International Journal of Food Properties

ISSN: 1094-2912 (Print) 1532-2386 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ljfp20

Density and Porosity: Literature Data Compilation

for Foodstuffs

Ch. J. Boukouvalas , M.K. Krokida , Z.B. Maroulis & D. Marinos-Kouris

To cite this article: Ch. J. Boukouvalas , M.K. Krokida , Z.B. Maroulis & D. Marinos-Kouris (2006)
Density and Porosity: Literature Data Compilation for Foodstuffs, International Journal of Food
Properties, 9:4, 715-746, DOI: 10.1080/10942910600575690

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International Journal of Food Properties, 9: 715–746, 2006
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1094-2912 print / 1532-2386 online
DOI: 10.1080/10942910600575690

DENSITY AND POROSITY: LITERATURE DATA

COMPILATION FOR FOODSTUFFS

Ch. J. Boukouvalas, M.K. Krokida, Z.B. Maroulis and

D. Marinos-Kouris
School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens,
Greece

Recently published values of food properties, such as true density, apparent density, and
porosity, in various foods were retrieved from the literature, classified, and analyzed. Data
for more than 130 food materials classified into 11 food categories are presented. These
ranges of data are reported as a function of material moisture content and temperature.
The relative literature sources are presented for each food material.

Keywords: Data compilation, Foodstuffs, Apparent density, True density, Porosity, Mois-
ture content, Temperature.

INTRODUCTION
The structural properties of food materials are significant for the characterization
and prediction of the quality of processed products (e.g., dehydrated products). They are
also very important for the developing of new industrial products with desired properties
or for quality improvement of already existing ones. Thus, the knowledge of food physical
structure is important in the field of Food Material Science.[1–4]
The structure of food material can be characterized by density (apparent and true),
porosity, pore size distribution, specific volume, particle density shrinkage, and so on.
Among these, density and porosity are the most common structural properties reported in
the relevant literature. Apart from product quality characterization, they are vital parame-
ters in the design of process equipment. They provide necessary information for the design
of materials handling equipment for drying, storage, aeration and ventilation, etc.
Recent data compilations, found in literature, involve information about drying
rate constant,[5] moisture diffusivity,[6] thermal conductivity.[7] The scope of this paper
is to compile and analyze the data for the structural properties (true density ρp, apparent
density ρb, and porosity ε) of various foodstuffs, revealing the range of variation for
each food material versus the corresponding ranges of material moisture content Xw and
temperature T.
The food materials are separated into 11 major food categories (both animal and
plant based), proposed by Saravacos and Maroulis:[4]

Received 18 March 2005; accepted 15 January 2006.

Address correspondence to M.K. Krokida, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical Univer-
sity of Athens, Zografou Campus, Athens GR-15780, Greece. E-mail: mkrok@chemeng.ntua.gr

715
716 BOUKOUVALAS ET AL.

• Baked products
• Cereal products
• Diary
• Fish
• Fruits
• Legume
• Meat
• Model foods
• Nuts
• Others
• Vegetables
These categories cover the whole range of different food material satisfactorily, as
previous data compilations.[5–7] According to foodstuff morphology, the data were also
separated into 2 new categories for easy of study:

(a) continuous materials in which porosity develops when water is removed; and
(b) particulate or granular materials, in which porosity is a dependent variable that can be
controlled, e.g., by compression, vibration, etc.[4]

Terminologies
Assuming a moist material consisting dry solids, water and air, the following defini-
tions are used:

mt = ms + mw (1)

where mt, ms and mw are the total mass and the masses of dry solids and water respectively
(kg), while the mass of air is neglected.
The total volume of the sample, Vt, is written as:

Vt = Vs + Vw + Va (2)

where Vs, Vw and Va are the volumes of dry solids, water, and air pores (for continuous
materials) or interstitial air phase (for granular materials), respectively (m3). The volume
of air is referred to the internal pores only.[4]
• Apparent density (ρb) concerns powdered and porous materials and it is determined by
the mass of the sample and its apparent volume. The terms bulk density and bulk
volume are also used for granular materials. Bulk density depends on the packing of
granular materials and can be varied by pressure or vibration. On the contrary, apparent
density of continuous materials is dependent on the moisture content and on the shrink-
age resulted by the water removing method.[1] The apparent density ρb is defined as:

ρ b = mt / Vt (3)

• True density (ρp) is the density excluding all pores and it is determined by the mass of
the sample and its true volume. The terms particle density and particle volume are
also used for granular materials.[1] The true density ρp is defined as:
ρ p = mt / Vp (4)
 DENSITY AND POROSITY DATA COMPILATION 717

where Vp = Vs + Vw is the true (particle) volume, which is the total volume of the sam-
ple, excluding air pores or air phase.
• Porosity (ε) characterizes the open structure of a material. It is the fraction of the empty
volume (void fraction) and it is usually estimated from the apparent density and the true
density of the material according to the following equation:[1,4]

ε = 1− ρb / ρ p (5)

During processing (e.g, drying, frying, etc.), significant changes in structural prop-
erties can be observed as water is removed from the moist material. The main aspect, as
far as structural properties are concerned, is to control the product apparent density and
porosity in order to produce different physical structures for various uses, choosing an
appropriate method, condition, and so on. These properties depend on various factors.
Some of these factors are:
• Pre-treatment
• Moisture content
• Processing method
• Process conditions (pressure, temperature, etc.)[1]

Density and Porosity Measurement Methods

The experimental determination of the structural properties of a material is based on
the mass, apparent volume, and true volume determination.[1] Mass is determined by mea-
suring the sample's weight. For apparent and true volume, there are several methods. For
apparent volume measurements, the methods most commonly used are:

(i) Volumetric displacement methods: the apparent volume is determined by placing the
sample in a container of known liquid volume and measuring the volume
displacement;
(ii) Dimension methods: the apparent volume is determined by averaging a number of
dimension measurements with micrometers, assuming spherical or slab shapes;
(iii) Stereopycnometer methods: the sample is covered with silicone grease in order to make
it impervious to gases and its apparent volume is measured by a stereopycnometer;
(iv) Buoyant force methods: the apparent volume is determined by measuring the buoyant
force applied on the sample when coated sample is immersed in a known liquid.

True volume is usually measured by means of a gas (helium) stereopycnometer,

which measures the true volume, excluding the interparticle volume.[1,8] This is the case
for the data collected in this work. On the other hand, in most cases, porosity is not
directly measured, but calculated through measured apparent and true densities and Eq.
(5). Only in few cases, it is directly measured through porosity measurement methods
(direct method, gas expansion method, and optical methods).[8]

DATA COMPILATION
The experimental data, compiled by Rahman,[8] are used as the initial set of data.
Apart from these data, an exhaustive literature search was made in the most popular food
718 BOUKOUVALAS ET AL.

engineering and food science journals covering the years 1990–2004. The journals used in
this research are:
• Journal of Food Science
• Biosystems Engineering
• Drying Technology
• Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research
• Journal of Food Engineering
• Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technologie
• International Journal of Food Properties
In this research, most of the available data from review articles published in previous
years (prior to 1990) are also included, along with a few available data from some articles
from other journals (Chemical Engineering and Processing, Chemical Engineering Science,
Food and Bioproducts Processing, Food Chemistry, Food Control, Food Research Interna-
tional, International Journal of Refrigeration, Powder Technology, Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, and International Journal of Food Science and Technology).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total number of 150 papers were retrieved from the above journals according to
the distribution presented in Fig. 1a. The accumulation of the papers versus the publishing
time is also presented in Fig. 1b. The collection of the data resulted in 1419 data concern-
ing properties, such as true density, apparent density, and porosity of food materials.
These data were obtained and organized into a database. The data for true density
are plotted versus moisture content and temperature in Figs. 2a and 2b, respectively. The
data, presented in Fig. 2a, demonstrate an apparent behavior as they approach the water
density when the moisture content (in wet basis) tends to unity. In Fig. 2b, no apparent
scheme can be observed. The majority of data are greater than 800 kg/m3, (only 4% of the
752 data points that involve true density are less than 800 kg/m3).
The data for apparent density are plotted versus moisture content and temperature in
Figs. 3a and 3b, respectively. The data for true density versus apparent density are pre-
sented in Fig. 4. All the data are plotted above the diagonal, as expected since ρb < ρp (Eq.
(3) & (4)). The total number of data points is approximately 1000.
The data for porosity are plotted versus moisture content and temperature in Figs. 5a
and 5b. In Fig. 5a, the porosity for granular and continuous materials is plotted separately.
It can be seen that the porosity of granular material is usually high, which is not the case
for the majority of continuous materials whose porosity is small, especially at higher
moisture content. The total number of data points is about 300 and the majority of them
(more than 70%) are greater than 0.5.
These figures give a good picture of the range of variation of true density, apparent
density, and porosity versus moisture content and temperature values. Moreover, the his-
tograms in Figs. 6–8 reveal the distribution of the studied properties’ values retrieved from
the literature.
The range of variation of the structural properties studied in this work is:
• Apparent density 200–1600 kg/m3 (average 1200)
• True density 500–2000 kg/m3 (average 850)
• Porosity 0.00–0.98 (average 0.35)
 DENSITY AND POROSITY DATA COMPILATION 719

(a)
100

80 75
Total Number of Paper

60

40

18 18
20 16
9
4
2
0
International Lebensmittel- Biosystems Journal of Journal of Drying Journal of
Journal of Wissenschaft Engineering Agricultural Food Science Technology Food
Food und - Engineering Engineering
P roperties Technologie Research

(b)
200

150
Total Number of Paper

100

50

0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
year

Figure 1 (a) Number of papers, concerning structural properties data (true density, apparent density and poros-
ity) of various foodstuffs, published in food engineering and food science journals during recent years. (b) Accu-
mulation of published papers, concerning structural properties data (true density, apparent density, and porosity)
of various foodstuffs, versus time.
720 BOUKOUVALAS ET AL.

(a)
2500

2000

1500
ρp (k g /m 3)

1000

500

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

X w (wb)

(b)
2500

2000

1500
ρ p (k g /m 3 )

1000

500

0
-50 0 50 100 150 200

T ( οC)

Figure 2 True density data for all foods at various (a) moisture contents and (b) temperatures.
 DENSITY AND POROSITY DATA COMPILATION 721

(a)
2000

1800

1600

1400

1200
ρ b (k g /m 3 )

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

X w (wb)

(b)
2000

1800

1600

1400

1200
ρ b (k g /m 3 )

1000

800

600

400

200

0
-50 0 50 100 150 200

T( o C)

Figure 3 Apparent density data for all foods at various (a) moisture contents and (b) temperatures.
722 BOUKOUVALAS ET AL.

2500

2000

1500
ρ p (k g /m 3 )

1000

500

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

ρ b (kg/m3)

Figure 4 True density data versus apparent density for all foods.

The ranges of temperature and moisture content are:

• Temperature −50 to 200 °C (average 50)
• Moisture content 0.00 to 0.98 kg/kg (wet basis) (average 0.40).
The results are presented in detail in Table 1. More than 130 food materials are
incorporated and classified into the 11 food categories, previously mentioned. In this
table, the range of variation of apparent density, true density, and porosity for each mate-
rial, the corresponding ranges of moisture and temperature, and the corresponding refer-
ence are presented. Due to the large number of the available data points (over 1400), the
values are not included in the table. However, these values are readily available upon
request, addressed to the corresponding author.

CONCLUSIONS
Recently published values of food properties, such as true density, apparent density,
and porosity in various foods were retrieved from the literature. Data (over 1400 data
points) for more than 130 food materials were classified into 11 food categories. These
data were organized in a database, analyzed statistically revealing the range of variation
for each food material versus the corresponding ranges of material moisture content Xw
and temperature T, and plotted as a function of temperature and moisture content. The his-
tograms of the observed values of the properties, revealing the value distribution for each
property, are also plotted.
 DENSITY AND POROSITY DATA COMPILATION 723

(a)
1.0

0.9
Continuous
0.8
Granular
0.7

0.6

0.5
ε

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

X w (wb)

(b)
1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5
ε

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
-50 0 50 100 150 200
o
T( C)

Figure 5 Porosity data for all foods at various (a) moisture contents and (b) temperatures.
724 BOUKOUVALAS ET AL.

1000

307

164
148
N u mber of D ata R etr ieved

100
64

30
24

10 8 8

1
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100
3
ρp (kg/m )

Figure 6 Histogram of observed values of true density in food materials.

1000

336

202 214
189

122
89
Number of Data Retr ieved

100
47

12

10

1
100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700

ρb (kg/m3)

Figure 7 Histogram of observed values of apparent density in food materials.

 DENSITY AND POROSITY DATA COMPILATION 725

(a)
1000

213
Continuous
111
100 80
Numb er of Dat a Ret rieved

71 69
56
40
34
25
21

10

1
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95

(b)
1000

Granular

100 81
Number of Data Retrieved

29
22

10
10
7

1 1 0 0
1
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95

Figure 8 (a) Histogram of observed values of porosity in continuous food materials. (b) Histogram of observed
values of porosity in granular food materials.
 Table 1 Apparent density, true density and porosity of foods versus moisture and temperature. Ranges of variation of available data.

Xw (wb) T (°C) ρb (kg/m3) ρp (kg/m3) ε

Material min max min max min max min max min max Ref.

Baked products 0.000 0.539 18 200 161 1287 1268 1430 0.000 0.790
Bread 0.000 0.428 18 120 161 974 0.000 0.790 9,10
– 0.320 0.320 22 22 200 200
crumb 0.418 0.428 18 100 187 974 0.000 0.790
crust 0.000 0.000 100 120 258 895 0.000 0.710
French 0.420 0.420 22 22 161 161
Cake 0.355 0.415 300 694 9
– 0.355 0.415 300 694
Cup cake batter 0.059 0.346 25 200 236 803 0.220 0.770 11,12
– 0.059 0.346 25 200 236 803 0.220 0.770
Dough 0.041 0.539 28 190 520 1287 1268 1294 0.320 0.590 9,13
biscuit 0.041 0.085 1252 1287

726
rye bread 0.459 0.539 701 820
tortilla 190 190 520 880 1268 1294 0.320 0.590
wheat bread 0.420 0.451 28 28 586 750
Soy flour 0.062 0.062 600 600 1430 1430 0.580 0.580 14
powder 0.062 0.062 600 600 1430 1430 0.580 0.580
Yellow cake batter 0.380 0.380 22 22 497 497 10
– 0.380 0.380 22 22 497 497
Cereal products 0.010 0.800 20 180 172 1130 928 1713 0.194 0.676
Corn 0.090 0.090 730 865 1490 1490 0.510 0.510 8,11
flour 0.090 0.090 730 730 1490 1490 0.510 0.510
sweet 865 865
Maize 0.415 0.700 60 60 1060 1130 15
– 0.415 0.700 60 60 1060 1130
Millet 0.048 0.184 20 20 555 689 1557 1713 0.571 0.676 16
– 0.048 0.184 20 20 555 689 1557 1713 0.571 0.676
Oat 513 513 8
– 513 513
Pearl millet 0.069 0.069 22 22 830 866 1578 1623 0.451 0.489 17
 Babapuri 0.069 0.069 22 22 830 830 1623 1623 0.489 0.489
Bajra 28–15 0.069 0.069 22 22 854 854 1591 1591 0.463 0.463
GHB30 0.069 0.069 22 22 866 866 1578 1578 0.451 0.451
Quinoa 0.044 0.205 20 20 667 747 928 1188 0.194 0.438 18
seeds 0.044 0.205 20 20 667 747 928 1188 0.194 0.438
Rice 0.800 180 0 172 0 0.490 20.000 19,20,21
– 0.010 0.090 20 20 0.450 0.490
cooked 0.080 0.800 110 180
flour 80 120 172 231
Wheat 0.020 0.220 20 40 449 790 1332 1480 0.419 0.650 8,14,19,
– 20 20 785 785 22,23,24
flour 0.020 0.132 20 20 449 710 1467 1480 0.520 0.650
kenyon 0.080 0.220 40 40 686 790 1332 1374 0.419 0.485
Yeast 520 520 8
– 520 520
Dairy 0.000 0.980 80 150 421 1190 1133 1216 0.477 0.488
Jameed 80 150 587 623 25
– 80 150 587 623

727
Milk 0.046 0.980 593 1020 1133 1133 0.477 0.477 8,19
– 0.876 0.980 1000 1020
powder 0.046 0.046 593 610 1133 1133 0.477 0.477
Whey 0.038 0.038 622 622 1216 1216 0.488 0.488 19
powder 0.038 0.038 622 622 1216 1216 0.488 0.488
Yogurt 0.000 0.800 421 1190 26
– 0.000 0.800 421 1190
Fish 0.000 0.922 −40 70 317 1400 1055 1451 0.000 0.760
Calamari 0.000 0.845 −30 70 972 1246 1074 1339 0.011 0.079 8,27
mantle 0.000 0.816 20 70 1000 1246 1074 1339 0.011 0.079
tentacle 0.829 0.845 −30 20 972 1050
wing 0.827 0.834 20 20 1047 1050
Cod 1100 1100 8
– 1100 1100

(Continued)
 Table 1 (Continued).

Xw (wb) T (°C) ρb (kg/m3) ρp (kg/m3) e

Material min max min max min max min max min max Ref.

Cuttle 0.813 0.814 −30 20 990 1064 8

mantle 0.813 0.814 −30 20 990 1064

Herring 990 990 8

– 990 990
Mussel 0.774 0.774 20 20 1086 1086 8
– 0.774 0.774 20 20 1086 1086
Octopus 0.774 0.853 20 20 1042 1075 8
mantle 0.774 0.841 20 20 1056 1075
tentacle 0.786 0.853 20 20 1042 1071
Perch 0.000 0.784 −19 25 910 1400 8,28
– 0.000 0.784 −19 25 910 1400
Prawn 0.739 0.773 −30 20 1017 1093 8

728
abdomen −30 −30 1017 1017
green 0.739 0.773 20 20 1072 1093
tiger 0.757 0.757 20 20 1081 1081
Squid 0.000 0.922 −40 70 975 1275 1055 1451 0.000 0.125 8,29
– 0.000 0.840 70 70 1055 1275 1055 1451 0.000 0.125
mantle 0.793 0.922 −40 20 981 1066
tail 0.813 0.847 −30 20 975 1055
tentacle 0.786 0.786 20 20 1067 1067
Tuna 0.077 0.723 −40 70 317 1071 1071 1319 0.000 0.760 30
– 0.077 0.114 −40 70 317 960 1312 1319 0.240 0.760
fresh 0.723 0.723 20 20 1071 1071 1071 1071 0.000 0.000
Fruits 0.000 0.944 −50 165 80 1620 460 2029 0.000 0.950
Ackee apple 0.099 0.099 557 557 889 889 0.373 0.373 31
seeds 0.099 0.099 557 557 889 889 0.373 0.373
Apple 0.000 0.900 −50 165 80 1466 460 1714 0.020 0.950 8,32–58
– 0.000 0.900 −50 70 80 920 1000 1714 0.100 0.950
fresh 0.210 0.210
 golden delicious 0.000 0.894 −45 165 132 900 1038 1471 0.174 0.910
gortland 380 460 1390 1520 0.670 0.750
granny smith 0.010 0.891 −35 60 420 1250 460 1380 0.020 0.500
green 0.878 0.885 28 45 790 849
Jonagold 753 830 939 946 0.122 0.198
juice 0.498 0.872 1051 1227
kim 0.360 0.880 5 40 669 847 921 1000 0.137 0.310
mutsu 0.027 0.552 60 60 765 841 940 949 0.114 0.186
pacific rose 0.009 0.859 60 60 0.170 0.540
packed layers 2 2 489 489
red 0.849 0.858 28 28 830 840 1059 1059 0.203 0.203
sause 0.670 0.820 1232 1466
stark delicious 0.000 0.850 50 50 180 920 780 1200 0.130 0.800
Apricot 0.064 0.854 2 2 463 1048 1003 1161 0.022 0.557 8,43,57,
– 609 609 59
bulida 0.854 0.854 1048 1048 1057 1057 0.022 0.022
kernel 0.065 0.279 545 559 1003 1095 0.497 0.557
packed layers 2 2 637 637

729
pits 0.064 0.266 463 581 1053 1161 0.440 0.500
Arecanut 0.095 0.471 40 40 662 696 1139 1152 0.396 0.419 60
kernel 0.095 0.471 40 40 662 696 1139 1152 0.396 0.419
Avocado 0.012 0.750 28 70 1054 1060 0.090 0.734 8,34,61,
– 0.012 0.750 28 70 1060 1060 0.090 0.734 62
pulp 1054 1054
Banana 0.000 0.900 −50 80 260 1620 1044 2029 0.016 0.870 8,38,42,
– 0.000 0.835 −50 70 260 1620 1096 2029 0.050 0.870 43,48,
macho 0.777 0.777 1027 1027 1044 1044 0.016 0.016 63–66
puree 0.776 0.900 10 80 986 1609
Bilberry 0.895 0.895 1041 1041 8
juice 0.895 0.895 1041 1041

(Continued)
 Table 1 (Continued).

Xw (wb) T (°C) ρb (kg/m3) ρp (kg/m3) ε

Material min max min max min max min max min max Ref.

Blackberry 67
–
Blueberry 0.200 0.200 −40 70 190 442 68
– 0.200 0.200 −40 70 190 442
Cantaloupe 0.928 0.928 28 28 930 930 8
– 0.928 0.928 28 28 930 930
Cherry 0.090 0.867 20 20 450 1071 951 1049 0.414 0.527 8,62,69
– 721 721
juice 0.867 0.867 1053 1053
laurel 0.090 0.775 20 20 450 615 951 1049 0.414 0.527
pulp 1071 1071
Date 0.278 0.828 −45 15 205.5 1257 1122 1508 0.000 0.846 35
brown 0.278 0.278 −45 15 1093 1257 1363 1475 0.087 0.234

730
yellow 0.828 0.828 −45 15 206 1122 1122 1508 0.000 0.846
Grape 0.000 0.896 2 60 368 1483 1076 1434 0.370 0.491 8,57,
– 0.100 0.810 40 60 368 1483 70–72
chasselas 0.060 0.500 60 60
Corinthian 0.150 0.800 26 26 582 762 1076 1434 0.370 0.491
juice 0.847 0.896 1040 1062
packed layers 2 2 557 557
sultanin 0.000 0.470 60 60
Grapefruit 0.793 0.904 26 26 714 950 0.330 0.360 8,73
– 0.904 0.904 26 26 950 950
peels 0.793 0.793 714 714 0.330 0.360
Guava 0.724 0.939 65 85 1005 1103 74,75
juice 0.724 0.939 65 85 1005 1103
puree 0.932 0.932 1035 1042
Guna 0.045 0.282 399 545 681 869 0.373 0.414 76
seeds 0.045 0.282 399 545 681 869 0.373 0.414
 Hackberry 0.153 0.504 536 595 826 1106 0.310 0.540 77
– 0.153 0.504 536 595 826 1106 0.310 0.540
J. drupacea 0.082 0.292 20 20 466 488 989 998 0.507 0.534 78
– 0.082 0.292 20 20 466 488 989 998 0.507 0.534
Karingda 0.048 0.289 50 50 488 647 1009 1148 0.407 0.575 79
kernel 0.048 0.262 50 50 501 647 1014 1133 0.429 0.506
seeds 0.066 0.289 50 50 488 598 1009 1148 0.407 0.575
Kiwi 0.815 0.815 1051 1051 1076 1076 0.007 0.007 43
hayward 0.815 0.815 1051 1051 1076 1076 0.007 0.007
Lemon 0.804 0.918 28 28 716 1035 0.370 0.420 8,73
– 0.918 0.918 28 28 768 930
juice 0.900 0.900 1035 1035
peels 0.804 0.804 716 716 0.370 0.420
Lime 0.899 0.907 28 28 1000 1035 8
– 0.899 0.899 28 28 1000 1000
juice 0.907 0.907 1035 1035
Locust bean 0.060 0.093 559 1150 1147 1147 0.514 0.514 80,81
seeds 0.060 0.093 559 1150 1147 1147 0.514 0.514

731
Longmelon 0.040 0.085 700 1100 1180 1600 0.068 0.563 82
hull 0.085 0.085 700 700 1600 1600 0.563 0.563
kernel 0.040 0.040 1100 1100 1180 1180 0.068 0.068
seeds 0.061 0.061 850 850 1310 1310 0.351 0.351
Mandarin 0.724 0.750 849 894 1103 1103 0.240 0.330 43,73
peels 0.724 0.750 849 894 1103 1103 0.240 0.330
Mango 0.786 0.841 918 1079 1082 1130 0.059 0.152 43,44,62
manila 0.841 0.841 918 918 1082 1082 0.152 0.152
pulp 1079 1079
tommy 0.786 0.786 1022 1022 1130 1130 0.059 0.059
Melon 0.910 0.944 899 976 1022 1043 0.060 0.133 43,44
inodorus 0.910 0.910 976 976 1022 1022 0.060 0.060
reticulado 0.944 0.944 899 899 1043 1043 0.133 0.133
Muskmelon 0.042 0.091 740 1100 1190 1660 0.076 0.554 82
hull 0.042 0.042 740 740 1660 1660 0.554 0.554
kernel 0.091 0.091 1100 1100 1190 1190 0.076 0.076
seeds 0.068 0.068 840 840 1300 1300 0.354 0.354
Nectarine 0.898 0.898 28 28 990 990 8
– 0.898 0.898 28 28 990 990

(Continued)
 Table 1 (Continued).

Xw (wb) T (°C) ρb (kg/m3) ρp (kg/m3) ε

Material min max min max min max min max min max Ref.

Okra 0.075 0.467 20 20 190 592 744 1107 0.394 0.465 83,84,85
– 0.114 0.114 450 450 744 744 0.394 0.394
seeds 0.075 0.467 20 20 190 592 986 1107 0.434 0.465
Orange 0.748 0.892 0 80 768 1294 1085 1085 0.210 0.380 8,43,73,86
– 0.859 0.859 28 28 768 1030
juice 0.890 0.892 0 80 1042 1294
peels 0.748 0.760 770 800 1085 1085 0.210 0.380
Papaya 0.928 0.928 968 968 1028 1028 0.058 0.058 44
maradol 0.928 0.928 968 968 1028 1028 0.058 0.058
Peach 0.820 0.885 2 70 545 1303 1044 1070 0.046 0.091 8,43,44
– 0.885 0.885 28 28 608 930 57,86
catherine 0.878 0.878 987 987 1070 1070 0.091 0.091
criollo 0.849 0.849 996 996 1044 1044 0.046 0.046

732
juice 5 70 1056 1303
miraflores 0.820 0.820 1038 1038 1065 1065 0.047 0.047
packed layers 2 2 545 545
Pear 0.120 0.870 28 60 641 1140 1070 1460 0.034 0.220 8,43,87
– 0.120 0.870 28 60 641 1140 1090 1460 0.040 0.220
passa crassana 0.803 0.803 1030 1030 1070 1070 0.034 0.034
Pineapple 0.849 0.849 27 27 1010 1010 8
– 0.849 0.849 27 27 1010 1010
Plum 0.810 0.886 26 26 721 1130 1090 1090 0.020 0.020 8,43
– 0.886 0.886 26 26 721 1130
president 0.810 0.810 1070 1070 1090 1090 0.020 0.020
Prune 0.001 0.410 70 70 0.065 0.464 61
– 0.001 0.410 70 70 0.065 0.464
Raisin 0.075 0.800 20 20 582 762 1076 1434 0.370 0.650 19,88
– 0.140 0.800 20 20 582 762 1076 1434 0.370 0.490
sultanin 0.075 0.095 20 20 0.620 0.650
 Raspberry 0.885 0.885 2 50 496 1046 8,57,67
– 20 50
juice 0.885 0.885 1046 1046
packed layers 2 2 496 496
Strawberry 0.055 0.920 2 70 498 1033 1050 1050 0.064 0.471 8,43,57
– 0.055 0.920 20 70 900 1000 0.089 0.471 61,67,89
chandler 0.911 0.911 984 984 1050 1050 0.064 0.064 90
juice 0.917 0.917 1033 1033
packed layers 2 2 498 498
Terebinth 0.057 0.206 20 20 449 620 1031 1071 0.421 0.565 91
– 0.057 0.206 20 20 449 620 1031 1071 0.421 0.565
hull 0.092 0.092 620 620 1390 1390 0.554 0.554
kernel 0.037 0.037 1100 1100 1160 1160 0.052 0.052
seeds 0.054 0.054 800 800 1290 1290 0.380 0.380
legume 0.048 0.246 20 70 384 1394 980 1641 0.026 0.515
Bean 384 384 8
green 384 384
Chick pea 0.049 0.142 20 20 740 799 1368 1427 0.440 0.459 92

733
seeds 0.049 0.142 20 20 740 799 1368 1427 0.440 0.459
Faba bean 608 608 1248 1248 0.515 0.515 93
– 608 608 1248 1248 0.515 0.515
Lentil 0.048 0.246 20 70 768 1394 1212 1641 0.026 0.366 94–96
seeds 0.048 0.246 20 70 768 1394 1212 1641 0.026 0.366
Lupin 0.077 0.161 20 20 766.84 868.4 980 1104 0.114 0.305 97
white 0.077 0.161 20 20 767 868 980 1104 0.114 0.305
Meat 0.535 0.789 −196 75 440 1100 1100 1320 0.023 0.647
Beef 0.535 0.743 −20 75 920 1092 1100 1117 0.023 0.075 8,98–100
cooked 0.692 0.743 4 72 1040 1085 1100 1117 0.023 0.075
fat 5 30 920 957
ground 0.535 0.599 30 75 1010 1028
lean 5 30 1067 1077
muskle 0.740 0.740 −20 30 984 1080
veal 30 30 1092 1092
Chicken −196 74 440 840 1210 1320 0.331 0.647 101
– −196 74 440 840 1210 1320 0.331 0.647

(Continued)
 Table 1 (Continued).

Xw (wb) T (°C) ρb (kg/m3) ρp (kg/m3) ε

Material min max min max min max min max min max Ref.

Pork 23 23 1070 1090 8

boneless 23 23 1090 1090
ham 1070 1070
Poultry 0.720 0.720 15 23 1070 1100 8
muskle 0.720 0.720 15 23 1070 1100
Scallop 0.789 0.789 985 1061 102
– 0.789 0.789 985 1061
Model foods 0.000 0.600 10 144 34 1377 1196 1560 0.040 0.978
Amioca 0.050 0.500 60 60 790 1220 1263 1510 0.040 0.601 103,104
gelatinized 0.050 0.500 60 60 900 1200 1263 1490 0.050 0.380
gelatinized pressed 0.440 0.440 0.040 0.040
granular 0.050 0.500 60 60 790 1220 1270 1510 0.040 0.460
powder 0.100 0.330 0.548 0.601

734
granular pressed 0.100 0.330 0.233 0.261
Guar 10 10 1010 1010 105
gel 10 10 1010 1010
Hylon 7 0.000 0.550 25 60 600 1377 1196 1500 0.079 0.622 103,104
– 0.000 0.320 25 25 1364 1377 1420 1500 0.079 0.088 106
gelatinized 0.050 0.550 60 60 600 1100 1196 1490 0.080 0.590
gelatinized & dried 0.342 0.342
granular 0.000 0.430 60 60 750 1050 1320 1500 0.210 0.483
powder 0.100 0.100 0.622 0.622
Pectin 700 1250 1560 1560 0.200 0.540 107
gel 700 1250 1560 1560 0.200 0.540
Potato starch 0.033 0.075 98 458 108
– 0.033 0.075 98 458
Sponge 0.000 0.600 103 103 34 34 1552 1552 0.920 0.978 109
– 0.000 0.600 103 103 34 34 1552 1552 0.920 0.978
Starch 0.100 0.100 560 760 1510 1510 0.497 0.497 8,14
– 560 560
 powder 0.100 0.100 760 760 1510 1510 0.497 0.497
Tapioca starch 0.001 0.001 93 93 110
– 0.001 0 93
Nuts 0.027 0.350 20 30 57 792 110 1470 0.339 0.644
Almond 0.028 0.200 475 655 900 1115 0.339 0.529 111
– 0.028 0.200 525 655 1015 1115 0.355 0.529
kernel 0.028 0.200 475 595 900 995 0.339 0.523
Cashew 0.031 0.167 20 20 592 624 1201 1240 0.480 0.523 112
raw 0.031 0.167 20 20 592 624 1201 1240 0.480 0.523
Gorgon 0.048 0.167 30 30 57 66 110 128 0.482 0.500 113
Makhana 0.048 0.167 30 30 57 66 110 128 0.482 0.500
Groundnut 0.050 0.350 20 20 690 792 1159 1291 0.387 0.426 114
bambara 0.050 0.350 20 20 690 792 1159 1291 0.387 0.426
Hazel 0.027 0.167 20 20 305 586 666 997 0.431 0.644 115,116
– 0.027 0.167 20 20 305 439 666 741 0.473 0.616
kernel 0.027 0.167 20 20 458 586 871 997 0.431 0.644
Neem 0.077 0.209 528 555 1020 1470 0.482 0.622 117
– 0.077 0.209 528 555 1020 1470 0.482 0.622

735
Others 0.028 0.980 20 70 330 1330 696 1600 0.005 0.752
Bamboo 0.100 0.920 70 70 998 1330 1010 1600 0.005 0.170 118
shoot 0.100 0.920 70 70 998 1330 1010 1600 0.005 0.170
Canola 0.050 0.190 26 40 616 700 1050 1126 0.340 0.440 22,119
– 0.054 0.133 26 26 616 700 1050 1060 0.340 0.440
tobin 0.050 0.190 40 40 661 678 1117 1126 0.401 0.409
Cocoa 0.044 0.238 360 560 946 1450 0.200 0.752 8,14,
– 480 480 120,121
beans 0.086 0.238 505 560 946 991 0.409 0.491
powder 0.044 0.044 360 360 1440 1450 0.200 0.752
Coffee 0.099 0.306 330 514 874 935 0.450 0.540
arabica 0.099 0.260 402 483 874 911 0.470 0.540 8,122
ground 330 330
instant 330 330
robusta 0.106 0.306 434 514 899 935 0.450 0.517
Cotton 0.077 0.121 20 20 610 642 1000 1091 0.390 0.412 123
seeds 0.077 0.121 20 20 610 642 1000 1091 0.390 0.412

(Continued)
 Table 1 (Continued).

Xw (wb) T (°C) ρb (kg/m3) ρp (kg/m3) ε

Material min max min max min max min max min max Ref.

Cumin 0.065 0.180 20 20 410 502 1047 1134 0.530 0.638 124
seeds 0.065 0.180 20 20 410 502 1047 1134 0.530 0.638
Egg 340 340 8
whole 340 340
Hemp 0.079 0.173 20 20 512 558 895 1043 0.427 0.465 125
seeds 0.079 0.173 20 20 512 558 895 1043 0.427 0.465
Mahaleb 0.028 0.093 20 20 566 616 1110 1250 0.490 0.507 126
turkish 0.028 0.093 20 20 566 616 1110 1250 0.490 0.507
Pepper 0.075 0.240 513 556 127
black 0.075 0.240 513 556
Salt 960 960 8
granular 960 960
Soybean 0.080 0.200 30 30 708 736 1124 1216 0.370 0.395 128

736
grain 0.080 0.200 30 30 708 736 1124 1216 0.370 0.395
Soymilk 0.884 0.980 1010 1050 8
– 0.884 0.980 1010 1050
Sugar 480 800 8
granular 800 800
powder 480 480
Sunflower 0.035 0.164 20 20 434 628 706 1250 0.346 0.498 129
kernel 0.035 0.164 20 20 574 628 1050 1250 0.453 0.498
seeds 0.043 0.163 20 20 434 462 706 765 0.346 0.433
Tea 0.066 0.066 910 913 1568 1570 0.418 0.420 14,23
powder 0.066 0.066 910 913 1568 1570 0.418 0.420
Vegetables 0.000 0.955 −50 190 75 1560 449 2182 0.000 0.967
Asparagus 577 577 8
– 577 577
Beet 0.895 0.895 28 28 833 1530 8
– 833 833
red 0.895 0.895 28 28 1530 1530
 Beetroot 0.800 0.800 964 964 1015 1015 0.043 0.043 43
– 0.800 0.800 964 964 1015 1015 0.043 0.043
Cabbage 449 449 0.050 0.920 8,45
– 449 449 0.920 0.920
fresh 0.050 0.050
Calabash 0.077 0.077 429 429 833 833 0.484 0.484 130
seeds 0.077 0.077 429 429 833 833 0.484 0.484
Caper 0.453 0.453 20 20 440 440 696 696 0.369 0.369 131
flower bud 0.453 0.453 20 20 440 440 696 696 0.369 0.369
Carrot 0.000 0.920 −50 70 110 1560 1036 1889 0.010 0.940 8,34,37–38
– 0.000 0.920 −50 70 110 1560 1050 1889 0.010 0.940 43,45,48
danver 0.900 0.900 28 28 1040 1040 49,65,87
fresh 0.040 0.040 132–136
nantesa 0.890 0.890 975 975 1036 1036 0.137 0.137
Cauliflower 320 320 8
– 320 320
Celery 0.020 0.955 5 60 100 1100 0.502 0.967 137
– 0.020 0.955 5 60 100 1100 0.502 0.967

737
Cucumber 0.954 0.954 28 28 769 959 8,138
– 0.954 0.954 28 28 769 959
Eggplant 0.910 0.910 417 417 985 985 0.641 0.641 43
soraya 0.910 0.910 417 417 985 985 0.641 0.641
Garlic 0.000 0.700 60 70 230 1280 1064 1528 0.010 0.750 87,139
– 0.000 0.700 60 70 230 1280 1064 1528 0.010 0.750
Mushroom 0.020 0.930 60 90 200 1100 852 1250 0.018 0.840 43,140,
– 0.020 0.928 60 90 200 1100 960 1250 0.018 0.840 141
albidus 0.930 0.930 649 649 852 852 0.359 0.359
fresh 0.910 0.910 830 830
Onion 0.000 0.920 28 70 102 1229 981 1489 0.018 0.910 8,142–145
– 0.054 0.873 28 70 102 1169 981 1416 0.027 0.910
niz 0.137 0.813 55 55 1032 1229 1063 1395 0.018 0.143
red 1110 1110
spirit 0.017 0.877 55 55 1002 1149 1040 1477 0.020 0.222
sweet vitalia 0.000 0.920 55 55 934 1046 1025 1489 0.083 0.319
white 1090 1090

(Continued)
 Table 1 (Continued).

Xw (wb) T (°C) ρb (kg/m3) ρp (kg/m3) ε

Material min max min max min max min max min max Ref.

yellow 1040 1040

Pea 0.049 0.750 30 65 741 1210 1373 1429 0.440 0.460 92,132,
– 0.100 0.700 30 65 1080 1210 146
green 0.375 0.750 60 60 800 1030
seeds 0.049 0.141 741 800 1373 1429 0.440 0.460
Potato 0.000 0.880 −50 190 180 1379 1020 2182 0.000 0.880 8,34–38,
– 0.000 0.880 −50 190 180 1300 1020 2182 0.000 0.880 45,48,49
bintije 0.000 0.770 50 50 380 1230 1080 1350 0.010 0.700 52,65,87
blanched 60 80 136,
chips 0.008 0.019 118 144 147–154
desiree 0.091 0.804 40 70 1081 1379 1082 1755 0.001 0.278

738
fresh 0.826 0.826 1054 1054 1066 1066 0.011 0.020
Katahdin 0.814 0.814 26 26 1040 1040
Kennebec 0.824 0.824 25 25 1050 1050
monona 0.836 0.836 25 25 1040 1040
norchip 0.812 0.812 26 26 1050 1050
restructure 170 170 690 990 1125 1160 0.130 0.410
Russet Burbank 0.829 0.829 25 25 1040 1040
sweet 0.100 0.750 40 40 705 1170 1240 1480 0.140 0.320
white 769 769
Pumpkin 0.040 0.289 47 47 75 554 1070 1533 0.515 0.951 155
hull 0.095 0.095 47 47 75 75 1533 1533 0.951 0.951
kernel 0.040 0.275 47 47 481 554 1080 1143 0.515 0.555
seeds 0.055 0.289 47 47 404 472 1070 1179 0.555 0.657
Radish 0.050 0.946 40 45 942 942 36,136
– 0.050 0.946 40 45 942 942
 Rutabagas 0.926 0.926 45 45 1008 1008 36
– 0.926 0.926 45 45 1008 1008
Spinach 224 224 8
– 224 224
Squash 0.060 0.936 20 26 351 970 449 655 0.190 0.340 8,156
Boston marrow 0.936 0.936 23 23 970 970
butternut 0.877 0.877 26 26 950 950
curcubita pepo 0.060 0.346 20 20 406 467 615 655 0.287 0.340
(kernel)
curcubita pepo 0.060 0.346 20 20 351 475 449 626 0.190 0.283
(seeds)
golden delicious 0.885 0.885 23 23 900 900
Tomato 0.178 0.923 28 70 302 1010 1490 1490 0.403 0.403 8,14,157
– 0.187 0.187 70 70 302 672
cherry 0.923 0.923 28 28 1010 1010
powder 0.178 0.178 890 890 1490 1490 0.403 0.403
Turnip 0.898 0.923 24 45 952 1000 8,36
– 0.898 0.923 24 45 952 1000

739
Yam 0.005 0.073 60 100 490 930 1330 1550 0.400 0.650 158
flour 0.005 0.073 60 100 490 930 1330 1550 0.400 0.650
Zucchini 0.940 0.940 841 841 1013 1013 0.169 0.169 43
blanco grise 0.940 0.940 841 841 1013 1013 0.169 0.169
740 BOUKOUVALAS ET AL.

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