Global Plastic Waste Pollution Challenges and

Management
Zvanaka S. Mazhandu*(1) and Edison Muzenda(1,2)
(1) Department of Chemical Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment University of Johannesburg,
Johannesburg, South Africa
(2) Department of Chemical, Materials and Metallurgical Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, BIUST,
Palapye, Botswana

Abstract— Over 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste have been
generated worldwide to date. These are alarmingly high levels
and there are fears that if this situation is not addressed, the
world will end up “drowning” in plastic. Researches that have
been done have revealed the ubiquitous nature of plastic because
regions which were previously thought to be virgin (untouched)
such as The Arctic have been contaminated with microplastics.
Little is known about the effects of microplastics on human
health. But what is clear is that they have landed on our tables, in
the form of table salt or fish that we consume. Furthermore,
graphic images have emerged of whales that have died from
ingesting plastics as well as entanglement and suffocation of other
aquatic animals. Plastic use has significantly increased over the
years, mainly because it’s a cheap form of material, it can easily
be moulded and unlike paper, plastic keeps foods fresh for longer
periods. Of late, there has been a growing trend of making less
durable plastic materials which makes it difficult to reuse. These
plastics are referred to as single use plastics and are said to
account for 40% of all plastics manufactured. Statistics also show
that from the total plastics produced globally, a meagre 9% has
been recycled. The need to explore the use of plastics as an
alternative energy source and for material recovery has become
more urgent than ever in order to protect the environment and
its inhabitants.
Keywords-microplastics; Waste to energy plants; non-recycled
plastics; calorific value
I. INTRODUCTION
The advent of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) also
referred to as Industry 4.0 has seen the introduction and use of
technology such as robotics, artificial intelligence, the Internet
of Things, autonomous vehicles, 3-D printing, nanotechnology
and quantum computing [1], [2], [3]. Reference [4] has
referred the 4IR as the coalescing of physical and digital
technologies which has promoted good health and
performance of installations by helping to optimize
operations/processes while other companies are using these
innovations to develop new, higher-value business models.
Reference [5] also mentions biological technologies. In view
of these technological advancements, it is clear that reliable
energy supply will play a crucial role in the success of the
Fourth Industrial Revolution. The authors believe that the
Fourth Industrial Revolution will be driven by Renewable
Energy and hence the need for renewable, sustainable, green
and efficient energy. There is already a growing concern in the
supply of energy not only in South Africa but globally. In
addition to this, the plastic pollution crisis has led to
significant deaths of aquatic animals, loss of habitats and
filling up of landfills. A recent study published, and conducted
by a German-Swiss team of researchers revealed that the snow
in the Arctic; which was previously considered to be a virgin
environment, is in fact contaminated with microplastics. The
Scientists found more than 10 000 particles per litre of snow
[6]. Microplastics are tiny plastic particles that are less than or
equal to 5mm in length and pollute the environment [7] [8].
Microplastics can be classified into primary and secondary
microplastics. Primary microplastics are plastics that enter the
environment at a size of 5mm or less and these include
microfibres from clothes, microbeads and nurdles [9] [10].
Secondary microplastics are formed from degradation
overtime of larger plastic products such as bottles, plastic
bags, fishing nets [11] [12]. Plastics persist in the environment
and as such this increases the risk to exposure and
accumulation of these microplastics in living organisms [13]
[14].
According to [6] in an interview with a news channel [7],
these microplastics are potentially being inhaled [15] by
people and other wildlife and there exists a possibility that
there are also nano plastics of size below 1 μm [16] in the air
which can enter cells. Humans can also be exposed to
microplastics when they consume fish [17]. The idea of
microplastics inhalation and ingestion through fish is also
supported by [18]. Microplastics have also been found in table
salt [19] [20] [21]. It is estimated that, an adult consumes
about 2000 microplastics per year through salt [22].
Microplastics have also been detected in surface water, ground
water, wastewater [23], and in bottled water and tap water [24]
[25]. Water is a crucial resource for the survival of mankind,
more so, the availability of safe drinking water sources.
According to the United Nations, the amount of water that is
suitable for drinking in the world is less than 3% of the water,

978-1-7281-5152-6/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Exeter. Downloaded on June 19,2020 at 09:04:46 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
from which 2.5% is trapped in the Antarctica, Arctic and
glaciers. This leaves a meagre 0.5% fresh water for humans to
utilise. However, people are polluting this water faster than it
can be recycled and purified by nature [26]; and plastic
pollution can only make the situation worse. During water
treatment, the removal of pathogens and chemicals is
prioritised. The availability of safe drinking water sources
ensures that water borne diseases such as dysentery and
cholera are prevented. In order to promote good health and
reduce poverty, providing safe water is considered as 1 of the
most effective tools. Effective wastewater treatment that
removes faecal coliforms, will also ensure the removal of as
much as 90% of microplastics through filtration. Particles less
than 1 micrometre in size can be removed through drinking
water treatment [26]. Unfortunately, although 71% of the
global population has access to safe drinking water, two
billion people consume water contaminated with faeces
worldwide [27] because, wastewater and drinking-water
treatment is not available nor optimized in many countries.
Approximately 67% of the population in low- and middle-
income countries lack access to sewage connections and about
20% of household wastewater collected in sewers does not
undergo at least secondary treatment [28]. The health risks
posed by pathogens in water outweigh the risks associated
with microplastics and therefore, if treatments can be made
available or optimized, this will in turn solve the problem of
microplastics in drinking water [29].
The handling of waste from treatment plants must also be
taken into consideration because plastic is not destroyed but
instead transferred from one phase to the other. Consequently,
it simply carries over the microplastics to wherever it’s put.
For example, if sewage sludge is used as a fertilizer in parks,
the microplastics contained can still find their way back into
water bodies through surface run off even if treatment is
available or optimized and eventually to people via the food
chain or other means. The available data on how waste from
treatment plants is handled and its impact on the environment
is inadequate [30]. Seventeen salt brands from Australia,
France, Iran, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, Portugal, and
South Africa and bought from a market in Malaysia were
analysed. The researchers detected plastic polymers and
pigments used in the plastic industry in the proportions 41.6%,
23.6% and 5.5% respectively. Polypropylene and Polyethylene
accounted for the bulk of the particles at 40% and 33.3%
respectively. Furthermore, the authors made special mention
of the lead chromate pigment that was found in salt from
South Africa [21]. This type of pigment, although relatively
cheap is toxic and has been reported to cause bronchial
carcinoma, cerebrovascular disease, and nephritis in humans
[31] [32] [33]. Despite these findings, the concentration of the
pigment at that time was not high enough to cause any concern
[21]. However, it should be born in mind that due to continued
plastic pollution no one can confidently argue that the levels
of this pigment will remain static. However, much is not
known with regards to the effect of these miniscule particles
of plastic on human health [8], mainly because these plastics
Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Exeter. Downloaded on June 19,2020 at 09:04:46 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
have differing physical and chemical properties. Moreover, it
is a challenge to determine the compositions and
concentrations of these microplastics in the environment [30].
Reference [18] has made attempts to assess the effect of
microplastics on humans basing on a few studies on animals.
Chemical toxicity could occur as a result of leaching of plastic
additives and adsorbed toxins [23]. Therefore, it is important
to understand the limit at which microplastics start to become
damaging to people’s health bearing in mind their
accumulative nature as well. It is also feared that microplastic
can act as pathogen vectors while the particles can also result
in immune response similar to that observed in mussels by
[34]. In birds, microplastics reportedly disturb iron absorption
when they reshape the small fingerlike projections of the small
intestines and also increase stress on the liver. Some Scientists
recently found microplastics of sizes ranging between 50 to
500micrometres in 8 human stool samples collected from
Europe, Japan and Russia. Out of 10 plastic varieties analysed,
9 were present in the stools at an average concentration of 20
particles per 10g of excreta. Polypropyene and
Polyemillionthylene Terephthalate were the most prevalent.
Reference [35] concluded that over 50% of the world’s
population may potentially have microplastics in their stool.
According to Dr Schwabl in [36], the smallest microplastics
can enter the blood stream, the lymphatic system and possibly
the liver.
More than eight million tonnes of plastic enter our oceans
yearly as reported by the United Nations’ climate agency, UN
environment [8]. Reference [9] mentioned that in 2050, there
will be 12 billion tonnes of plastic contained in landfills and in
the environment if current practices are not addressed and this
will result in 20% consumption of the world’s oil. The
ubiquity of plastic has led to researchers concluding that the
world is entering the Anthropocene era where human activities
have had a bearing on the Earth’s characteristics [37].
II. PICTURES SHOWING PLASTIC POLLUTION
Scenes like those depicted in the pictures 1 to 3 are indeed
chilling and a wakeup call that the mismanagement of plastic
cannot continue unabated.
III. WHY DEMAND FOR PLASTIC IS HIGH?
Plastic, unlike other material is relatively cheap, light and easy
to manufacture. Plastic is also durable making it an attractive
option to use in different areas such as packaging [42]. Certain
types of plastics also ensure that foods (meats and vegetables)
remain fresh for longer periods than when paper is used during
storage. Furthermore, plastic can easily be cast into different
shapes. In view of this, plastic will be a part of us for a long
time to come. Its reprocessing, for example to provide energy,
after its use; is work that is worth investing in.
 IV. HISTORY OF PLASTICS
Bakelite was the first synthetic plastic to be produced in 1907.
Between 1950 and 1970, although the quantity of plastic
produced was controllable the amount of waste plastics around
1990 had tripled owing to increased plastic production. The
waste plastics generated increased significantly in 10 years
than it had between 1950 and 1990 [43]. Fig. 1 shows the
cumulative global plastics production up to 2015.

Picture 1: Plastic belt-Caribbean Island of Roatan,

Honduras Credit [38] Image: AFP

Picture 2: Credit: [39] Image by Chris Jordan

Fig. 1: Cumulative global plastics Credit [44]

V. PLASTIC STATISTICS
UNEP states that single use plastic accounts for 50 per cent of
plastic waste [43]. In another research, it is stated that 8.3
billion tonnes of plastic have been produced to date and half of
it has been produced since 2004 [45]. UNEP also mentions
that 60% of all this plastic is either in landfills or in the natural
environment [43]. Furthermore, the amount of waste plastics
currently being generated stands at 300 million tonnes per
year; and this is analogous to the total weight of humans in the
world [46]. It is forecasted that there will be a 70% growth in Picture 3: Garbage at the beach Manila, Philippines
30 years of the world’s waste [47]. Fig. 2 shows the plastic Image by Adam Cohn Credit [40]
usage per person for several countries around the world [48].
The United States and South Africa lead with 0.34kgs and
0.24 kgs plastics per person while China is fifth with 0.12kgs
plastic per person. Despite this, South Africa was in the top
11 of plastic polluters of the world while USA was not found
on that list.

Picture 4: Polluted ocean Credit [41]

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Exeter. Downloaded on June 19,2020 at 09:04:46 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 Fig. 5: Mismanaged plastic waste in 2025 – top 11
Fig. 2: Plastic usage per person Credit: [48] countries Source of data: [48]

Fig. 6 shows that rivers in Asia were the largest contributor of

Reference [48], reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, plastic in the ocean with 86%, followed by Africa with 7.8%
Vietnam and Sri Lanka were the top 5 contributors to plastic in while Australia-Pacific region contributed the least amount of
oceans, while South Africa was on position 11 out of 192 plastic to the ocean [48].
coastal countries studied. Plastic data from the year 2010 was
used. The authors also predicted the amount of mismanaged
plastics in 2025. These results are depicted in figs. 3-5.

Fig. 6: Global river plastic input to the ocean by region

Fig. 3: Mismanaged plastic waste – top 11 countries [48] [46] Credit [44]

Until early 2018, most of the plastic waste generated around

the world, was sent to China which in turn, processed it into
products of high value used by different manufacturers. Plastic
waste imports into China in 2016 added an extra 8.1 million
tonnes (12%) onto the 67 million tonnes of domestic waste
[49]. Reference [49] quantified the amount of plastic exports
to China in 2016 and represented the results in Fig. 7. The
graph shows that a number of developed countries were
sending waste plastics to China for processing.

Fig. 4: Share of global mismanaged waste Credit [44]

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Exeter. Downloaded on June 19,2020 at 09:04:46 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 environmental disaster whose symptoms are beginning to
show at a global scale.

Diverting waste plastics to landfills, is certainly not the

solution. Drastic measures in handling non-recyclable plastics
need to be taken without delay. This work therefore seeks to
address the rampant plastic waste problem. Energy recovery
from plastics is proving to be an attractive alternative energy
source

VI. PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA

Depleting natural resources and high cost of landfill space
necessitate the growth of the recycling industry. According to
[52], plastics are still valuable even when they have reached
their life span, consequently they should not be discarded but
Fig. 7: Plastic exports to China [49]
instead used to make new products/raw materials or for
production of energy. Recycling falls under mechanical and
When China implemented a ban on plastic imports which were
chemical recycling. Mechanical recycling involves sorting,
not 99.5% pure [50], in order to protect its own environment
cleaning and shredding plastic to make pellets, which can then
and air quality, some of the waste plastics were now being
be made into other products while chemical recycling involves
diverted to South East Asian countries like Indonesia,
energy production. Chemical recycling is effective if the
Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia, which in turn became
plastics are of similar composition.
overwhelmed by the huge volumes that China used to absorb
[50]. It is reported that between 2016 and 2018, plastic
Mechanical recycling rates in South Africa are higher
imports in Malaysia tripled to 870 000 tonnes. However, the
compared to other countries. For example, in 2018, South
facilities appeared to be underequipped to handle the toxic
Africa processed 352 000 tonnes from 519 400 tonnes of
fumes released during plastic processing while some plants
plastics into recycled plastics and raw materials. This
were operating illegally. This prompted the government to
represented a proportion of 46.3% versus 31.1% for Europe
introduce a temporary freeze on plastic import permits. Fig. 8
and it was the first time that South Africa surpassed 350 000
shows the cumulative amount of plastic displaced until 2030
tonnes of plastic. The China ban which brought shock waves
as a result of the ban introduced by China at 50%, 75% and
in many countries did not have a negative impact on South
100% import ban. Around 100 million tonnes of plastic waste
Africa since the country processes most of its waste plastic. As
are likely to be displaced if there is a total ban of plastic
a result of the recycling efforts implemented, 246 000 tonnes
imports by China [49].
of carbon dioxide emissions, which represent the amount of
greenhouse gases by 51 200 cars, were prevented. About
75% of the recycled plastic waste in South Africa came from
landfills and sources beyond the users. The most prevalent
plastics in the recyclate were low density polyethylene
packaging, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, high-
density polyethylene, polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) plastics in that order.

Fig. 8: Cumulative displaced plastic waste [49]

It is now crucial for all countries that were exporting their

plastic waste, to scale up their efforts of addressing the plastic
waste that they generate [51] before it becomes an
Fig. 9: Breakdown of recycled items, number of plastic
bags bought, and amount of money spent Credit [53]

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Exeter. Downloaded on June 19,2020 at 09:04:46 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
However, despite these raving reviews about South Arica’s Table 2: Types of plastics
recycling rates, being found in the top 11 of the world’s
biggest polluters of oceans, means South Africa needs to do
more to ensure that the 2025 statistics [48] do not become a
reality. It should be noted though, that the 2010 data used by
[48] may not reflect the current situation in South Africa and if
the aforementioned recycling rates are taken into consideration
then more research is needed to determine the new global
position of South Africa in managing plastic waste.

The success of recycling has been driven by consumer

awareness, implementation of recycling initiatives by
restaurants and other stakeholders, recycling in homes and
workplaces and the updating of waste management regulations
by the government. The barriers to higher recycling rates are
littering, illegal dumping and contamination of waste plastics
[54]. Source: F Gao Credit [59]

In gasification, the waste plastics are converted into a mixture

VII. PLASTIC ENERGY
Plastics are manufactured from crude oil and they are made up
of molecules that carry significant amounts of energy [55]. In
their study on gasification, [56], reported that countries were
disposing off, a valuable resource that could be used as a
source of energy. The authors found that there would be a
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions while simultaneously
reducing the plastic to landfills by about 76%. Reference [57]
also agree that plastics have a higher energy content than coal.
Reference [58], gave an energy value of 35.7MJ/kg for non
recycled plastics.
of gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide in the presence of oxygen and heat. This gaseous
mixture is combustible and is referred to as synthetic gas
(syngas). The calorific value of syngas is reportedly between
7.5MJ/m3 and 18.6MJ/m3. Syngas can either be used as a fuel
in energy producing plants or processed further through
Fischer-Tropsch to give liquid fuels such as diesel, petrol,
kerosene or chemicals such as methane, methanol, dimethyl
ether as shown in Fig. 10 [60].

Table 1 shows the heating values of different fuels including

plastic.

Table 1: Heating values of different fuels including plastic

Fig. 10: Gasification products

[59]
Waste plastics can be converted to fuel, through 2 processes;
namely gasification and pyrolysis. Production of fuel from
plastics, will result in preservation of oil which is not a
renewable energy source. Gasification and pyrolysis can
process containers of mixed composition. Therefore,
contamination is not a hindrance [59]. The table below shows
the various types of plastics and corresponding codes.
Although both technologies are still being studied, gasification
has shown much promise in the area of plastic waste
management. gasification [60].
Source: GBB Diagram, 2012 Credit [60]
Pyrolysis is when plastic waste is heated in the absence of
oxygen to produce an oil similar to crude oil and combustible
synthetic gases as well. The oil can be processed further into
liquid fuels. Plastics that can undergo pyrolysis are; high
density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene
(LDPE), polystyrene and polypropylene (PP) collectively
known as polyolefins. PET and PVC are not used during
pyrolysis because the generate acid and yield is low. As a
result, PET is recycled mechanically. In 2015, 150 000 litres
of diesel could have been produced through pyrolysis if the
170 000 tonnes of polyolefins generated had been processed

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Exeter. Downloaded on June 19,2020 at 09:04:46 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
[61]. Waste to energy process is more efficient when using
plastics than when processing other forms of waste. Compared
to municipal solid waste (MSW), NRPs have a lower heating
value that is three times that of MSW. The electricity
produced in WTE fuelled by municipal solid waste (MSW) is
around 0.6MWh per tonne of waste, therefore if MSW is
replaced with NRP, this is expected to triple to 1.8MWh [58].
VIII. HOUSEHOLDS POWERED BY ELECTRICITY FROM NRP
FUELLED WTE PLANTS
Reference [58], also revealed that if 34.4million tonnes of
non-recycled plastics (NRPs) which ended up in the landfills
in 2011 in America had been used to fuel waste to energy
(WTE) plants then 61.9 million MWh of electricity would
have been produced. This would have powered 5.7 million
homes at an electricity consumption per capita of 10.98MWh.
In China, 8.8 million tonnes [48] of NRPs would have yielded
15.84 million MWh of electricity, enough to power 5 923 709
homes for a year at an electricity consumption of 2.674MWh
per capita. In South Africa, it was revealed that in 2017, of the
1.144 million tonnes of recyclable waste plastic generated,
41.8% of this was recycled. This represented an increase of
5.6% from the previous year [41]. Therefore 665 808 tonnes
of plastic were discarded, which could have generated 1.2
million MWh of electricity, enough to power 306 981 homes
at an electricity consumption per capita of 3.904MWh.
IX. CONCLUSION
Recent statistics on plastics are lacking for many countries.
This hampers efforts to address the plastic problem. It can also
be argued that the reason why some countries appear to be
managing their plastic waste better than other countries could
be that there is not enough reporting and recording of accurate
figures in those countries or the countries were exporting most
of their waste to Asia before the ban by China in 2018. Hence
low values maybe misleading. This would also explain the
high tonnages of waste in Asian countries. The 2025
predictions by [48] would not have taken the changes that
occurred after the China ban was implemented. Furthermore,
there are huge benefits in using plastics as a source of fuel in
waste to energy plants because of their calorific value which
can potentially be higher than fuels such as coal and wood.
However, the success of waste to energy plants utilising
plastics hinges on the proper sorting or grading at source of
waste plastics in order to avoid contamination. Contamination
reduces the calorific value of the waste plastics.
X. RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations are summarised as follows:
 It is important for countries to take stock of the
amount of plastics that they produce together with the
quantities that are recycled or incinerated and those
that end up in landfills.
Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Exeter. Downloaded on June 19,2020 at 09:04:46 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 The proportion of plastic waste in municipal solid
waste (MSW) and associated calorific value should
be evaluated per country and or state/province to
enable the optimum design of WTE plants.
 Raising awareness of the impact plastic pollution has
on human and environmental health and encouraging
people to reduce plastic usage, reuse and recycle.
 Proper grading of waste plastics at source.
 Investing in waste to energy plants globally
 Governments should also adopt a hands-on approach
and fund research work towards the control of plastic
pollution. Therefore, collaborations between
governments, UN Environment, research institutions,
companies and civil society will be very vital.
 Waste pickers, collectors and recyclers need to be
educated on the various materials and basic chemical
principles that will impact on recyclate quality.
Sorting processes need to be managed better.
Recyclers should communicate their requirements to
their suppliers all down the value chain to waste
picker level.
XI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the University of Johannesburg and
the Botswana International University of Science and
Technology for supporting this work and conference
attendance.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Ntsabo, “https://ewn.co.za/2019/03/15/understanding-the-
fourth-industrial-revolution-in-a-south-african-context,” 2019.
[2] I. Wigmore, “https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/fourth-
industrial-revolution,” 2017.
[3] https://www.forbes.com/sites/jacobmorgan/2016/02/19/what-is-
the-4th-industrial-revolution/, 2016.
[4] L. Viljoen, https://www.iol.co.za/business-report/opinion/what-is-
the-fourth-industrial-revolution, 2018.
[5] “https://www.weforum.org/about/the-fourth-industrial-revolution”.
[6] M. Bergmann, S. Mützel, S. Primpke, M.B. Tekman, J.
Trachsel and G. Gerdts, “White and wonderful? Microplastics
prevail in snow from the Alps to the Arctic,” Science Advances,
Vol. 5, no. 8, 14 Aug 2019.
[7] https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-49295051.
[8] C. Arthur, J. Baker, H. Bamford, "Proceedings of the International
Research Workshop on the Occurrence, Effects and Fate of
Microplastic Marine Debris", NOAA Technical Memorandum,
January 2009.
[9] A. Collignon, J. Hecq, F. Galgani, F. Collard, A. Goffart, (2014).
"Annual variation in neustonic micro- and meso-plastic particles
and zooplankton in the Bay of Calvi (Mediterranean–Corsica)"
(PDF). Marine Pollution Bulletin. 79 (1–2): 293–298.
[10] C. Crawford, B. Quinn, “Microplastic Pollutants”, (1st ed.),
Elsevier Science, 2016.
[11] M. Cole, Matthew; Lindeque, Pennie; Fileman, Elaine; Halsband,
Claudia; Goodhead, Rhys; Moger, Julian; Galloway, Tamara S.
(2013-06-06). "Microplastic Ingestion by Zooplankton".
Environmental Science & Technology. 47 (12): 6646–6655.
[12] "Where Does Marine Litter Come From?", Marine Litter Facts,
British Plastics Federation.
[13] J. Boucher, D. Friot, Primary Microplastics in the Oceans: a Global
Evaluation of Sources.
[14] J. Conkle, C. Báez Del Valle, J. Turner, "Are We Underestimating
Microplastic Contamination in Aquatic Environments?",
Environmental Management, 61 (1): 1–8, 2018.
[15] J. Gasperi, S. Wright, R. Dris, F.Collard, C. Mandin, F. Kell,
“Microplastics in air: Are we breathing it in?”, Current Opinion in
Environmental Science & Health, Volume 1, Pages 1-5, February
2018.
[16] A. Koelmans, E. Besseling, W. Shim, “Nanoplastics in the Aquatic
Environment”, Marine Anthropogenic Litter, pp 325-340, 2015.
[17] Grossman, Elizabeth (2015-01-15). "How Plastics from Your
Clothes Can End up in Your Fish".
[18] SL. Wright, FJ. Kelly, “Plastic and Human Health: A Micro
Issue?”, Environmental Science and Technology, 51(12):6634-
6647, 2017.
[19] H. Lee, A. Kunz, W. Shim, B. Walther, ‘‘Microplastic
contamination of table salts from Taiwan, including a global
review, Scientific Reports, volume 9, Article number: 10145,
2019.
[20] D. Yang, H. Shi, L. Li, J. Li, K. Jabeen, P. Kolandhasamy,
“Microplastic pollution in table salts from China”, Environmental
Science & Technology 49(22), 2015.
[21] A. Karami, A. Golieskardi, C. Choo, V. Larat, T. Galloway, B.
Salamatinia, “The presence of microplastics in commercial salts
from different countries”, Scientific Reports, volume7,
Article number: 46173, 2017.
[22] K. Ji-Su, L. Hee-Jee, K. Seung-Kyu, K. Hyun-Jung, “Global
Pattern of Microplastics (MPs) in Commercial Food-Grade Salts:
Sea Salt as an Indicator of Seawater MP Pollution”, Environmental
Science and Technology, 52, 21, 2018.
[23] “Science Advice for Policy by European Academies - A Scientific
Perspective on Microplastics in Nature and Society”,
SAPEA, Berlin , 2019.
[24] A. Koelmans, N. Hazimah, M. Nor, E. Hermsen, M. Kooi, S.
Mintenig, J. De France, “Microplastics in freshwaters and drinking
water: Critical review and assessment of data quality”, Water Res.
2019 May 15; 155: 410–422.
[25] M. Mintenig, J. Löder S. Primpke, G., “Low numbers of
microplastics detected in drinking water from ground water
sources”, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 648, Pages
631-635, 15 January 2019.
[26] https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/water-
quality/guidelines/microplastics-in-dw-information-sheet/en/.
[27] https://www.unicef.org/wash/.
[28] https://in.one.un.org/page/sustainable-development-goals/sdg-12/.
[29] Progress on drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update
and SDG baselines WHO, UNICEF, 2017.
[30] World Health Organisation, “Microplast.ics in drinking water”,
2019.
[31] S. Langård, T. Norseth, “A cohort study of bronchial carcinomas in
workers producing chromate pigments, Br J Ind Med 32, 62–65,
1975.
[32] D. Fanning, “A mortality study of lead workers”, Arch Environ
Health Int J 43, 247–251, 1988.
[33] J. Davies, “Long term mortality study of chromate pigment
workers who suffered lead poisoning. Br J Ind Med 41, 170–178,
1984.
[34] DS. Green, TJ. Colgan, RC. Thompson, JC. Carolan, “Exposure to
microplastics reduces attachment strength and alters the
haemolymph proteome of blue mussels (Mytilus edulis)”,
Environmental Pollution, Volume 246, Pages 423-434, March
2019.
[35] B. Liebmann, S. Köppel, P. Königshofer, T. Bucsics, T. Reiberger,
P. Shwabl, “Assessment of microplastic concentrations in human
stool: Final results of a prospective study”, Environment Agency
Austria, 2018.
[36] https://www.nationalgeographic.com
www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/our-planet-
drowning-plastic-pollution/environment/2018/10/news-plastics-
microplastics-human-feces/.
[37] www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/our-planet-
drowning-plastic-pollution.
Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Exeter. Downloaded on June 19,2020 at 09:04:46 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
[38] https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/gallery/horrifying-
images-show-devastating-impact-11589617.
[39] https://chinadialogueocean.net/811-the-true-horror-of-the-damage-
inflicted-by-plastic-waste-in-the-oceans/.
[40] https://www.devex.com/news/asia-pacific-s-plastic-problem-
ignites-waste-management-movement-94115.
[41] https://www.esi-africa.com/top-stories/s-africa-1-144m-tonnes-of-
recyclable-plastic-dumped-in-landfills/.
[42] https://www.slideshare.net/malaiarasan/advantages-and-
disadvantages-of-plastic.
[43] https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/our-planet-
drowning-plastic-pollution.
[44] https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution.
[45] CJ. Rhodes, “Plastic pollution and potential solutions”, Science
Progress,101(3):207-260, 2018.
[46] https://www.unenvironment.org/interactive/beat-plastic-pollution/.
[47] https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/09/world-waste-could-
grow-70-percent-as-cities-boom-warns-world-bank/.
[48] J. R. Jambeck, R. Geyer, C. Wilcox, T. R. Siegler, M. Perryman,
A. Andrady, R. Narayan, K. L. Law, “Plastic waste inputs from
land into the ocean,” Science, 347, 768–771, 2015.
[49] AL. Brooks, S. Wang, JR. Jambeck, “The Chinese import ban and
its impact on global plastic waste trade”, Science Advances, Vol.
4, no. 6, 20 Jun 2018.
[50] https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/11/china-
ban-plastic-trash-imports-shifts-waste-crisis-southeast-asia-
malaysia/.
[51] https://phys.org/news/2019-04-china-plastic-global-recycling-
chaos.html.
[52] https://www.plasticsinfo.co.za/2019/08/22/south-african-pet-
recycling-rates-amongst-the-highest-in-the-world/.
[53] https://mg.co.za/article/2019-04-18-00-death-or-taxes-for-
polluting-plastic.
[54] https://www.plasticsinfo.co.za/2019/08/20/plastics-sa-releases-
latest-recycling-figures/.
[55] America Chemistry Council
https://www.plasticsmakeitpossible.com/whats-new-
cool/technology-science/plastics-to-energy/energy-recovery-with-
plastic-to-energy-technology/.
[56] D. A. Tsiamis and M. J. Castaldi, “The effects of non-recycled
plastic (NRP) on gasification: a quantitative assessment,” Earth
Engineering Center, City University Of New York, 30 April 2018.
[57] Czop M., Poranek N., Czajkowski A., Wagstyl L. Fuels from
Waste as Renewable Energy in Distributed Generation on the
Example of the ORC System Recycling 2019, 4(3), 26.
[58] N. J. Themelis and C. Mussche, “2014 Energy and economic value
of municipal solid waste (MSW) and non-recycled plastics (NRP)
currently landfilled in the fifty states,” Earth Engineering Center,
Columbia University, 2014.
[59] https://www.ee.co.za/article/waste-plastic-fuel-oil-exploited-
opportunity-energy-generation.html.
[60] “Gasification of Non-Recycled Plastics from Municipal Solid
Waste In the United States”, Prepared for: The American
Chemistry Council by Gershman, Brickner & Bratton, Inc., 2013.
[61] Plastics SA: “Plastics SA releases 2015 plastics recycling figures”,
www.plasticsinfo.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Plastics-
recycling-figures-2015-1.pdf, May 2016.