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Determination and Representation of Turbocharger 2016-01-1042

Thermodynamic Efficiencies Published 04/05/2016

Jan Macek and Oldrich Vitek

Czech Technical University in Prague

CITATION: Macek, J. and Vitek, O., "Determination and Representation of Turbocharger Thermodynamic Efficiencies," SAE
Technical Paper 2016-01-1042, 2016, doi:10.4271/2016-01-1042.

Copyright © 2016 SAE International

Abstract
The boost pressure demands call for high efficiency turbochargers.
(1)
Perfect matching to an engine and controlling in operation is a
prerequisite, especially if highly diluted mixture is used. The main
However, the compressor power input for boost pressure increase
impact on four-stroke engine efficiency is performed via gas
required for downsizing is often not fully covered by the energy of
exchange work, Correct turbocharger representation, usually
exhaust gas. Exhaust gas blow-down energy is partially lost due to
performed by maps, should be delivered by turbocharger
irreversible expansion through exhaust valve, as it will be shown later
manufacturers and applied in simulation optimizations. The robust
(Figure 3). Piston work during exhaust stroke is used as additional
calibration methods are required for fast-running real time
source of power for a turbine, making pumping loop work negative.
simulations used for model-based control. The paper clarifies the
As a result, influence of turbocharger efficiency is the stronger the
relations between apparent and real turbocharger isentropic
higher boost pressure is needed, especially with diluted mixtures and
efficiencies at steady-flow testbed and their impact on engine cycle
high level of EGR. The results of recently finished unconstrained
optimization by simulation. Simple procedures excluding the impact
optimization of a car diesel engine - [10] - demonstrate the
of heat transfer inside a turbocharger are described. The described
dependence of b.s.f.c. on b.m.e.p. for two different turbocharger
methods are based on the use of overall turbocharger efficiency. If
two-stage group efficiencies in Figure 1 and Figure 2. The other
details are needed, cold turbine flow tests and direct evaluation of
factors changing b.s.f.c. in groups of the same turbocharger efficiency
compressor power using Eulerian theorem should be applied.
are not significant for the current paper. Nevertheless, all of them are
Reynolds number influence should be taken into account. The
obviously less important. During optimization, no limits of peak
regression model of turbine shaft heat transfer is used for correction
pressure or duration of combustion were fixed. The design of engine
of friction losses. The possibilities of turbine map measurement are
was optimized considering crank-train durability, which induced
analyzed for achieving wide range of blade speed ratio values using
friction losses through bearings size, and valve diameters. Fully
different turbine inlet temperature. The reasons for turbine physical
variable valve lift, turbine nozzles, compressor surge and choke
model instead of map-based approach are explained on several
limits, even compression ratio and stroke including stroke/bore ratio
specific examples. Apparent turbine efficiency, measured during
were optimized for every operation point seeking to find absolute
engine tests, and possibilities to correct it by simulation are illustrated
optimum.
using examples of different exhaust systems with high level of
pressure pulses. The ever increasing boost pressure demands and search for low CO2
emissions call for high efficiency turbochargers, which are perfectly
matched to an engine and controlled in operation - [8-9], especially if
Introduction highly diluted mixture is used. The main impact of turbocharger
Downsizing of engines demonstrated its advantages, based on features on engine efficiency is performed via gas exchange work,
suppressing the relative impact of fixed part of losses, especially reflected by pumping loop at mostly used four-stroke engines - e.g.,
cooling and mechanical ones. High level of charge boosting is [1,2,3] and [6,7,8,9,10]. The difference between inlet and exhaust
relevant in connection with downspeeding, offering another reduction system pressures depends significantly on turbocharger efficiency and
of mechanical losses but increasing cooling loss of walls - [1] or [2]. exhaust gas inlet temperature. The temperature is considerably
E.g., change of mechanical efficiency is caused by the change of decreased if diluted mixtures are used, which together with high
brake mean effective pressure because of friction mean effective boost pressure demands for those mixtures extremely increases the
pressure (f.m.e.p.) dependence on load (i.e., b.m.e.p.) - [8] - and requirements on turbine/compressor power and thus on turbocharger
similar qualitative trend is valid for thermal wall losses: efficiency or additional source of power for driving a compressor.
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Pressure difference is significant for scavenging of two-stroke
engines, as well. Although it is not reflected directly in piston work, it
uses the engine work via additional supercharger driving power.
Super-turbocharger lay-outs have to be used if turbocharger
efficiency is insufficient - [5]. In the current paper, two-stroke engines
will not be addressed.
Correct turbocharger representation, usually performed by maps,
should be delivered by turbocharger manufacturers and applied in
simulation optimizations. The basic question addressed in the current
paper considers purpose of those measurements. The models or just
look-up tables for maps used for turbocharger optimization by
simulation or model based control should correctly reflect the
interaction between a turbocharger (or turbochargers or supercharger
in a two stage group) and a reciprocating engine.
The maps used for turbocharger components development should
fulfill different requirements because the efficiency of modules
(compressor, turbine, …) has to be found accurately in order to yield
correct assessment of the design improvement quality. On the other
side, the maps used for simulation and measured in the broad range
of operation should not distort the assessment of engine efficiency but
the details of components are not significant. Recently, a broad
discussion has been taking place in engine designers’ community on
possibilities of determination of isentropic efficiencies at a
turbocharger testbed using hot gas for a turbine due to partial
efficiencies distortion by heat transfer from a turbine to a compressor,
e.g., in [12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25]. The
experimental equipment to avoid mentioned heat transfer might be
very expensive. The authors will try to assess the possibilities of
undertaking simpler experiments with reasonable accuracy in the
current paper.
Error analysis in turbocharger efficiency determination from
measurement starts the explanation. Simple procedures excluding the
impact of heat transfer inside a turbocharger on testbed results are
described. They are focused on turbine and compressor
thermodynamic isentropic efficiencies and on friction loss
determination. Windage losses should not be overlooked.
Figure 1. Influence of total turbocharger efficiency on b.s.f.c. of massively
downsized, fully optimized diesel engines with the same torque in dependence
on b.m.e.p. for 1 000 r.p.m. - [10]. The band width between the curves of the
same turbocharger efficiency is caused by other optimization parameters (as
variable duration of combustion, compression ratio, stroke, etc.).
Figure 2. Influence of total turbocharger efficiency on b.s.f.c. of massively
downsized, fully optimized diesel engines with the same torque in dependence
on b.m.e.p. for 4 000 r.p.m. . - [10]. The band width between the curves of the
same turbocharger efficiency is caused by other optimization parameters (as
variable duration of combustion, compression ratio, stroke, etc.).
If two-stage turbocharging or super-turbocharging is used,
intercooling at compressor side reduces compression power and
losses in all pipes connecting turbomachines increase losses,
sometimes interfering with turbomachinery required flow fields.
Reynolds number influence should be taken into account for
evaluation, as well. Exhaust gas kinematic viscosity is increased by
temperature but reduced in the case of two-stage turbocharging by
pressure. It changes friction losses at airfoils, especially in a turbine,
as it will be presented later. The regression model of turbine shaft
heat transfer is used for correction of friction losses measured by
lubricating oil enthalpy increase in bearings. The possibilities of
turbine map BSR range measurement using different turbine inlet
temperature are analyzed.
Concepts of high-pulsation exhaust manifolds and asymmetrical
turbine scrolls are re-introduced currently. They deliver more power
to a turbine, especially at low engine speed, but they add additional
piston work during gas exchange, reducing brake efficiency. The
reasons for turbine physical model instead of map-based approach are
explained using several specific examples. Apparent turbine
efficiency, measured during engine tests under pressure and
temperature pulses, and possibilities to correct it by simulation will
be illustrated with different exhaust systems.
The aim of this contribution is to explain the impacts of turbocharger
efficiency and other engine parameters, especially relative A/F ratio
and exhaust manifold configuration. The analysis is based on very
simple algebraic model of an engine and a turbocharger, amended by
more sophisticated models if necessary.
The paper is not focused on surge phenomena in compressors.
Exhaust Gas Energy Use and Turbocharger
Efficiency
The basic algebraic model, used for fast estimation of main
turbocharger impacts on engine below, has to be calibrated by more
detailed models and experiments. Nevertheless, it has proven to be
robust and transparent aid for distinguishing between different factors
of engine-turbocharger interaction.
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An engine will be described by standard continuous-flow equations,

using SAE definition of dimensionless gas exchange parameters. The
mass flow-rate ṁim of fresh charge can be described by charging
efficiency ηch and delivery ratio λd together with fuel flow-rate ṁf
bound by A/F ratio λLt, as follows (Vz … engine displacement
volume, pim and Tim pressure and temperature in inlet manifold, nM
engine speed, τz number of strokes per a cycle and z=0 for internal,
=1 for external, e.g., port mixture formation):

(2)

Turbocharger power balance is reflected in the case of a four-stroke

engine by pumping mean effective pressure PIMEP as a part of
indicated mean effective pressure IMEP, which may be included into
the general indicated power equation Pi using indicated efficiency
decomposition into HP … high pressure cycle part and correction to
pumping work (low pressure part) … LP with lower calorific value of
fuel Hu. The main part if PIMEP is caused by difference of mean
pressures in inlet system IS and exhaust manifold ex, which has to be Figure 3. Pressure - volume diagram of gas exchange with transfer of piston
corrected for other pressure losses (especially in valves) as ΔPIMEP work to a turbine in comparison with an ideal expansion machine - [53]

The almost unused blow-down work due to pressure unbalance

(3)
Turbocharger power balance is reflected in the case of a four-stroke
engine by pumping mean effective pressure, which may be included
into the general indicated power equation Eq. ( 3 ) as a regression
function of reference value of PIMEP, number of cylinders ic, power
pulsation factor βp - see p. 9 - and engine speed normalized by the
reference one with exponents xi.
The reason for correcting exhaust pressure in dependence on turbine
power pulse factor and the number of cylinders connected to an
exhaust manifold branch will be explained later.
between a cylinder and exhaust manifold was a reason for thinking
on better transfer of exhaust gas energy from a cylinder to a turbine,
using pulse manifolds, discovered by Büchi - [1] originally in
unrealistic form of kinetic energy transport directly to a Laval turbine
impeller. Supersonic flow required by it cannot be managed without
significant losses of mechanical energy by shock waves. In spite of it,
the meaning of kinetic energy transport to a turbine is often
erroneously referred to in many textbooks. The real pulse manifolds
transport most of exhaust blow-down in the form of pressure energy,
as visible in Figure 3. Unfortunately, the primary pulse created in a
small-cross-section exhaust pipe during blow-down limits not only
unused pressure difference (unsteady throttling in exhaust valve) but
also rate of cylinder pressure drop. The result of it is an increase of
cylinder pressure during exhaust stroke, as visible in the bottom part
of Figure 3.
The balance of turbocharger power can be written in the form of
Rateau’s equation - [1]. It uses standard definition of isentropic
efficiencies of a turbine ηTs and a compressor together with
turbocharger friction losses in mechanical efficiency ηmTC - including
corrections to pulses (see below, βpγp)

In the case of constant-pressure exhaust manifold, the blow-down gas

work is irreversibly transformed to gas internal energy, which
increases temperature upstream of a turbine and only partially
recuperates this lost work. The irreversibility in connection cylinder
- turbine causes high losses, as illustrated in Figure 3. That is why the
inlet manifold pressure, calculated with realistic turbocharger
efficiencies, is much smaller than its estimate from ideal turbocharger
power (work) balance. The positive work recuperated from it to a (4)
crankshaft characterized by pumping loop mean effective pressure
Rateau’s equation Eq. ( 4 ) may be solved to find mutual dependence
PIMEP is small, if positive.
of both pressures, defining the overall turbocharger efficiency ηTC
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(5)
PIMEP is influenced by both turbine upstream and compressor
downstream pressures, using correction as generally described by Eq.
( 3 ). Together with the explicit impact of power pulse correction
factor βp, analyzed below, number of cylinders per single branch of
manifold has to be taken into account, since pulse factor is not able to
explain the all impacts. Additionally, engine speed influences
pressure loss in valves and has to be included into regression, as well.
Analysis of impact of exhaust manifold lay-out on engine efficiency
will be described below after the issues of turbocharger parameters
measurement at a steady-flow test rig are explained.
Determination of Turbocharger Efficiency
Isentropic thermodynamic efficiencies are defined in well-known
manner comparing enthalpy difference between real but adiabatic
irreversible change (Stodola’s energy conservation for an open
system) and ideal isentropic change - Eq. ( 6 ). Since real machines
are not strictly adiabatic, the temperature differences may yield
erroneous results. This is well-known for a turbine, where the
measurement of temperature difference is frequently replaced by
turbine power determination at a dynamometer or, more often, from
compressor power input. Lower compressor temperatures are thought
to fulfill adiabatic conditions better.
Figure 4. Turbocharger with main internal heat transport from a turbine to a
compressor (turbocharger photograph from Wikipedia)
If a compressor is driven by a cold-air turbine (ideally with inlet and
outlet temperatures close to outlet and inlet ones at a compressor), the
adiabatic condition is almost fulfilled. If not, the correction of results
should be done. Otherwise, the both individual efficiencies are
influenced by heat transfer from a turbine casing and impeller to
compressor ones.
(6)
Overall Turbocharger Efficiency
The main heat transport paths are plotted in Figure 4. Heat fluxes use
heat transport bridges in casings and via rotor shaft. The most
significant heat flux couples a turbine casing to a compressor
one, reducing real enthalpy elaborated by a turbine impeller and
increasing outlet enthalpy of compressor without changing
compressor input power. The flux from a turbine impeller to a
compressor one via a shaft and from a turbine impeller can be
neglected because of high thermal resistance of a shaft. Part of both
fluxes is switched to lubricating oil or other cooling liquid before it
reaches a compressor.
The correction may be done using an estimate of total heat transport
coefficient kTC and conduction surface STC. If almost all heat
transport takes place before gas enters a turbine impeller and after air
flow leaves a compressor impeller, no change of real power occurs
but measured temperatures are influenced, yielding false results if
used (TmT1 and TmC2) instead of adiabatic temperatures in Eq. ( 6 ).
Then, e.g., the simple thermal flux balance yields for the most
significant heat transport via casings
(7)
This phenomenon is frequently described in literature with different
level of complexity - [11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22] - and
sophisticated measures for experiment and simulation correction have
been developed, [23,24,25]. However, the impacts of it on engine
cycle efficiency, if simulated, are not analyzed correctly. It will be
done now.
The both partial isentropic efficiencies are evaluated with opposite
errors, if measured temperatures TmT1 and TmC2 are used. Compressor
efficiency is decreased by the errors, while turbine one being
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increased. The exaggerated influence of temperature errors are
presented in Figure 5. Inside the Rateau’s equation Eq. ( 4 ), the
turbocharger efficiency ηTC occurred as the only factor influencing
PIMEP if pressures and turbine inlet temperature are simulated
correctly. That is why the influence of erroneous measurement of
individual efficiencies may be compensated from this point of view.
using hot gas driven turbine may be used for engine - turbocharger
matching without needs to correct individual compressor/turbine
efficiencies. If the overall efficiency is calculated directly from
Eq. ( 4 ) - eta TC m in Figure 5 - the error of temperature upstream of
a turbine occurs in result and the impact on pumping loop would be
distorted.

Figure 5. Influence of internal heat transfer between turbine and compressor

outer casings: real (no subscript) and from measurement evaluated efficiencies
(m) of a compressor, turbine and complete turbocharger (mm product of
partial efficiencies, m from pressures and temperatures at a testbed)
If the resulting turbocharger efficiency is calculated from individual
components (turbine, compressor and mechanical efficiencies)
according to Eq. ( 5 ), the differences of the overall turbocharger
efficiency are negligible. It is valid even in the presented extreme
case. The impacts of heat transfer on individual efficiencies were
calculated, as demonstrated in Figure 5, using rather overpredicted
heat transport coefficient (1 000 W.m-2.K-1) inside a turbocharger for
an SI engine with high exhaust gas temperature. In reality the
deviations of evaluated partial efficiencies from their real values are
smaller. The turbine was loaded by a compressor. The power of a
compressor was found from measured temperature difference and the
turbine efficiency was determined including friction loss in bearings.
Figure 6. Pumping mean effective pressure and exhaust gas temperature at
turbine inlet in dependence on compressor pressure ratio. Fixed relative A/F
ratio of 1 using VGT, different engine load, fixed engine and TC efficiencies.
PIMEP correction for low speed (60% of rated one)
The influence of overall turbocharger efficiency on pumping loop
work (PIMEP) with different mixture strength, reflected by the
temperature of exhaust gas, is presented in Figure 6 and Figure 7
including corrections of relation Eq. ( 3 ) at 60% of rated speed and
without significant exhaust pulses. The possible efficiency reduction
due to negative PIMEP in the case of diluted mixture at high A/F
ratio is clearly visible. If the speed is increased, pressure losses in the
whole system reduce PIMEP to negative values despite the otherwise
good conditions for turbine a compressor - Figure 8.

On the other side, the individual isentropic efficiencies are influenced

especially at low pressure ratio of a turbocharger compressor, which
might not be negligible due to dependence of initial conditions for
transient load response of an engine to them. Moreover, using the
information of wrong assessed efficiencies for further compressor/
turbine development would lead to false results, as well.

The influence of erroneous turbine efficiency has also some influence

on simulation of two-stage turbocharging, changing upstream
temperature for a low-pressure turbine, for the case of heat&power
cogeneration units or for future applications of ORC. Similarly, some
small error occurs at intercooler outlet temperature but due to cooling
effect the result is nearly accurate.

However, for simulation the impact of a turbocharger on engine

processes the resulting error of an overall turbocharger efficiency is
completely negligible (much less than 1% relatively), which would
not have been found before. The result (eta TC mm in Figure 5
compared to real eta TC) has to be calculated from individual
inaccurate partial efficiencies. In this way, the standard measurements
Figure 7. Pumping mean effective pressure and exhaust gas temperature at
turbine inlet in dependence on compressor pressure ratio. Fixed relative A/F
ratio of 1.9 using VGT, different engine load, fixed engine and TC
efficiencies. PIMEP correction for low speed (60% of rated one)
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Figure 8. Pumping mean effective pressure and exhaust gas temperature at
turbine inlet in dependence on compressor pressure ratio. Fixed relative A/F
ratio of 1 using VGT, different engine load, fixed engine and TC efficiencies.
PIMEP correction for rated speed.
The effect of variable air excess form a diesel engine yields more
variable exhaust gas temperature and reduce the PIMEP especially at
low engine load. The gas temperature is more dependent on
turbocharger efficiency than in the case of fixed air to fuel ratio -
Figure 9. Both variants of mixture strength control demonstrate the
meaning of turbocharger efficiency for engine brake efficiency.
Especially if exhaust gas temperature is too low, the turbocharger
efficiency plays decisive role for the pumping loop contribution to the
brake efficiency, which can reach 5 - 10% of the high pressure part of
engine cycle.
Figure 9. Pumping mean effective pressure and exhaust gas temperature at
turbine inlet in dependence on compressor pressure ratio. A diesel engine with
variable relative A/F ratio using fixed nozzle turbine, different engine load,
fixed engine and TC efficiencies. Solid lines with higher TC efficiency use
higher A/F values, dotted lines use lower A/F ratio.
Compressor Efficiency and Mechanical Efficiency of a
Turbocharger
Nevertheless, even for cases, where partial efficiencies are needed,
nearly accurate measurement can be done by changes of turbine inlet
temperature, which is useful procedure for many purposes. The
prerequisite is to use open loop test bed with an air source for driving
a turbine. Correction procedure for changed friction losses of a
turbocharger due to pressure disbalance has to be applied if
compressor input power is covered by BSR of a turbine out of
optimum value.
Compressor power can be determined from stagnation temperature
difference, if cold air of inlet temperature to a turbine is close to
outlet temperature of a compressor. The oil temperature should be
kept as close as possible to the averaged air temperature. It avoids
nearly the heat transfer between casings and via shaft and lubricating
oil. The only issue is warming up of compressor impeller by windage
losses of Taylor vortices at the back (hub) side of compressor disk,
which is inevitable for any measurement at standard compressor. This
power is not negligible, although it is not included in any of thermal
models published up to now. Kwind, trans may reach 50% of loss heat
transferred to air in an impeller.
(8)
Figure 10. Regression coefficients of compressor enthalpy difference in
dependence on compressor speed - [46]
Determination of compressor power from stagnation enthalpy
difference and mass flow rate at different speeds and pressure ratios
can be used directly for general formula of compressor specific power
(enthalpy difference) in dependence on speed only. Newly developed
Eulerian formula - [46] - with additional correction for different
factors (interblade distance vortex, backswept shape of impeller
blades, etc.), establishes direct connection between compressor
specific power, speed and mass-flow rate re-calculated to radial
component of relative (or absolute) flow velocity
(9)
The significant part is created by the first term of enthalpy difference
relation, the latter one is a correction for back-swept blades, usually
used for more stable compressor performance. The coefficients must
be evaluated from measurement of compressor enthalpy difference by
regression. The dependence of regression coefficients on compressor
speed shows the reasonable assumptions of this representation -
Figure 10. This approach avoids the need for finding compressor
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pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency, which may cause stability
troubles if the pressure ratio is too low. Cold test calibration of the
formula Eq. ( 9 ) is valid for any temperature of gas in a turbine. The
important feature of the stagnation enthalpy difference is the
independence on pressure ratio except for low effect on radial
velocity component.
The model can be applied even on uncorrected hot test enthalpy data
but the validity of general results have not yet been established. The
compressor speed may be found from simplified relation Eq. ( 9 ) and
iterated for the correcting terms, if necessary.
( 10 )
Additionally, the standard compressor map may be found from cold
experiments and extrapolated by regression. Compressor isentropic
efficiency may be determined even by extrapolation of measured
pressures if pressure ratio is expressed as a function of compressor
speed, as well. Polynomial fraction functions are suitable for it as
experience showed:
( 11 )
Linear regression procedures may be used for this aim after the
transformation: the denominator of Eq. ( 11 ) is used for multiplying
pressure ratio. The accuracy of this representation is high - Figure 11.
The overall errors of this substitution of real compressor map are
usually lower than 1% and may be applied even if extrapolation
outside of the measured map is required, even below pressure ratio of
one. The coefficients of both formulas are slightly dependent on
compressor speed, e.g., as in Figure 10 for K1-K4 with regression
surrogates for using in relation Eq. ( 9 ).
Figure 11. Representation of compressor pressure and efficiency curves at
constant speed by regression compared to measured values and extrapolated to
full choking - [46]
Friction loss of bearings is less than other turbocharger losses under
most operation conditions. Therefore, semi-empiric regression model
of sufficient accuracy was developed for friction loss representation,
correcting the results for heat transfer in a shaft and for changed
pressure loads of a thrust bearing. It has to respect bearing load of
both radial and thrust bearing, oil viscosity and turbine size. The
power loss determined for enthalpy change of a lubricating oil
PL, meas - [46] - is calculated according to
( 12 )
The regression Eq. ( 12 ), applied to experiment data of oil warming-
up in bearings, includes the effect of gas average temperature in a
turbine, since the measurement is performed at different turbine inlet
temperatures - [47]. The separation of this effect by regression made
it possible to find the net oil enthalpy increase due to bearing friction
and thus to evaluate more realistic values of mechanical losses PL
- Figure 12, which demonstrates the independence of mechanical
losses on turbine gas temperature after being corrected to the same
averaged turbine temperature, equal to the compressor one. Changed
axial loads were taken into account, as well, if cold flow turbine
drove the compressor using much higher pressure ratio for the same
enthalpy head.
Figure 12. Friction power loss in bearings calculated from oil enthalpy
increase (left) and corrected by regression to avoid shaft heat transfer from a
turbine to oil (right) - [47]
Reduced parameters of a compressor (reduced mass flow rate or
speed) should take into account the change of material features of a
gas, if, e.g., massive EGR is present - see below with a turbine
parameters reduction.
Turbine Efficiency
After compressor power input is determined by calibrated relation
Eq. ( 9 ) and friction power loss can be found from Eq. ( 12 ), turbine
efficiency can be found from turbine hot tests, excluding the
inaccurate measurement of turbine outlet temperature, dependent on
heat transfer. The standard braking by a compressor, even if throttled
at air inlet, does not ensure sufficient range of BSR, especially if
turbine is intended for pulse exhaust manifold. The test rigs with
pressurized compressor circuit are expensive. Using different sizes of
compressor impellers is slow and clumsy. There is another way to
extend the BSR range if open loop test bed is used. The temperature
upstream of a turbine may be changed up to the short-time limit of
turbine impeller creep failures, overloading the turbine (low BSR’s)
or reducing the inlet temperature, unloading the turbine to high BSR.
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Figure 13. BSR range extension using changes of turbine inlet temperature at
fixed turbocharger speed and pressure upstream of a turbine. The turbine has
been rated for 800 K, BSR is calculated from compressor speed.
It is worthwhile mentioning that the changes of rated temperature will
distort the overall accepted fact of almost constant BSR kept by a
compressor performance. If enthalpy differences at both machines are
kept by turbocharger power balance and speed of a compressor
depends on enthalpy difference according to Eq. ( 10 ), the BSR
value depends on turbocharger efficiency and exhaust gas
temperature. The changes of a BSR (calculated from compressor
speed) are demonstrated in Figure 14. The reduction of exhaust gas
temperature causes significant changes of pressure ratios and thus the
deviations from the nearly fixed BSR, which is followed by turbine
efficiency decrease.
Figure 14. BSR range for different temperatures upstream of a turbine for a
turbocharger in power balance in dependence on compressor pressure ratio
Figure 15. Extrapolation of measured BSR/pressure ratio map of a turbine by
regression - [47]
The measured BSR dependence of turbine efficiency has to be
extrapolated. The appropriate way of doing it is calibrating of a 1-D
model by measured data, extrapolation of parameters by it and
substitution by a simple regression (e.g., [47]) - Figure 15. The
suitable form of a regression polynomial for efficiency or discharge
coefficient is in Eq. ( 13):
( 13 )
The extrapolation using physical model is suitable for pulse operation
of turbine, especially.
The dimensionless turbine parameters are isentropic efficiency and
discharge coefficient in dependence on pressure ratio and BSR. The
reduced speed and mass flow rate may be found form it. The
advantage of really dimensionless parameters is natural respecting
gas parameters ( , etc.), while reduced parameters
traditionally involve state variables only (pressure, temperature). The
specific needs of turbines if, e.g., alternative fuels are used,
considering speed of sound and similar parameters have to added to
reduction formulae. Just now, should be added to a square root of
temperature, if other then hydrocarbon fuel is used.
Efficiencies in the Case of Two-Stage Turbocharging
The measurements at test beds for two stage turbocharging may
demonstrate the influence of complicated flow fields, especially at the
inlet to a high pressure compressor downstream of pipe bends or
influence of pressure losses at turbine side, as in [26,27,28,29,30,31,3
2,33,34,35]. The overall efficiency of the turbocharging group,
calculated from Eq. ( 4 ) using the overall pressure ratios for the
whole group, is usually only slightly increased in comparison to
partial efficiencies of individual machines, after the overall pressure
ratio is high enough - Figure 16. Then, the positive effect of
intercooling at compressor side and a reheat factor influence at
turbine side balances the losses in pipes. The result depends on
pressure losses between both stages.
Figure 16. Overall efficiency of a two stage group with equal turbocharger
efficiencies in both stages and optimized pressure ratio division between both
stages
Surprisingly, increase of partial efficiencies has been found from
experiments with a steady flow test bed for a high-pressure machines
for two stage turbocharging, compared to the turbine of the same
reduced mass flow rate, pressure ratio and speed with outlet pressure
of atmospheric level. The same but lower effect has been found at a
compressor in comparison with a larger machine suitable for the mass
flow rate at atmospheric density. The efficiency multipliers in
dependence on inlet density are presented in Figure 17.
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The explanation and prediction possibility of this phenomenon can be
based on changes of Reynolds number, important especially for a
turbine due to high-temperature viscous flow. The turbines compared
with the same reduced parameters feature obviously the same
velocities of flow and characteristic dimensions. The kinematic
viscosity is reduced by higher density.
Old Ainley’s correlation, valid for profile boundary layer losses
interblade channels in axial turbines has been tested - [37]. The loss
coefficient of profile losses decreases with increased Re and thus
increases efficiency at higher values of Re: ζ ∝ Re-0.2, ηTs ≈ 1 - ζ.
The assumption for channel flow with Blasius’s exponent of -0.25
shows very good correlation with measured data, as presented in
Figure 17. In the case of compressor, Re dependence is much weaker.
The regression on relative density led to exponent of -0.1 only. It may
be influenced by relative decrease of losses due to compressor power
increased by mass flow rate. Again, the correlation with measured
data is very satisfactory.
Figure 17. Increase of high-pressure stage efficiency of the two stage group in
dependence on inlet density
Influence of Pulse Manifold Performance and
Turbocharger Efficiency
High boost levels are ideally supported by constant pressure manifold
of a large cross-section or - especially for fast transient response of
engine to load demand - by single-pipe manifolds with mutual
isolation of interfering cylinders by nozzles at pipe joints, so-called
pulse converters. Pulses cause changes of averaged parameters in
comparison with those calculated from an averaged pressure due to
the non-linearity of coupling equations of pressure difference,
mass-flow rate and potentially usable power if isentropic change
inside turbine is assumed (isentropic power). Approximately, the
dependences of mentioned values on pressure difference in a turbine
are the square root dependence of mass-flow rate and semi-cubical
parabolic dependence of turbine power on turbine pressure difference
- [1]. The corrections should be done respecting the following facts:
• turbine averaged flow rate is lower than that determined from
averaged pressure - correction by pulse flow-rate multiplier αp;
• turbine power is greater than that at determined from averaged
pressure - correction by power multiplier βp;
• mean turbine efficiency is decreased simultaneously,
correction comparing the optimum efficiency at averaged
pressure ratio is done by efficiency multiplier γp.
Moreover, engine scavenging (if any) may be supported by back-
pressure decrease near to angles of IO/EC.
An example of pulse correction factors for engines with different
numbers of cylinders and different layouts of exhaust manifolds will
be presented later, in the Figure 27. The evaluation of all three factors
requires averaging of mass flow rates and turbine powers (both
isentropic and real ones) compared to appropriate values calculated
from mean pressures, inlet temperature and mass flow rate at a
turbine in consideration. Maximum efficiency is determined for mean
pressure ratio, as well, as it is explained below.
Corrections of flow rate and TC efficiency have to be added to the
model working with algebraic equations, if fast assessment of pulse
manifold is to be done. The same is needed for evaluation of
experiments from mean pressure, temperature and mass flow rate
measurements. Otherwise, the apparent turbine efficiency would be
unrealistic high and the flow capacity of it would be too low,
especially at engine low speed with relatively high pulses.
Since the increase of exhaust gas power available to a turbine is
partially enhanced by work delivered by a piston during an exhaust
stroke - Figure 3, the mean exhaust pressure inside a cylinder cannot
be evaluated from the sole mean pressures upstream and downstream
of cylinder ports. PIMEP has to be corrected in dependence on term
ΔPIMEP as mentioned in Eq. ( 3 ), respecting pulsation power factor,
engine speed and the lay-out of an exhaust manifold branch.
The specific values of correcting coefficients have to be found by
engine simulation based on differential equation or by reversed
simulation, applied to measurement results. The knowledge of those
impacts is, nevertheless, very important even for qualitative assessment
of results, based on mean values of pressures, mass flow rates, etc.
The following examples were calculated with large sets of data from
SI engine WOT torque curve simulations and for a three cylinder
diesel engine. The SI engines had two, three or four cylinders with a
single exhaust manifold. The b.m.e.p. was set at WOT to values
between 15 and 35 bar at speeds between 1 500 and 6 500 r.p.m.
Use of Turbine Models for Evaluation of Experiments
The examples of pressure - crank angle and pumping loop p-V
diagrams are presented in Figure 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, Figure 23 for
different cylinder layouts and speeds. The reflected waves from a
turbine may be found at all speeds, being most intensive for a small
turbine at a two-cylinder engine. The four-cylinder engine is closer to
constant pressure exhaust manifold. The three-pulse manifold at a
three-cylinder engine is a good compromise between energy transfer
to a turbine by pulses and PIMEP reduction, as it will be shown
below. The pumping loop is strongly affected by engine speed due to
both pressure losses at high mass flow rates and timing of reflected
waves, coming sometimes just to the mid exhaust stroke with
maximum piston speed. The result is increased piston work for
expelling burnt gas.
Traces of measured pressure upstream of a turbine are visible in Figure
24 using model from [47]. Using co-simulated exhaust gas temperature
and turbine 1-D model, turbine parameters can be evaluated, as shown
in the same figure. Due to extremely high b.m.e.p., the turbine works
 Downloaded from SAE International by The J. Robert Van Pelt Library / Michigan Technological University, Saturday, July 25, 2020

behind its choking limit, which suppressed BSR to low values and
limited turbine instantaneous efficiency. The isentropic efficiency was
evaluated from torques at an impeller neglecting the volume capacity
of a turbine, avoiding effects of energy accumulation on apparent
efficiency - [48]. The fluctuations of parameters are presented for the
case of a three cylinder diesel in Figure 25. Similar methodology have
been used for evaluation. The impact of windage losses on turbine
efficiency is important, although it may correct some inaccuracies in
friction losses, as well. Windage losses cannot be separated from
friction unless bladeless impeller is measured.
Figure 21. Pumping in a three-cylinder SI engine at 3 500 r.p.m.
The evaluation of mean efficiency is done by weighted averages,
based on instantaneous turbine power. BSR dependence of efficiency,
discharge coefficient and pressure ratio is presented for a diesel
engine in the Figure 26.

Figure 22. Pressure - crank angle dependence in a two-cylinder SI engine at 1

500 r.p.m.

Figure 18. Pressure - crank angle dependence in a four-cylinder SI engine at 6

500 r.p.m.

Figure 23. Pumping loop in a two-cylinder SI engine at 1 500 r.p.m.

Figure 19. Pumping loop in a four-cylinder SI engine at 6 500 r.p.m.

Figure 24. Turbine parameters evaluated from pressure measurement and a

turbine model for a three-cylinder SI engine at 3 500 r.p.m.

Figure 20. Pressure - crank angle dependence in a three-cylinder SI engine at

3 500 r.p.m.

Figure 25. Turbine parameters (internal power, efficiencies and discharge

coefficient) in dependence on crank angle for a diesel three-cylinder engine
with three-pulse manifold branch at rated speed. Averaging of efficiency using
weighted average.
 Downloaded from SAE International by The J. Robert Van Pelt Library / Michigan Technological University, Saturday, July 25, 2020
Figure 26. Turbine parameters in dependence on blade-speed ratio for a diesel
three-cylinder engine with three-pulse manifold branch at rated speed
Pulse Correction Coefficients
The weighted averages of turbine instantaneous mass flow rate,
isentropic power and achieved power were integrated for WOT
measurement supported by co-simulations for finding unmeasurable
parameters. The pulse correction coefficients, mentioned in a list
above, were evaluated. It was found, that for engines with
comparatively high pressure losses in pipe systems (due to, e.g.,
exhaust gas aftertreatment devices) suitable independent variable
characterizing pulses has to be based on pressure ratios. Then, the
dependences may be almost general with small dispersion, as
presented for all three pulse coefficients in Figure 27 for very
different exhaust systems and b.m.e.p. levels at WOT curves. Using
relative amplitude of pressure ratio pulses Π, which generalizes
Zinner’s approach in [1], the flow pulse coefficient may be
substituted by a regression
( 14 )
and in similar way for isentropic power pulse coefficient
( 15 )
or for turbine efficiency coefficient
( 16 )
Figure 27. Pulse correction factors for different numbers of cylinders and
different relative pulsation levels, evaluated from simulation, and their
substitution by regression in dependence on relative amplitude of pressure
pulses
The regressions cannot be used for extrapolation. The estimation of
pulse impact has to be based on at least approximate unsteady
simulation of exhaust manifold pressure or on experience with similar
engines.
The found general relations have an important side effect: Model
based control suffers often by underprediction of exhaust pressure
pulses in fast-running real time models, which are based on simplified
1-D or even 0-D approximations. Using the correction coefficients,
fund by comparison of a real time model to detailed simulation, the
results may be corrected by generally valid formulae. The values of
correction coefficients will be much closer to one, if they correct
inaccurate pulsating pressures to correct ones instead of the presented
wide-range correction from non-pulsating pressure to pulsating ones.
The PIMEP predicted from inlet manifold and mean exhaust pressures
has to be corrected, as well, as already mentioned with the relation Eq.
( 3 ). The results from investigated engines are presented in Figure 28
together with approximation by general regression, valid for all
studied cases. The errors of approximation are visible but not critical.
The goal of system assessment is IMEP, which is 20 - 10 times greater
than IMEP and the errors of PIMEP are negligible at IMEP level.
Figure 28. Relative PIMEP values for different numbers of cylinders,
evaluated from simulation, and their substitution by regression
The regression yields using reference speed nMref as rated speed
( 17 )
This relations depend on valve size, nevertheless, and the validity of
empirical relation should be checked if used for other engines.
Summary/Conclusions
The paper has stated hints for experimental determination of
parameters used for description of a turbocharger or two-stage
turbocharging group. The determination techniques depend on the
goal of use of results.
Engine designers use the results mostly for turbocharger matching
optimization. In the case of map-based approach application, the
well-known issues of in-turbocharger heat transfer are not critical
since the influences on both compressor and turbine efficiencies are
 Downloaded from SAE International by The J. Robert Van Pelt Library / Michigan Technological University, Saturday, July 25, 2020
mutually compensated. Very sophisticated experiment equipment is
not needed in this case. The overall turbocharger efficiency has to be
evaluated as a product of temperature-distorted partial efficiencies of
a compressor and a turbine, which compensates temperature errors.
Turbine power may be even evaluated from apparent compressor
power during hot test if simultaneously compressor efficiency is
evaluated from the same temperature difference. On the other side,
the direct evaluation of turbocharger efficiency from isentropic
powers calculated from experiments according to Eq. ( 4 ) suffers
from inaccuracy of real turbine inlet temperature only. It is not
recommended to use it because no compensation occurs in this case.
During development of turbochargers and for more sophisticated
models of turbines or compressors, detailed knowledge of real partial
efficiencies is important, nevertheless. Most of those problems with
non-adiabatic flow inside turbomachines may be avoided, if a cold air
driven turbine (using out of design optimum operation) is used for
initial measurement of compressor power. The open loop testbed is
pre-requisite. The Euler theorem based approximation of pressure
independent compressor power requires mass flow rate and speed
measurements during hot tests then, while turbine efficiency and
friction loss in bearings is measured. Regression corrections of
friction loss to different turbine temperatures and unbalanced thrust
forces were developed and successfully used.
Transient load and speed operation should be simulated with more
detailed models, as [47] or [50]. In this case, the thermal capacities of
impellers should be taken into account, since adiabatic conditions for
enthalpy to work transformations are not fulfilled unlike in the case
of heat transport in casings.
Measurement of turbocharger parameters at different turbine inlet
temperatures is suitable for changing turbine BSR in a broad range.
Moreover, it can yield data for regression correction of internal heat
transfer and pressure unbalance at a turbocharger, which influences a
thrust bearing friction loss.
The model of a compressor calibrated by cold air driven turbine tests
can be easily extrapolated to low pressure ratios, which is important for
adequate initial conditions during engine transient load and speed
response.
Reynolds number dependence of profile boundary layer loss has to be
applied for high pressure machines of a two-stage group. Kinematic
viscosity is reduced by high density. Fixed velocities and dimensions
have to be used for a turbine but reduction of characteristic dimension
has to be applied for a compressor.
Qualitative dependences of pulse correction coefficients were found
in general dependence or relative amplitude of pressure ratio pulses.
Those relations are neither dependent on engine speed and load nor
on exhaust system lay-out. It yields good prospects for generally
valid calibration of simplified real time models used for model-based
control, which suffer by inadequate level of pulsations. The set of
empirical relations can be amended by the developed model of
PIMEP in dependence on inlet-exhaust manifold pressure difference,
IMEP, power pulse correction factor, engine speed and number of
cylinders connected to a branch of an exhaust manifold.
The described corrections open the way of preliminary assessment of
turbocharged/supercharged engine parameters by very fast algebraic-
equation based models of turbocharging. Nevertheless, the use of
sophisticated 1-D detailed models of a turbine and a compressor is
very important for co-simulations to measurement results, which
makes it possible assessing the unmeasureable values. 1-D, center
streamline models can be properly calibrated by fitting their
parameters by optimization procedures to experiments.
The yet open questions for the near future consider the reliability of
experiment result extrapolations to very low pressure ratios,
determination of windage losses and further development of 1-D
turbine and compressor models. The measurements and predictive
simulations of compressor performance close to surge limit create
another package of the future research.
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43. Costall A., Szymko S., Martinez-Botas R.F., Filsinger D. Definitions/Abbreviations

and NinkovicD.: “Assessment of Unsteady Behaviour in
A/F - - air-to-fuel ratio
Turbocharger Turbines.” Proceedings of ASME TurboExpo
2006, pap. GT2006-90348, Barcelona 2006 b.m.e.p. - [MPa, bar] - brake mean effective pressure

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Pulsating Flow through the Turbine of SI-Engine Turbochargers BSR - [-] - blade speed ratio of a turbine
- Part 1 Calculations for Choice of Turbines with Different Flow cp - [J.kg-1.K-1] - constant pressure specific heat capacity
Characteristics," SAE Technical Paper 2005-01-0222, 2005,
EC,EO - [°CA] - exhaust valve closing or opening angles
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FMEP - [bar] - friction mean effective pressure
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K - [1] - correction or regression polynomial coefficient
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Lt - [kg.kg-1] - stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio
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1146. ṁC,ṁim,ṁT - [kg.s-1] - mass flow rates: compressor, inlet manifold,
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pe - [Pa], [bar] - net brake mean effective pressure
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Turbocharger Modeling," GT 2012 Conference, 2012. PT - [W, kW] - turbine power
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Vehicle Modeling Tool Applicable to All Stages of the pa - [Pa], [kPa] - atmospheric air pressure
Design Process," SAE Technical Paper 2000-01-0934, 2000,
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doi:10.4271/2000-01-0934.
pim - [Pa], [kPa] - inlet manifold air pressure
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Powertrain/Vehicle” Simulation Tool Solves Complex pIC - [Pa], [kPa] - intake stroke mean pressure
Interacting System Issues," SAE Technical Paper 2003-01-0372, p0C1,p0C2 - [Pa], [kPa] - total pressures upstream and downstream of a
2003, doi:10.4271/2003-01-0372. compressor
53. Macek, J.: Mathematical Model of a Turbocharged Diesel p0T1 - [Pa], [kPa] - total pressure upstream of turbine
Engine (in Czech). Czech Technical University in Prague, 1978 - [W] - heat flux transferred from a turbine casing to a
compressor casing
Contact Information
rim - [J.kg-1K-1] - specific gas constant
Jan Macek
SI - - spark ignition engine
Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering T0 - [K] - total temperature
Technicka 4, CZ 166 07 Praha 6, Czech Republic Tim - [K] - inlet manifold air temperature
jan.macek@fs.cvut.cz Tm - [K] - measured temperature
uC2 - [m.s-1] - compressor impeller speed
Acknowledgments Vz - [m3] - engine displacement volume
This research has been realized using the support of Technological
WOT - - wide-open throttle curve
Agency, Czech Republic, program Centers of Competence, project #
TE01020020 Josef Božek Competence Centre for Automotive W2r - [m.s-1] - compressor impeller, radial flow velocity component
Industry z - [1] - key for external mixture formation… 1, direct injection… 0
 Downloaded from SAE International by The J. Robert Van Pelt Library / Michigan Technological University, Saturday, July 25, 2020

α - [°CA] - angle of crank ηTC - [1] - Turbocharger overall efficiency

βp - [1] - correction factor of turbine power due to pulses in exhaust ηTs - [1] - turbine isentropic efficiency
γP - [1] - correction factor of turbine efficiency due to pulses in λ - [1] - relative air-to-fuel ratio, air excess
exhaust λd - [1] - delivery ratio (SAE 2)
ηch - [1] - charging efficiency (SAE 2) πC - [1] - pressure ratio of a compressor
ηCs - [1] - compressor isentropic efficiency πT - [1] - pressure ratio of a turbine
ηe - [1] - brake efficiency τz - [1] - number of strokes per complete cycle
ηiHP, ΔηiLP - [1] - indicated efficiency for high and low pressure party
of a cycle

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ISSN 0148-7191

http://papers.sae.org/2016-01-1042