Parameters that affect oil recovery

Operational parameters Natural parameters

Mobility ratio Depth Density

Gravity number Porosity Clay content
VDP Permeability Saturation
Capillary number Salinity Capillary pressure
Pecklet number Pressure Oil Composition
Inj rate Temperature Lithology
Flowing Bottomhole Pressure Thickness Natural Fractures
Flood Pattern Heterogeneity Aquifer
Lifting Compressibility Anisotropy
Well Completion Wettability Formation dip
Viscosity Grain size
Relative permeability
 EOR Mechanisms

Er = Ed Ea Ey

Various EOR methods aim

at increasing one or more of
Ed , Ea and Ey
Discussion Items
• Displacement efficiency
Immiscible and Miscible
• Sweep efficiency
Areal and Vertical
•Fluid trapping in reservoir rocks
•Parameters that affect oil recovery
•EOR screening guidelines
Displacement Efficiency

Ed = 1 – (So Boi) / (Soi Bo)

So (oil saturation behind flood front), oil cut and
injected volume are determined from frontal
advance theory
Results are used to estimate Ed as a function of oil
cut or injected volume
Frontal Advance Theory
Displacement qo + qw
front

Area A
Water Oil

x dx

First introduced by Buckley and Leverett

Water fractional flow fw =qw / (qo + qw)
Front velocity vf = x/t = [(qo + qw) / A](fw/Sw)
Integration yields: tD = Vinj/ AL = 1/(fw/Sw)
 Rock Wettability

Wetting Non-wetting
Solid Grains
phase phase
Wetting Phase
 Non-wetting Phase
Rock Solid

Contact angle  Wettability

(measured in water) Type
 < 75 Water- wet
75<  < 105 Intermediate
 > 105 Oil- wet
Types of Displacement Processes

Interface
Interface Interface
Interface

Wetting Non-wetting Wetting Non-wetting

Phase Phase Phase Phase

Imbibition Process Drainage Process

Interface Mixing zone

Displacing Displaced Displacing Displaced

Fluid Fluid Fluid Fluid

Immiscible Process Miscible Process

Two-phase Oil-Water
Relative Permeability Curves

1
• In single-phase flow:
kf = k (abs. Permeability) kro0

• In two-phase flow: kr Swc

Oil
Sorw

water kw = krw k krw0

Water
oil ko = krok
0
0 1
Sw
• krw and kro = f( Sw)
Three-phase Oil-Water-Gas
Relative Permeability Curves
Imbibition Oil-Water Set Drainage Gas-Oil Set
1 1

kro0

kr Swc Sorw kr Sorg Swc

Oil Oil
krw0 krg0
Water Gas

0 0
0 1 0 Sgc 1
Sw Sg
For three-phase flow:
krw = f(Sw) krg = f(Sg) kro = f(Sw and Sg)
Fractional Flow Curves

Water fractional flow fw = qw / (qo + qw)

qw = krw k A (dP/dx) / w
qo = kro k A (dP/dx) / o

hence; fw = (krw/ w)/[(krw/ w) + (kro/ o)]

= (krwo/krow)/[(krwo/krow) + 1]
= M / (M + 1)
M = mobility ratio = rw / ro
 Fractional Flow Curves
fw = M/(M+1)

1 1

kro0

Swc Sorw fw
kr
Oil

krw0
Water

0 0
0 1 0 Swc 1-Sorw 1
Sw Sw
 Water Saturation Behind Front
At Breakthrough
1

fwbt

Slope = VpEv/Vinj
fw

0
0 Swc Swi Swbt 1-Sorw 1
Sw
 Water Saturation Behind Front
After Breakthrough
1

Reservoir
water cut Slope = VpEv/Vinj

fw

0
0 Swc Swavg 1-Sorw 1
Sw
 Saturation Distribution

Injector Producer
1

1 - Sorw After
Before
Breakthrough Breakthrough
Sw
At
Breakthrough
Swi
0
0 Distance L

Water cut
Water cut in reservoir = fw
Producing water cut = fw / [fw + (1/Bo)(1 - fw)]
Displacement Analysis
Slope of tangent = 1 / tD = Vp Ev / Vinj
where:Vp = pore volume
Ev = volumetric sweep efficiency
Vinj = Injected volume

Behind front So = 1 – Swavg

Displacement efficiency:
Ed = 1 – (SoBoi / SoiBo)
Edult= 1 – (SorBoi / SoiBo)
 Displacement Analysis Example
Oil viscosity = 4 cp Water viscosity = 0.7 cp
Reservoir volume = 36 MMB Boi = 1.12 RB/STB
Bo behind front = 1.16 RB/STB Porosity = 24%
Swi = 24% Ev = 70%

Sw 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.500 0.550 0.600 0.650 0.720
krw 0.000 0.002 0.007 0.018 0.036 0.061 0.091 0.126 0.167 0.213 0.264
kro 0.720 0.540 0.390 0.285 0.210 0.145 0.090 0.055 0.031 0.012 0.000

Estimate:
• Water cut, recovery factor and injected volume at
breakthrough
• Recovery factor after injection of 7MMB water
 Displacement Analysis Example
Sw 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.72
krw 0 0.0207 0.0930 0.2652 0.4948 0.7062 0.8525 0.9290 0.9685 0.9902 1

At Breakthrough: 1.0

0.9
fw = 0.74
0.8
fws = 0.74/(0.74+0.26/1.16) = 0.768
0.7

Slope = 3.23 0.6

Vinj = 36x0.24x0.70 / 3.23

fw
0.5
= 1.87 MMB
0.4

So = 1 – 0.54 = 0.46 0.3

Ed = 1 – 0.46x1.12/0.76x1.16 = 0.416 0.2

Er =0.416x0.70 = 0.291 0.1

0.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Sw
 Displacement Analysis Example

1.0

0.9

At Vinj = 7 MMB: 0.8

Slope = 0.86

0.7
Slope = 36x0.24x0.70 / 7 = 0.86
0.6

fw = 0.95

fw
0.5
fw = 0.95/(0.95+0.05/1.16) = 0.957
0.4

So = 1 – 0.63 = 0.37 0.3

Ed = 1 – 0.37x1.12/0.76x1.16 = 0.53 0.2

Er =0.53x0.70 = 0.371 0.1

0.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Sw
 Mobility Ratio
Displacing fluid Displaced fluid
Water Oil
Mobility w = kw/w Mobility o = ko/o

M = w / o = krw o / kro/w

End-point: M0 = w0 / o0 = krw0 o / kro0/w

[w  o ]behind front

Total: M  t

[w  o ]aheadof front

 Mobility Ratio
Displacing fluid Displaced fluid
Polymer Oil
Mobility p = kp/p Mobility o = ko/o

For designing polymer kro0

floods, it is recommended to Oil
use maximum mobility ratio rw+ ro
kr

[w  o ]behind front

M max
 rtmin krw0
[w  o ]min Water

Sw
Effect of Gravity and Mobility Ratio
on fw Curves
fw = [M/(M + 1)][1 – (o  g / u) sin]
1
High M
Negative gravity

M=1
fw No gravity

Low M
Positive gravity

0
0 1
Sw
Effect of Gravity and Mobility Ratio
on Displacement Efficiency

Edult
Low M
Positive gravity
High M
Ed Negative gravity
M=1
No gravity

Pore Volumes Injected

 Effect of Capillary Pressure
on Saturation Profile

fw = [M/(M + 1)][1 + (o/u)(Pc/x)]

Injector Producer
1

1 - Sorw
No Pc
Sw
With Pc
Swi

0
0 L
Distance
 Effect of Capillary Pressure
on Displacement Efficiency

• Spreading effect results in lower Ed at breakthrough

• More significant in core floods

• Rappaport - Leas Number:

NRL = (vL / rw0  cos)( / k)0.5

• Effect of capillary pressure is negligible if NRL > 3

Miscible Displacement Processes
Mixing region

Solvent Oil

• Theoretically Ed should be > 90%

• In field applications, Ed is decreased due to:
• -- Dispersion
• -- Dead-end pores
• -- Viscous fingering
• -- Incomplete miscibility
 Displacement Efficiency
in Miscible Floods

100
90

Displacement
Efficiency, %

MMP
0
Pressure
 Effect of Dispersion
on Miscible Displacements

• Dispersion mechanisms:
-- Molecular diffusion
-- Microscopic convection due to tortuous path
-- Macroscopic convection due to heterogeneity
• Peclet Number = Convective / dispersive
transport ratio:
NPe = L / l
• For Peclet number > 100, effect of
dispersion is negligible
 Effect of Dispersion
on Miscible Displacements

Field data

l

Lab data

Distance
 Effect of Dispersion
on Ed in Miscible Displacements

Npe
1000
100
Ed 10

Pore volumes injected

 Effect of Dead-End Pores
on Ed in Miscible Displacements

Solid Grains
Dead-End Pores

Connected Pores

Dead-end pores are not part of flow stream

Oil in dead-end pores may not be contacted by solvent
and, if contacted; may not flow
Dead-end pores decrease the Ed value
Effect of Incomplete Miscibility
on Ed in Miscible Displacements

Laboratory-measured Ed represents controlled

conditions and complete miscibility
In actual miscible floods, miscibility may not be
complete due to flood size, heterogeneity and lack of
control
Incomplete miscibility leads to lower Ed values
 Aswept
total

otal
Volumetric
Aswept Aswept Sweep Efficiency
Aswept
Atota
Aswept
Atotal Atotal
Aswept
iciency E =
otal
ealAreal
Atotal
sweepsweep
Aswept Aswept
aefficiency
efficiency Ea = Ea = Vertical A sweep effi
swept E =
Vertical sweepAswept
Aswept efficiency
Vertical sweep efficiency
y E
Atotal
Aswept/A
Aswept
total /Atotal Aswept/Atotal A/Aswept
Aswept total /Ato
Volumetric sweep efficiency
Volumetric sweep Ev = Ea EEy = E E
efficiency vsweepa efficiency
y
Volumetric
Areal Areal
sweep sweep
A
efficiency
/A
swept total
A
sweep
/A
E = E =
efficiency a
efficiency
a E
Vertical
v = E
Vertical
A /Aa E
sweep
y
E =y
efficiency E
ep efficiency Ea =total
swept swept total
Vertical Aswept/Atotal
sweep eff
Volumetric sweep efficiency Ev = Ea Ey
/A Unit pore volumeVolumetric sweepUnit pore volume
efficiency Ev = Ea Ey
wept total Unit pore volume Unit pore volume A /Aswept t
SoiUnit
, Boipore volume UnitSopore
, Bovolume
Volumetric
SoiUnit sweep
, Boipore volume efficiency E = E E vSopore
, Boavolume
it pore volume
Soi/BSoi ,STB
B oi oi
Unit
S S/B pore
Unit
volume
o , BoSTB
o o
y
S /BSoi ,STB
Boi S S/B
o , BoSTB
oi oi
S /B STB
oi oi So/Bo STB o
o
Soi/Boi STB So/Bo STB
Areal Sweep Efficiency

Ea Depends on:
• Mobility ratio
• Injection volume
• Injection pattern
• Lateral heterogeneity
 Areal Sweep Efficiency
Five-spot pattern:
Eabt = 0.54602 + (0.03171/M) + 0.30223e– M – 0.005097M
Five-spot after breakthrough
1
Ea 
1  [0.2062 ln ( M  0.0712)  0.511] f w  0.3048 ln ( M  0.123)  0.4394

Line Drive:
1
Ea 
1  [0.3014 ln (M  0.1568)  0.9402] f w  0.3714 ln (M  0.0865)  0.8805
Staggered Line Drive:
1
Ea 
1  [0.2077 ln ( M  0.1059)  0.3526] f w  0.2608 ln ( M  0.2444)  0.3158
 Areal Sweep Efficiency

Ea correlations are based on:

• Uniform porosity and permeability distribution
• Isotropic system
• Uniform saturation distribution
• Matrix rock only without natural fractures
• Confined and uniform injection patterns
• No off-pattern producing wells

If these assumptions are not true, reservoir simulation

should be used to provide better estimates of Ea
 Areal Sweep Efficiency
Example
Estimate Ea for five-spot pattern using mobility ratio of 4 at:
(a) Breakthrough
(b) Water cut of 0.72

(a) At breakthrough

Eabt = 0.54602 + (0.03171/4) + 0.30223e-4 – 0.005097x4 = 54%

(b) At water cut of 0.72

1
Ea   79.4%
1  [0.2062 ln (4  0.0712)  0.511]x0.72  0.3048 ln (4  0.123)  0.4394
Vertical Sweep Efficiency

Ey Depends on:
• Mobility ratio
• Injection volume
• Gravity forces
• Layer heterogeneity
Effect of Gravity on Vertical Sweep
Injector Producer

Oil


Water Interface


Gravity number Ng = kw A  g sin  / qinjw

End-point mobility ratio M0 = krw0o / kro0w
Conditions for Stable displacement
If M0 = 1 =
If M0  1 
If M0 > 1 and Ng > M0 – 1 <
Effect of Gravity on Vertical Sweep
Injector Producer Injector Producer

Oil Oil

 
Water Water Water tongue
Interface
 

If M0  1 and Ng < M0 – 1   
Hence; unstable displacement (water tonguing)
Critical injection rate:
qinjcrit = kwA sin  / [(M0 – 1)w]
Effect of Gravity on Vertical Sweep

Injector Producer
Gravity override

Gas
Thickness h
Oil

Distance L

Gravity number Ng = ko  g / u o
Modified gravity number = Ng h / L
Effect of Gravity and Mobility Ratio
on Vertical Sweep Efficiency
100
Mobility Ratio M t
90

80 0.1
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
at Breakthrough, %

70

60 1
50
2
40

30
5
20
50
10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Modified Gravity Number
Effect of Gravity & Mobility Ratio on Ey
Example
Flood pattern = 10-acre Five-spot
Absolute permeability = 235 md
kro behind front = 0.08
krg behind front = 0.18
Gas viscosity = 0.034 cp
Reservoir gas density = 137 kg/m3
Acceleration of gravity = 9.8 m/s2
Reservoir thickness = 29 m
kro ahead of front = 0.62
krg ahead of front = 0
Oil viscosity = 1.7cp
Reservoir oil density = 826 kg/m3
Superficial velocity =2.3x10-6 m/s

Mobility ratio Mt = (rg + ro)behind front / (rg + ro)ahead of front

= [(0.18/0.034)+(0.08/1.7)] / [0+(0.62/1.7)] = 14.6

Eabt = 0.54602 + (0.03171/14.6) + 0.30223e -14.6 – 0.005097x14.6 = 47.4%

L = (10x4047/2)0.5 = 142 m
Ngh/L = 0.62x235x10-15(826 – 127)x9.8x29/(1.7x10-3x2.3x10-6x142) = 0.052

Eybt = 28%
Hence; Evbt = 0.474x0.28 = 13.3%
Layer Heterogeneity Coefficients
Porosity Permeability

Depth Reservoir
Interval

Variations in porosity and permeability with depth can be

estimated from core and well log data
This data can be used to estimate layer heterogeneity coefficients
 Layer Heterogeneity Coefficients
Using permeability (k) data only:
• Sort data in descending k
• Calculate fraction greater than
• Plot log(k) versus standard deviations
• Fit a straight line and determine k0.5 (median) and k0.841 (1 Std. Dev.)
• Calculate Dykstra-Parsons coefficient VDP = (k0.5 – k0.841) / k0.5

Example
Probability Plot for Example Data
10000

k0.5 = 318 md
Permeability, md

1000

k0.841 = 105 md
VDP = (318 – 105)/105 = 0.67
100

10
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Standard Deviations
 Layer Heterogeneity Coefficients
Using porosity () and permeability (k) data:
• Sort data in descending (k/)
• Calculate Storage capacity Cc = (h)1 – n / (h)1 - N
• Calculate Flow capacity Fc = (kh)1 – n / (kh)1 - N
• Plot Fc versus Cc
• Lorenz coefficient Lc = 2x Area between curve and 45 line
• Dykstra-Parsons coefficient VDP = (Slope0.5 – Slope0.841) / Slope0.5
Example
Flow-Storage Capacity Curve for Example Data
1

0.9 S0.841 = 0.328

0.8 Lc = 2x0.182 = 0.364

0.7
Flow Capacity Fc

S0.50 = 0.897
0.6 VDP = (0.897 – 0.328) / 0.897
0.5
Area = 0.182
0.4
= 0.634
0.3

0.2
4 3 2
0.1 y = -0.756x + 1.9229x - 2.6185x + 2.451x

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Storage Capacity Cc
 Effect of Layer Heterogeneity on
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Dykstra-Parsons Method
M0 = (krw0o) / (kro0w)
Y = (WOR + 0.4)(18.948 – 2.499VDP) / [(M0 – 0.8094VDP + 1.137)10X]
X = 1.6453VDP2 + 0.935VDP – 0.6891
Ey = 0.199 + 0.182(lnY) + 0.016(lnY)2 – 4.62x10-3(lnY)3 – 4.3x10-4(lnY)-1 + 2.77x10-4Y

Example of Dykstra-Parsons Charts for Vertical Sweep Efficiency

1

0.9
M0
0.8
Vertical sweep Efficiency

0.7 0.2
0.5
0.6
1
0.5
2
0.4

0.3
5
0.2
WOR = 25 10
0.1
20
0 50
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient VDP
 Effect of Layer Heterogeneity on
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Dykstra-Parsons Method - Example
Estimate vertical sweep efficiency using the following data:
krw0 = 0.23 kro0 = 0.69 w = 0.4 cp o = 3 cp
Water cut = 0.89 VDP = 0.7

M0 = (0.23x3) / (0.69x0.4) = 2.5

WOR = 0.89 / (1 – 0.89) = 8.1
X = 1.6453x0.72 + 0.935x0.7 – 0.6891 = 0.772
Y = (8.1+0.4)(18.948–2.499x0.7)/[(2.5–0.8094x0.7+1.137)100.772]
= 8.05
Ey = 0.199+0.182xln(8.05)+0.016x[ln(8.05)]2–4.62x10-3x[ln(8.05)]3
- 4.3x10-4/ln(8.05)+2.77x10-4x8.05 = 60.8%
 Viscous Fingering Phenomena
Displaced Producer
Fluid, 2 Injector Producer

Displacing Displaced
Displacing
Fluid, 1 Fluid, 2
Fluid, 1
Injector

• Caused by viscosity difference between displaced and

displacing fluids
• More pronounced in heterogeneous reservoirs
• Conceptual models require empirical parameters
Koval’s method (based on straight lines rel. perm.):
fd = 1 / [1 + {(1 – Sdf)/Kval Sdf}]
Kval = HK[0.78 + 0.22(2/1)0.25]4
log HK = VDP / (1 - VDP)0.2
Fluid Trapping in Reservoir Rocks

Microscopic trapping:
Pore-to-pore basis leading to residual oil
saturation and irreducible water saturation

Macroscopic trapping:
Large reservoir regions with remaining oil
saturation higher than residual saturation
 total

Macroscopic
A Aswept
total
Oil Trapping Atotal

Atotal Aswept Aswept

Aswept
A
Atotal
un-swept
Atotal
Atotal Aswept
AAtotal A
Areal sweep efficiency E a =
un-swept
swept
Areal sweep efficiency Ea = Vertical sweepVertical
Aswept efficiency Ey efficien
=
sweep
Aswept
Aswept/Atotal Aswept/Atotal Aswept/Atotal Aswept/Atotal
Volumetric sweepVolumetric efficiencysweep
Ev = Eefficiency
a Ey Ev = Ea Ey
Areal sweep efficiencyAreal
Easweep
= efficiency Ea = Vertical sweep efficiency
Vertical sweep
A /A
Ey =efficie
Undeveloped Regions Aswept/Atotal swept total Un-swept Volume
A /A Aswept/Atotal
swept total
Volumetric sweep efficiency Ev = Ea Ey
Unit pore volume Unit pore volume
Unit poreVolumetric
volume sweep efficiency Ev = Ea Ey
Unit pore volume
Remaining Oil
SoiUnit
, Boipore volume UnitSopore
, Bovolume
SoiUnit
, Boipore volume UnitSopore
, Bovolume
Soi/BSoi ,STB
oi
Boi SoS/B
o , BoSTB
o
Displacing S , B
S /B oi STB
Fluid oi oi
oi Soi/Boi STB
Oil SoS/Bo ,o BoSTB So/Bo STB
Before displacement
Soi/Boi STB After displacement
So/Bo STB
Before displacement After displacement
Before displacement After displacement
Before displacement Displacement efficiency
After
Displacement EdE=d 1= –1 (S
displacement
efficiency oBoB
– (S oi/S
oi/S BBo)o)Reco
oioi Reco
Sorem > Sfactor
factor Er =EE=d EEv =E E=d EEa EEyE
or r d v d a y

Displacement efficiency
Displacement EdE=d 1= –1 (S
efficiency oBoB
– (S oi/S oioiBBo)o)Recovery
oi/S Recovery
Macroscopic Oil Trapping
Fractures
Oil Producer
Gas
Matrix Gas Cone
Rock Oil
Water Cone
Water

Oil left in matrix rock Oil left due to coning phenomena

Injector Producer
Gravity override
Gas

Oil

Gravity under-running
Oil left due to gravity effects
Microscopic Fluid Trapping

Wetting phase

Non-wetting phase

Solid grains

Fluid distribution within pore spaces

Microscopic Fluid Trapping

Wetting phase Non-wetting phase

Aspect Ratio = r1 /r2

Radius r2 Radius r2

Trapped

Radius r1 Radius r1

Large Aspect Ratio Small Aspect Ratio

Trapping No Trapping

Pore Doublet Model

Microscopic Fluid Trapping

Wetting phase Non-wetting phase

Aspect Ratio = r1 /r2

r2 r1

Trapped

Large Aspect Ratio Small Aspect Ratio

Trapping No Trapping

Sinusoidal Pore Model

 Capillary De-saturation Curve
Residual fluid saturations are functions of capillary number Nvc
(Ratio of viscous to capillary forces)
Nvc  u /[ cos  (krw
0
/ w  kro0 / o )]

Sormax

Swcmax
Residual
Saturations Water

Oil

Capillary Number
 Laboratory-Measured
Capillary De-saturation Curve

S or / S ormax
max
S wc / S wc

Nvc  u /[ cos  (k / w  k / o )]

0
rw
0
ro
Capillary De-saturation Curve
Natural Parameters
that Affect Oil Recovery

• Reservoir depth
• Heterogeneity
• Grain size distribution
• Relative permeability
• Oil viscosity and composition
• Initial oil saturation
• Shale and dispersed clay
Operational Parameters
that Affect Oil Recovery

• Mobility ratio
• Ratio of viscous to capillary forces
• Ratio of viscous to gravitational forces
• Residual oil saturation
• Irreducible water saturation
 Basic Mechanisms
of EOR Methods

• Reduce residual oil saturation

• Decrease mobility ratio
• Reduce capillary forces
• Increase oil relative permeability
• Decrease displacing fluid relative permeability
• Increase irreducible water saturation
Basic Mechanisms
of EOR Methods

Waterflood
Miscible flood
Micellar flood
Steamflood
 Evaluation Steps
in EOR Applications

• Detailed geologic and reservoir description

• Observed performance analysis
• Preliminary screening, predictions and
economic feasibility
• Laboratory tests and simulation studies
• Design field pilot tests
• Process optimization and final design
• Monitoring program
Basic EOR Screening Guidelines
• Use incremental recovery for justification
• Porosity x Oil saturation concept
• Consider limitations, resources and
operating conditions for EOR mechanisms
• Use reliable data and industry practice

Remember:
Determining the methods that are not
applicable in a given reservoir is equally
important as determining those that are.