than
one-fifth the distance between the center of the spread and the outer current
electrode.
• Resistivity profiling: Electrode spacing is constant, but the induced current is
moved along the line.

A material’s electrical resistivity depends on its porosity and the salinity of the water
within the pore spaces. If the surface material is pavement, very dense material, or
bedrock then the electrode locations need to be predrilled in order to insert the
electrode into the ground surface. In soils, it may be necessary to wet the electrodes
with saline water to increase the amount of electric current directed into the ground.
In dry conditions, as with dunes, very large quantities of water may need to be
available.

Electrical resistivity can be performed as point surveys using the Wenner or

Schlumberger arrays. Single point surveys are used primarily in corrosion surveys for
steel (such as sheet pile walls) or to determine ground characteristics for earthing
design of electrical substations. Gridded surveys along transects using profiling
methods are usually performed for trying to find cavities or other anomalies.

Electrical resistivity surveys can be used to map sand and gravel deposits, determine
parameters for cathodic protection, and map variations in groundwater salinity. They
do not provide information on rock properties. Electrical resistivity surveys can be
used to locate voids or cavities (dahal), especially where the cavities are above the
water table. In areas where cavities are below the water table, a lack of contrast
between the electrical resistivity of the host rock and groundwater can make the
results more difficult to interpret.

8.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a quick method of evaluating shallow near-surface
geology, including the location of buried objects such as pipes, boulders, and near
surface cavities (dahal). GPR can be used for near surface underground utility
detection, since it can pick up polyvinyl chloride cable ducts and similar pipelines that
may not be active and therefore, would not be visible to other pipeline detection
methods. GPR is limited in its usefulness because conductive materials such as saline

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water or the water table limits the depth of penetration. The method uses many
different antennae configurations so it is very important to provide the specialist
geophysics survey company with a clear directive on the purpose of the survey and
the suspected ground conditions or the buried structure that is being sought. GPR
data do not require excessive processing, and therefore the specialist field engineer
can usually review the survey findings as work progresses to assess if the investigation
needs are being met.

GPR surveys can be used in evaluating road pavement (including concrete) and bridge
decks, but in conjunction with other nondestruction testing or coring methods, or both,
to obtain the necessary data for calibration of GPR data (Blackhawk Geosciences,
2003).

Use of this system in Qatar is limited, as the depth to groundwater in much of the
developed areas of Qatar, such as Doha, is within 2 to 3 m of ground surface. It could
be useful in areas where the groundwater table is deeper or is lowered by
dewatering.

8.6 Microgravity
Microgravity or gravity measurement techniques measure the local variations in the
gravitational pull of the earth that features such as underground cavities (dahal),
buried channels, or underground structures can create. Measurements are made
using a gravity meter at intervals along traverses crossing an expected or known area
of interest. The variations in measured relative gravity can be used to identify the
likely position of the underground feature. The method can provide very accurate
sizing and depth of void or anomaly. To achieve accuracy, the microgravity survey
data must be correlated with other ground investigation data and information. The
microgravity method is labor-intensive and requires that the initial point of
measurement (base station) be reoccupied frequently to monitor drift in the
recording of the instrument. Extremely accurate elevation data are also required
(±3 mm). The distance between readings taken along a traverse should be based on the
expected size of the void or anomaly to be detected, with close spacing for small size
voids and larger spacing for large voids. The gravitational anomaly that occurs with a
void decreases with depth. If the void is in the bedrock, the top of the bedrock surface
below the overburden soils must be taken into account. That information usually
requires the use of a second technique such as seismic refraction or MASW.
Microgravity surveys can be made inside buildings and structures and in urban areas, as
shown in Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods [ASTM
D6429-99(2011)e1].

8.7 Borehole Geophysics

Several borehole geophysics techniques can be used to identify strata stratigraphy, to
establish particular geotechnical properties, and to characterize groundwater.
Tables H.2 and H.3 in Appendix H list methods of borehole geophysical survey and their
applications. Several of the techniques require the use of a shielded radioactive source.

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Thus, some of the listed methods that are available in the U.S. or the UK may not be
available for use in Qatar owing to permitting issues. Local geophysical survey
companies should be consulted to confirm the types of borehole geophysical survey
that can be provided.

8.8 Procurement of Geophysical Survey Work

Geophysical surveys and their interpretation is specialist work, and accurate definition
of scope is extremely important. It is also important that an experienced specialist
geophysical survey company undertake the survey work and its interpretation. It can be
advantageous to seek the advice of the specialist geophysical survey company in
determining the final scope of a geophysical survey. To facilitate this, geotechnical
practitioners (in addition to providing initial information about the type of survey
required), should provide the specialist geophysical survey company with the following:

• Details of the known or anticipated ground conditions, including groundwater

level and groundwater salinity (if available).
• Information on what is desired of the geophysical survey. For example, the
location of cavities, the determination of ground parameters, the location of
saltwater interface or locations of underground utilities.
• Proposed depth of investigation from the ground surface.
• Presentation of results. How will the data be used? Requirements for the data to
be coordinated to local grid and elevation. Requirements for the data to be
presented in electronic format (for example, computer-aided drafting) and hard
copy.
• Expected result presentation, in terms of interpreted profiles and slices,
identification of anomalies, and scale of the drawings. The level of detail required
to be detected from the reported data (for example, 0.5-m or 10-m anomalies).

The geophysical survey company can then advise on any changes in the scope of the
geophysical survey or techniques that might be employed to maximize the benefit
from the proposed survey work.

The procurement process should also include the following minimum requirements of
the report to be provided (Anderson et al., 2008).

• Executive summary
• Purpose and scope of study
• Dates and location of survey (including base plan)
• Personnel and organization involved
• Summary of data collection procedures used at the site
• Summary of data processing methodology
• Quality and reliability of the acquired data

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• Interpretation of the data including summary of the procedure used and

verification processes (ground truthing or modeling, or both)
• Conclusions and recommendations

In some instances, a phased program of geophysical survey work, using different

techniques, may be most appropriate and provide the best value. For example, for the
investigation of possible underground cavities, it might be appropriate first to
undertake a wide area resistivity or MASW survey of a site. Anomalies that are found
would be verified using either boreholes or diagraphy drilling to confirm the presence
or otherwise of any cavities. The size of the cavities might then be confirmed using
cross-hole borehole geophysical surveys or with a micro gravity survey.

Geophysical surveys can be included in the ground investigation standard

specification and bill of quantities described in Section 5.3 in this Part. In some
instances, it may be appropriate to include multiple geophysical survey methods in
the documentation to establish any significant price difference between techniques,
for example, resistivity or MASW, as the price may vary between sites depending on
surface conditions and project requirement.

The geophysical survey contract should include a “field release clause” that permits
contract termination if preliminary results do not justify continuation of the survey
(Anderson et al., 2008). The clause might be invoked if the ground conditions differ
from what was expected or if the geophysical method does not achieve the data
objectives including depth of penetration.

The geophysical survey company should be required to include in any tender return
evidence that the company has used the geophysical survey method proposed
successfully at similar locations with similar ground conditions. The tender should
include a method statement indicating the proposed working method including at
least the following items:

• Proposed spacing of geophones or electrodes

• Daily quality assurance checks
• Methods to be used in analyzing the data
• Equipment that will be used including external source, data storage and data
backup during the survey
• Staff, including curriculum vitae of team leaders for data collection and data
interpretation
• Methods to be used for interpretation of the data, including details of the data
processing programs that will be used
• Schedule of works based on a notice to proceed date.

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