History and Overview

 An aircraft engine is a form of heat engine that converts the chemical energy of fuel into heat
energy.
 Once converted, the heat energy causes an increase in gas pressure within a cylinder. The
increased gas pressure is then converted into mechanical energy when the expanding gases
force the piston downward.

Reciprocation - is a repetitive up-and-down or back-and-forth linear motion.

History
 The lack of an efficient and practical propulsion system has been a limiting factor in aircraft
development throughout history.
 1483 Leonardo da Vinci conceived a flying machine he called the aerial screw.
 no means of propulsion at that time, the aerial screw was never developed.
 the first patent for a heat engine was not taken out until 1791 by John Barber. Unfortunately,
Barber's engine was neither efficient nor practical.
 1860 that a truly practical piston engine was built by Etienne Lenoir of France.
 Lenoir's engine, employing a battery ignition system and natural gas as fuel, was used to operate
industrial machinery such as lathes.
 1876 when Dr. August Otto developed the four-stroke, five-event cycle which is the operating
cycle used by most modern reciprocating aircraft engines.

Internal Combustion Engine

 Internal combustion engine (ICE) - is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs
with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber.
 The heat energy causes an increase in gas pressure within a cylinder.
 The increased gas pressure is then converted into mechanical energy when the expanding gases
force the piston downward.
 Since the fuel used to produce heat is burned inside the engine, an aircraft engine is referred to
as an internal combustion engine.

Operating principle of internal combustion engine

 Regardless of the type of internal combustion engine, the process of converting the chemical
energy of fuel into mechanical energy is essentially the same.

 A fuel metering device, such as a carburetor or fuel manifold, first measures liquid fuel and then
converts it into fuel vapor.

 Next, this vapor is mixed with the correct amount of air to produce a combustible mixture which
is compressed and ignited within a cylinder.

 When the mixture burns, it releases energy and causes the noncombustible gases, such as
nitrogen, to expand.

 Since air is composed of approximately 78% nitrogen, the expansion potential is substantial. The
expanding gas exerts pressure on an engine's pistons, driving them downward to rotate the
crankshaft and create mechanical energy.

 For simplicity, the process just described can be divided into a set sequence of timed events.
This sequence is identical for all 4-stroke reciprocating engines.
External Combustion Engine
 Fuel is burned outside an engine to produce mechanical energy; the process is called external
combustion.

 A steam engine is an example of an external combustion engine. Fuel is burned in a boiler to

heat water and produce steam. The steam is then channeled into an engine to force pistons to
turn a crankshaft or spin a turbine.

Reciprocating Engine
 All heat engines convert heat energy into mechanical energy by taking in a specific volume of air
and heating it through the combustion of a fuel.
 The heated air expands, creating a force that is converted into mechanical energy to drive a
propeller or other device.
 The most common type of heat engine is the reciprocating engine.
 Reciprocating engines derive their name from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating movement of
their pistons. It is this reciprocating motion that produces the mechanical energy needed to
accomplish work.

Avco Lycoming O-235

 A type of reciprocating engine.
 The Lycoming O-235 is a family of four-cylinder, air-cooled, horizontally opposed piston aircraft
engines that produce 100 to 135 hp (75 to 101 kW)

Engine Design and Classification

 Wright Brothers first used a four-cylinder in-line engine to make aviation history.
 The two most common means of classifying reciprocating engines are by cylinder arrangement
with respect to the crankshaft (radial, in-line, V-type, or opposed) and the method of cooling
(liquid-cooled or air-cooled).
Types of Reciprocating Engines
 Radial Engine

 In-line Engine

 V-type Engine

 Opposed-type Engine

Radial Engine
 A radial engine consists of a row, or rows of cylinders arranged radially
about a central crankcase.

 The two basic types of radial engines include the rotary-type radial
engine and the static-type radial engine.

Rotary-type Radial Engine

 The cylinders of a rotary-type radial engine are mounted radially around

a small crankcase and rotate with the propeller, while the crankshaft
remains stationary.

 Probably the biggest disadvantage rotary-type radial engines possessed

was that the torque effect produced by the large rotating mass of the
propeller and cylinders made aircraft somewhat difficult to control.

 This difficulty, coupled with carburetion, lubrication, and exhaust system problems, limited
development of the rotary-type radial engine.

Static-type Radial Engine

 Static-type radial engines differ from rotary-type radial engines in that the
crankcase is bolted to the airframe and remains stationary.

 This dictates that the crankshaft rotates to turn the propeller. Static-type
radial engines have as few as three cylinders and as many as 28, but it was the
higher horsepower applications that proved most useful.

Single-Row Radial Engine

 To increase their operational flexibility, static radial engines have

been designed with a varying number of cylinder rows.

 One of the most common is the single-row radial engine which

has an odd number of cylinders attached radially to a crankcase.

 A typical configuration consists of five to nine cylinders evenly spaced on the same circular
plane with all pistons connected to a single crankshaft.
 Multiple-Row Radial Engine

 To further increase a radial engine's power, while maintaining a

reasonable engine frontal area, multiple-row radial engines were
developed.

 One of the most common multiple-row radial engines consisted

of two single row engines in line with each other connected to a
single crankshaft.

 This type of engine is sometimes referred to as a double-row radial engine and typically has
a total of 14 or 18 cylinders.

 To help cool a multiple-row radial engine, the rear rows of cylinders are staggered so they
are behind the spaces between the front cylinders.

In-line Engine
 An in-line engine generally has an even number of
cylinders that are aligned in a single row parallel with the
crankshaft.

 This engine can be either liquid-cooled or air cooled and

the pistons can be located either upright above the
crankshaft or inverted below the crankshaft.

 An in-line engine has a comparatively small frontal area and, therefore, allows for better
streamlining.

 In-line engines have relatively low power-to-weight ratios. In addition, the rearmost cylinders of
an air-cooled in-line engine receive relatively little cooling air, so in-line engines were typically
limited to only four or six cylinders.

V-type Engine
 As the name implies, the cylinders of a V-type
engine are arranged around a single crankshaft in
two in-line banks that are 45, 60, or 90 degrees
apart.

 Since V-type engines had two rows of cylinders,

they were typically capable of producing more
horsepower than an in-line engine.

 Furthermore, since only one crankcase and one crankshaft were used, most V-type engines had
a reasonable power-to-weight ratio while retaining a small frontal area.

 Most V-type engines had 8 or 12 cylinders and were either liquid-cooled or air cooled.

Opposed-type Engine
 Today, opposed-type engines are the most popular
reciprocating engines used on light aircraft.
  Opposed engines always have an even number of cylinders, and a cylinder on one side of the
crankcase "opposes" a cylinder on the other side.

 While some opposed engines are liquid-cooled, the majority are air cooled. Opposed engines
are typically mounted in a horizontal position when installed on fixed-wing aircraft, but can be
mounted vertically to power helicopters.

 Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight ratios because they have a comparatively
small, lightweight crankcase.

 In addition, an opposed engine's compact cylinder arrangement reduces the engine's frontal
area and allows a streamlined installation that minimizes aerodynamic drag. Furthermore,
opposed engines typically vibrate less than other engines because an opposed engine's power
impulses tend to cancel each other.

Engine Identification
 O – Horizontally Opposed

 R- Radial Engine

 l – In-line Engine

 V - V-type Engine

 G – Geared nose section (Propeller Reduction Gearing)

 L – Left hand rotation (For Multi-Engine installation)

 H – Horizontal Mounting

 V – Vertical mounting

 T – Turbocharged Engine

 I – Fuel injected Engine

 S – Supercharged Engine

 A - Aerobatics

Crankcase and Bearings

Engine Components
  The basic parts of a reciprocating engine include the crankcase, cylinders, pistons, connecting
rods, valves, valve-operating mechanism, and crankshaft.

 The valves, pistons, and spark plugs are located in the cylinder while the valve operating
mechanism, crankshaft, and connecting rods are located in the crankcase.

Crankcase
 The crankcase is the foundation of a reciprocating engine.
It contains the engine's internal parts and provides a
mounting surface for the engine cylinders and external
accessories.

 In addition, the crankcase provides a tight enclosure for

the lubricating oil as well as a means of attaching a
complete engine to an airframe.

 Crankcases must be extremely rigid and strong.

 Due to the internal combustion forces exerted on the cylinders and the unbalanced centrifugal
and inertial forces inflicted by a propeller, a crankcase is constantly subjected to bending
moments which change continuously in direction and magnitude.

 Therefore, to remain functional, a crankcase must be capable of absorbing these forces and still
maintain its integrity.

 To provide the strength and rigidity required while maintaining a relatively light weight, most
aircraft crankcases are made of cast aluminum alloys.

Opposed Engine Crankcase

 A typical horizontally opposed engine crankcase consists of two halves of cast aluminum alloy
that are manufactured either with sand castings or by using permanent molds.

 Most opposed crankcases are approximately cylindrical, with smooth areas machined to serve
as cylinder pads. A cylinder pad is simply a surface where a cylinder is mounted to a crankcase.

 To allow a crankcase to support a crankshaft, a series of transverse webs are cast directly into a
crankcase parallel to the case's longitudinal axis.

 These webs form an integral part of the structure and, in addition to housing the bearings that
support the crankshaft, the webs add strength to the crankcase.

 In addition to the transverse webs that support the main bearings, a set of camshaft bosses are
typically cast into a crankcase. These bosses support the camshaft which is part of the valve
operating mechanism.
  The crankcase is also
an integral part of the lubrication system. Oil passages are drilled throughout the case halves to
allow lubricating oil to be delivered to the moving parts housed within the crankcase.

 In addition, oil galleries are machined into the case halves to scavenge, or collect, oil and return
it to the main oil tank or sump.

 Since the oil supply in most modern horizontally opposed engines is carried inside the
crankcase, provisions are made to seal the case to prevent leakage.

 To ensure that the seal does not interfere with the tight fit for the bearings, most crankcase
halves are sealed with a very thin coating of a non-hardening gasket compound.

Radial Engine Crankcase

 Unlike opposed engine crankcases, radial engine crankcases are divided into distinct sections.
The number of sections can be as few as three or as many as seven depending on the size and
type of engine.

 In general, a typical radial engine crankcase separates into four main sections: the nose section,
the power section, the supercharger section, and the accessory section.

 The nose section is mounted at the front of a radial engine crankcase and bolts directly to the
power section.

 A typical nose section is made of an aluminum alloy that is cast as one piece with a domed or
convex shape.

 The nose section usually houses and supports a propeller governor drive shaft, the propeller
shaft, a cam ring, and a propeller reduction gear assembly if required.

 The second portion of a crankcase is referred to as the power section

 It represents the section of the crankcase where the reciprocating motion of the pistons is
converted to the rotary motion of the crankshaft.

 Like an opposed engine crankcase, the power section absorbs intense stress from the crankshaft
assembly and the cylinders.
  A radial engine power section contains machined bosses that rigidly support the crankshaft
bearings and the crankshaft.

 Cylinders are attached around the perimeter of the power section to machined cylinder pads.

 The diffuser or supercharger section is located directly behind the power section and is generally
made of cast aluminum alloy or magnesium.

 As its name implies, this section houses the supercharger and its related components.

 A supercharger is an engine accessory that is used to compress air and distribute it to the
engine's cylinders.

 The accessory section is usually cast of either an aluminum alloy or magnesium.

 On some engines, it is cast in one piece and then machined to provide a means for mounting
accessories such as magnetos, carburetors, pumps, starters, and generators.

 However, on other engines, the accessory section consists of an aluminum alloy casting and a
separate cast magnesium cover plate on which the accessories are mounted.

 The four basic sections of a radial engine crankcase are the nose section, power section,
supercharger section, and accessory section.

Engine Mounting Points

 For opposed engines, mounting points, sometimes called mounting lugs, are typically cast as
part of the crankcase.

 On all engines, the mounting arrangement supports the entire powerplant including the
propeller and, therefore, must be designed to withstand various engine, centrifugal, and g-
loading conditions.

Bearing
  A bearing is any surface which supports and reduces friction between two moving parts. Typical
areas where bearings are used in an aircraft engine include the main journals, crankpins,
connecting rod ends, and accessory drive shafts.

 A good bearing must be composed of material that is strong enough to withstand the pressure
imposed on it, while allowing rotation or movement between two parts with a minimum of
friction and wear.

Plain Bearing
 Plain bearings are generally used for crankshaft main bearings, cam ring
and camshaft bearings, connecting rod end bearings, and accessory drive
shaft bearings.

 These bearings are typically subject to radial loads only.

 Plain bearings are usually made of nonferrous metals such as silver, bronze, babbit, tin, or lead.

Ball Bearing
 A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner and outer races, one
or more sets of polished steel balls, and a bearing retainer.

 The balls of a ball bearing are held in place and kept evenly spaced by
the bearing retainer, while the inner and outer bearing races provide a
smooth surface for the balls to roll over.

 Since the balls of a ball bearing offer such a small contact area, ball bearings have the least
amount of rolling friction.

 Because of their construction, ball bearings are well suited to withstand thrust loads and are,
therefore, used as thrust bearings in large radial and gas turbine engines.

Roller Bearing
 Roller bearings are similar in construction to ball bearings except that polished steel rollers are
used instead of balls. The rollers provide a greater contact area and a corresponding increase in
rolling friction over that of a ball bearing.

 Straight roller bearings are suitable when the bearing is subjected to radial loads only.

 Tapered roller bearings, on the other hand, have cone-shaped inner and outer races that allow
the bearing to withstand both radial and thrust loads.

Straight Roller Bearing Tapered Roller Bearing

Crankshaft and Connecting Rods

Crankshaft
 The crankshaft is the backbone of a reciprocating engine. Its
main purpose is to transform the reciprocating motion of the
pistons and connecting rods into rotary motion to turn a
propeller.

 A typical crankshaft has one or more cranks, or throws, located

at specified points along its length.

 Since crankshafts must withstand high stress, they are generally forged from a strong alloy such
as chromium-nickel molybdenum steel.

 A typical crankshaft can have as few as one throw or as many as eight and varies depending on
the number of cylinders and engine type.

 The parts of the crankshaft include the main bearing journal, the crankpin, and the crank cheek.
In addition, although they are not true parts of the crankshaft, counterweights and dampers are
often installed on many crankshafts to reduce engine vibration.

All crankshafts consist of a main bearing journal, one

or more crankpins, and several crank cheeks.
Main bearing journal
 The main bearing journals, or main journals, represent the centerline of a crankshaft and
support the crankshaft as it rotates in the main bearings.

 All crankshafts require at least two main journals to support the crankshaft, absorb the
operational loads, and transmit stress from the crankshaft to the crankcase.

Crankpin
 Crankpins, or connecting-rod bearing journals, serve as attachment points for the connecting
rods. Most crankpins are forged directly into a crankshaft and are offset from the main bearing
journal.

 This offset design means that any force applied to a crankpin in a direction other than parallel to
the crankshaft center line causes the crankshaft to rotate.

 To reduce total crankshaft weight, crankpins are usually hollow. This hollow construction also
provides a passage for lubricating oil. In addition, a hollow crankpin serves as a collection
chamber for sludge, dirt, carbon deposits, and other foreign material.

 On opposed engines, the number of crankpins must correspond with an engine's cylinder
arrangement.

Crank cheek
 Two crank cheeks, or crank arms, are required to connect the crankpin to the crankshaft. In
some designs, the cheek extends beyond the journal to form a counterweight that helps balance
the crankshaft.

 In addition, most crank cheeks have drilled passage ways that allow oil to flow from the main
journal to the crankpin.
Crankshaft Balance
 Excessive engine vibration can cause metal structures to become fatigued and fail or wear
excessively. In some instances, excessive vibration is caused by an unbalanced crankshaft.
Therefore, to prevent unwanted vibration, most crankshafts are balanced both statically and
dynamically.

Static balance
 A crankshaft is statically balanced when the weight of an entire crankshaft assembly is balanced
around its axis of rotation.

 To test a crankshaft for static balance, the outside main journals are placed on two knife edge
balancing blocks. If the shaft tends to rotate toward any one position during the test, it is out of
static balance.

Dynamic balance
 Once a crankshaft is statically balanced it must be dynamically balanced.

 Dynamic balance refers to the balancing of the centrifugal forces created by a rotating
crankshaft and the impact forces created by an engine's power impulses.

 The most common means of dynamically balancing a crankshaft is through the use of dynamic
dampers.

Dynamic damper
 A dynamic damper is a weight which is fastened to a crankshaft's
crank cheek assembly in such a way that it is free to move back
and forth in a small arc. Some crankshafts utilize two or more of
these assemblies, each being attached to a different crank cheek.

 Each time a cylinder fires, a pulse is transmitted into the

crankshaft that causes it to flex. When the engine is running, the
crankshaft receives hundreds of these pulses each minute and
flexes, or vibrates, constantly.

 To help minimize these vibrations, the dynamic damper oscillates, or swings, each time the
crankshaft receives a pulse from a firing cylinder. These oscillations are opposite the crankshaft
vibrations and, therefore, absorb some of the force produced by the power impulse.
Crankshaft types
 The type of crankshaft used on a particular engine depends on the number and arrangement of
an engine's cylinders.

 The most common types of crankshafts are the single-throw, two-throw, four-throw, and six-
throw crankshafts.

 The simplest crankshaft is the single-throw or 360 degree crankshaft used on single-row radial
engines.

 As its name implies, a single-throw crankshaft consists of a single crankpin with two main
journals that support the crankshaft in the crankcase.

With a one-piece, single-throw crankshaft, the entire crankshaft is cast as one solid piece.

Connecting rods
 The connecting rod is the link which transmits the force exerted
on a piston to a crankshaft. Most connecting rods are made of a
durable steel alloy; however, aluminum can be used with low
horsepower engines.

 One end of a connecting rod connects to the crankshaft and is called the crankpin end, while the
other end connects to the piston and is called the piston end.

 The three types of connecting rod assemblies you should be familiar with are the plain-type, the
master-and-articulated-rod type, and the fork-and-blade type.

Plain connecting rod

 Plain connecting rods are used in opposed and in-line
engines. The piston end of a plain connecting rod is fitted
with a bronze bushing to accommodate the piston pin.

 The crankpin end, on the other hand, is usually fitted with a

two-piece bearing and cap which is held on the end of the
rod by bolts or studs.
Master and articulated rod
 The master-and-articulated rod assembly is commonly used in radial engines. With this type of
assembly, one piston in each row of cylinders is connected to the crankshaft by a master rod.

 The remaining pistons are connected to the master rod by articulated rods.

 Therefore, in a nine cylinder engine there is one master rod and eight articulating rods, while a
double row 18 cylinder engine has two master rods and 16 articulating rods.

 The master rod serves as the only connecting link between all the pistons and the crankpin.

 The small end, or piston end of a master rod, contains a plain bearing called a piston pin bearing
which receives the piston pin.

 The crankpin end of a master rod contains the crankpin bearing, sometimes called a master rod
bearing.

A set of flange holes are machined around the crankpin end of a

master rod to provide an attachment point for the articulated rods.

Each articulated rod is hinged to the master rod by a knuckle pin. Some knuckle pins are pressed into the

master rod so they do not rotate in the flange holes.

Since the flange holes on a master rod encircle the center of the crankpin, the crankpin is the only
portion of a master rod assembly that travels in a true circle as the crankshaft rotates. The remaining
knuckle pins travel in an elliptical path.

Fork and blade rod

 The fork-and-blade rod assembly is used primarily in
V-type engines and consists of a fork connecting rod
and a blade connecting rod.

 The forked rod is split at the crankpin end to allow

space for the blade rod to fit between the prongs.
The fork-and-blade assembly is then fastened to a
crankpin with a two-piece bearing.

Piston
 The piston in a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical plunger
that moves up and down within a cylinder.

 Pistons perform two primary functions; first, they draw fuel

and air into a cylinder, compress the gases, and purge burned
exhaust gases from the cylinder; second, they transmit the
force produced by combustion to the crankshaft.

 Most aircraft engine pistons are machined from aluminum

alloy forgings.

 Ring grooves are then cut into a piston's outside surface to hold a set of piston rings. As many as
six ring grooves may be machined around a piston.

 The portion of the piston between the ring grooves is commonly referred to as a ring land.

 The piston's top surface is called the piston head and is directly exposed to the heat of
combustion.
  The piston pin boss is an enlarged area inside the piston that provides additional bearing area
for a piston pin which passes through the piston pin boss to attach the piston to a connecting
rod.

 To help align a piston in a cylinder, the piston base is extended to form the piston skirt. On some
pistons, cooling fins are cast into the underside of the piston to provide for greater heat transfer
to the engine oil.

A typical piston has ring grooves cut into its outside surface to support piston rings. In addition, cooling
fins are sometimes cast into the piston interior to help dissipate heat, while the piston pin boss provides
support for the piston pin.

Piston head
 Pistons are often classified according to their head design.
The most common types of head designs are the flat,
recessed, cupped, and domed.

Cam ground piston

  A cam ground piston is machined with a slightly oval shape. That is, the diameter of the piston
parallel to the piston boss is slightly less than the diameter perpendicular to the piston boss.

 All pistons expand as they heat up. However, due to the added mass at the piston boss, most
pistons expand more along the piston boss than perpendicular to the piston boss.

 This oval shape compensates for any differential expansion and produces a round piston at
normal operating temperatures.

Piston rings
 Piston rings perform three functions in aircraft reciprocating engines.

 They prevent leakage of gas pressure from the combustion chamber, reduce oil seepage into the
combustion chamber, and transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder walls.

 The rings fit into the piston grooves but spring out to press against the cylinder walls. When
properly lubricated, piston rings form an effective seal.

Piston ring gap

 The point where a piston ring is split is called the piston ring
gap. The gap can be a simple butt joint with flat faces, an
angle joint with angled faces, or a step joint.

 Since the piston rings expand when the engine reaches

operating temperature, the ring must have a specified
clearance between the ring gap faces.

 If the gap is too large, the two forces will not close up enough to provide an adequate seal.

 On the other hand, an insufficient gap will result in the ring faces binding against each other and
the cylinder wall causing cylinder wall scoring.

 When installing piston rings, the ring gaps must be staggered, or offset, to ensure that they do
not align with each other.

 This helps prevent combustion chamber gases from flowing past the rings into the crankcase.

 This blow-by, as it is often called, results in a loss of power and increased oil consumption. If
three piston rings are installed on one piston, it is common practice to stagger the ring gaps 120
degrees from each other.

Types of piston rings

 Compression rings

 Oil rings

Compression rings
  Compression rings prevent gas from escaping past the piston during engine operation and are
placed in the ring grooves immediately below the piston head.

 The number of compression rings used on each piston is determined by the type of engine and
its design. However, most aircraft engines typically use two or three compression rings on each
piston.

Oil rings
 Oil rings control the amount of oil that is applied to the
cylinder walls as well as prevent oil from entering the
combustion chamber.

 The two types of oil rings that are found on most engines
are oil control rings and oil scraper rings.

Oil control rings

 Oil control rings are placed in the grooves immediately below the compression rings.

 The primary purpose of oil control rings is to regulate the thickness of the oil film on the cylinder
wall. To allow an oil control ring to remove excess oil and return it to the crankcase, small holes
are drilled in the piston ring grooves, or ring lands.

Oil scraper ring

 Oil scraper ring is used to regulate the amount of oil that passes between the piston skirt and
the cylinder wall.

 An oil scraper ring, sometimes called an oil wiper ring, usually has a beveled face and is installed
in a ring groove at the bottom of the piston skirt.

 If too much oil enters the combustion chamber, the oil will burn and leave a thick coating of
carbon on the combustion chamber walls, the piston head, the spark plugs, and the valves.

 Carbon buildup can cause spark plug misfiring as well as detonation, preignition, or excessive oil
consumption.

Piston pins
 A piston pin joins the piston to the connecting rod. A
typical piston pin is machined in the form of a tube from a
nickel-steel alloy forging that is case-hardened.

 Piston pins are sometimes called wrist pins because of the

similarity between the relative motions of the piston and
the connecting rod and that of the human arm.

Types of piston pin

 Stationary piston pins are held tightly in place by a setscrew that prevents movement.
 Semi floating piston pins, on the other hand, are retained stationary in the connecting rod by a
set clamp that engages a slot in the pin.

 Full-floating piston pins are free to rotate in both the connecting rod and the piston, and are
used in most modern aircraft engines.