Guennadi E. Miram, Valentyna V. Daineko, Г.Е.Мірам, В.В.Дайнеко, Л.А.

Тарануха,
Lyubov A. Taranukha, Maryna V. Gryschenko, М.В.Грищенко, О.М.Гон
Oleksandr M. Gon
BASIC TRANSLATION ОСНОВИ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ
A course of lectures on translation theory Курс лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу
and practice for institutes and departments для факультетів та інститутів
of international relations міжнародних відносин

Редактор англійського тексту Н. Брешко

English text editor: Nina Breshko Рекомендовано Міністерством освіти і науки України
як навчальний посібник для студентів факультетів
та інститутів міжнародних відносин

Ж32
ю Мірам
ш Основи перекладу
 Kyiv Київ
Elga Ельга
Nika-Center Ніка-Центр
2002 2002
УДК 81(075.8)
ББК81я73
Рецензенти:
Доктор філологічних наук, професор В.І.Карабан (Київський
національний університет ім. Тараса Шевченка)
Кандидат філологічних наук, доцент К.С.Серажим (Київський
національний університет ім. Тараса Шевченка)
Навчальний посібник «Основи перекладу» є першою частиною
курсу лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу, призначеного для
стедентської аудиторії відповідних факультетів вищих навчальних
закладів, враховує мовну та комунікативну специфіку підготовки
спеціалістів широкого гуманітарного профілю, зокрема,
міжнародних відносин, міжнародного права, міжнародної
інформації, міжнародних економічних відносин.
Посібник підготовлено кафедрою іноземних мов Інституту
міжнародних відносин Київського національного університету імені
Тараса Шевченка. Колектив авторів: д.ф.н., проф. Мірам Г.Е., к.ф.н.
доц. Дайнеко В.В., викл. Тарануха Л.А., викл. Грищенко М.В., к.ф.н.,
доц. Гон О.М.
БІБЛІОТЕКА
Луганського державного
Гриф надаШШГШтЄ§Є*вЧ!й»?й6№Я"Щауки України.
Лист № 14ІЛЖЇЙ1^і]
© Г.Е.Мірам, В.В. Дайнеко, Л.А.Тарануха,
ISBN 966-521 -160-9 М.В.Грищенко, О.М.Гон, 2002
© Оригінал-макет. Видавництво "Ніка-
Центр", 2002
PREFACE
When a language is taught to students of non-linguistic specialities
-so-called Language for Special Purpose (LSP) - this fact is usually taken
into account by the authors of language manuals and results in special
manuals either intended for a particular profession (for example, English
for Law Students) or covering a range of similar occupations (e. g.,
Technical English, Financial English, etc.). As a rule, LSP Manuals focus
students' attention on peculiar professional vocabulary and phrasing,
comprise training text materials pertaining to particular profession and
explain grammar rules and stylistic patterns conspicuous for certain pro-
fessional speech variety. Also, LSP Manuals include numerous transla-
tion exercises involving texts of specific professional orientation.
Although translation is part and parcel of any LSP Manual, however,
with several rare exceptions (e. g., Military Translation Manual by L. Ne-
lyubin et al.) there are no translation manuals specifically intended for
students of non-linguistic specialties and this Manual is an attempt to fill
the gap. We think that there are several reasons that might justify our
venture. First and most of all, translation is an effective tool that assists in
matching language communication patterns of the speakers of different
languages in a specific professional field, especially such communication-
dependent one as international relations. This aspect of translation
teaching becomes even more important under the language development
situation typical of New Independent States such as Ukraine. Besides,
general linguistic subjects related to translation are not in the curriculum
of the international relations students and we included in our Manual
several lectures that would improve general linguistic awareness of the
students, moreover that we consider this information a necessary pre-
requisite for proper understanding of translation. Last, but not the least
the Manual comprises in its training part (exercises after each lecture and
the Appendix) English vocabulary and speech patterns with their
Ukrainian equivalents which are in standard circulation in diplomatic
practice, international law and international finance areas.
5
 The theoretical approaches to translation that we use in our Manual are
based on the most widely accepted modern translation theories, both Western
and of the former Soviet Union. An attempt was made, however, to present them
to the readers in a concise and simplified form, which in our opinion is justified
by the purpose and target audience of the Manual. Special accent is made,
however, on communicational theory since it highlights those aspects of
translation process which are of vital significance for translation teaching. The
Manual discusses both translation and interpretation since both skills are desired
from international relations specialists.
The Manual is targeted to the audience of translation teachers and students
of non-linguistic higher educational establishments and international relations
institutes and faculties, in particular.
* * x-
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the Foreign Languages Chair of the
Institute of International Relations (Kyiv Taras Shevchenko
National University) for discussions and valuable comments on
the Manual. We are thankful to Mr. A. Kobzarenko for style-
editing of Ukrainian translations.
We would like to thank Prof. V. Karaban and Ass. Prof.
K. Serazhim for reading and suggesting valuable comments on
the Manual.
We highly appreciate and gratefully acknowledge the
support of the Administration of the Institute of Inter-
national Relations.
Authors
Lecture 1. LANGUAGE AND EXTRALINGUISTIC
WORLD
This Lecture:
• _ introduces the notions of a linguistic sign, a concept and a denotatum;
• establishes relations between the above sets of elements;
• shows the difference between the denotative and connotative meanings of
a linguistic sign;
• describes the mental concept of a linguistic sign;
• describes the relations of polysemy and synonymy, and
• explains some causes of ambiguity of translation equivalents.
It is worthwhile to begin lectures on translation with a short introduction to
the phenomenon of language, since not knowing the relationship between
language and extralinguistic world one can hardly properly understand
translation.
•* The relation of language to the extralinguistic world involves three
basic sets of elements: language signs, mental concepts and parts of the
extralinguistic world (not necessarily material or physically really
existing) which are usually called denotata (Singular: denotatum).
The language sign is a sequence of sounds (in spoken language) or
symbols (in written language) which is associated with a single concept in the
minds of speakers of that or another language.
It should be noted that sequences smaller than a word (i.e. morphemes) and
those bigger than a word (i.e. word combinations) are also language signs rather
than only words. Word combinations are regarded as individual language signs
if they are related to a single mental concept
6 7
 which is different from the concepts of its individual components (e. g. best
man).1
The signs of language are associated with particular mental concepts only in
the minds of the speakers of this language. Thus, vrouw, Frau, femeie, and
kobieta are the language signs related to the concept of a woman in Dutch,
German, Romanian and Polish, respectively. It is important to note that one can
relate these signs to the concept of a woman if and only if he or she is a speaker
of the relevant language or knows these words otherwise, say, from a dictionary.
One may say that language signs are a kind of construction elements
(bricks) of which a language is built. To prove the necessity of knowing the
language sign system in order to understand a language it is sufficient to run the
following test: read with a dictionary a text in a completely unknown language
with complex declination system and rich inflexions (say, Hungarian or
Turkish). Most probably your venture will end in failure because not knowing
the word-changing morphemes (language signs) of this language you won't find
many of the words in a dictionary.
The mental concept is an array of mental images and associations related
to a particular part of the extralinguistic world (both really existing and
imaginary), on the one hand, and connected with a particular language sign, on
the other.
The relationship between a language sign and a concept is ambiguous: it is
often different even in the minds of different people, speaking the same
language, though it has much in common and, hence, is recognizable by all the
members of the language speakers community. As an example of such
ambiguity consider possible variations of the concepts (mental images and
associations) corresponding to the English word engineer in the minds of
English-speaking people when this word is used, say, in a simple introductory
phrase Meet Mr. X. He is an engineer.
' In this as well as in many other instances we make use of definitions which
seem the most suitable for the explanation of translation but might be considered
oversimplified should they be kept to in a comprehensive semantic analysis.
8 Oxford, 1982.
The relationship between similar concepts and their relevant language signs
may be different also in different languages. For example, among the words of
different languages corresponding to the concept of a women mentioned above:
vrouw, Frau, femei, and kobieta, the first two will include in the concept of a
woman that of a wife whereas the last two will not.
The differences in the relationship between language signs and concepts
(i.e*. similar concepts appearing different to the speakers of different languages
and even to different speakers of the same language) may explain many of the
translation difficulties.
ШЬ The mental concept of a word (and word combination) usually
consists of lexical meanings, connotations, associations and
grammatical meanings. The lexical meanings, connotations, and
associations relate a word to the extralinguistic world, whereas the
grammatical meanings relate it to the system of the language.
For example, the German word haben possesses the lexical meaning of to
have with similar connotations and associations and in its grammatical meaning
it belongs as an element to the German grammatical system of the Perfect
Tense. One may note similar division of the meanings in the English verb to
have or in the French verb avoir.
Thus, a lexical meaning is the general mental concept corresponding to a
word or a combination of words.2 To get a better idea of lexical meanings lets
take a look at some definitions in a dictionary3. For practical pur-
2
It is, of course, a simplified definition but we think it serves the purpose of
this Manual. In order to read more on this complex subject you may refer to:
Salomon L.B. Semantics and Common Sense. - New-York, 1966; Chafe W.L.
Meaning and the Structure of Language. - Chicago; London, 1971.
3
Hornby A. S. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. -
9
poses they may be regarded as descriptions of the lexical meanings of the
words shown below:
mercy - 1. (capacity for) holding oneself back from punishing, or
from causing suffering to, somebody whom one has the right or power to
punish; 2. piece of good fortune, something to be thankful for, relief; 3.
exclamation of surprise or (often pretended) terror.
noodle - 1. type of paste of flour and water or flour and eggs pre-
pared in long, narrow strips and used in soups, with a sauce, etc.; 2. fool.
blinkers (US = blinders) - leather squares to prevent a horse from
seeing sideways.
A connotation is an additional, contrastive value of the basic usually
designative function of the lexical meaning. As an example, let us compare
the words to die and to peg out. It is easy to note that the former has no
connotation, whereas the latter has a definite connotation of vulgarity.
An association is a more or less regular connection established between
the given and other mental concepts in the minds of the language speakers.
As an evident example, one may choose red which is usually associated
with revolution, communism and the like. A rather regular association is
established between green and fresh {young) and (mostly in the last dec-
ade) between green and environment protection.
Naturally, the number of regular, well-established associations ac-
cepted by the entire language speakers' community is rather limited - the
majority of them are rather individual, but what is more important for
translation is that the relatively regular set of associations is sometimes dif-
ferent in different languages. The latter fact might affect the choice of trans-
lation equivalents.
Ш* The most important fact, however, to be always born in mind in
translation is that the relation between words (language signs) and
parts of the extralinguistic world (denotata) is only indirect and
going through the mental concepts4.
The concepts being strongly subjective and largely different in dif-
ferent languages for similar denotata give rise to one of the most difficult
problems of translation, the problem of ambiguity of translation
equivalents.
Ш* Another source of translation ambiguity is the polysemantic
nature of the language signs: the relationship between the signs and
concepts is very seldom one-to-one, most frequently it is one-to-
many or many-to-one, i.e. one word has several meanings or several
words have similar meanings.
These relations are called polysemy (homonymy) and synonymy,
accordingly. For example, one and the same language sign bay corre-
sponds to the concepts of a tree or shrub, a part of the sea, a compartment
in a building, room, etc., deep barking of dogs, and reddish-brown color of a
horse and one and the same concept of high speed corresponds to several
language signs: rapid, quick, fast.
The peculiarities of conceptual fragmentation of the world by the
language speakers are manifested by the range of application of the lexi-
cal meanings (reflected in limitations in the combination of words and
stylistic peculiarities). This is yet another problem having direct relation
to translation - a translator is to observe the compatibility rules of the lan-
guage signs (e. g. make mistakes, but do business).
The relationship of language signs with the well-organized material
world and mostly logically arranged mental images suggests that a lan-
guage is an orderly system rather than a disarray of random objects. The
language system and its basic rules are the subject of the next lecture.
 For more information see, for example, a classical work of Ogden C.K.,
Ivor A. Richards. The Meaning of Meaning. - London, 1949.
10 11
03 QUESTIONS Ex. 3. Consider regular associations between English words (concepts) in the
word combinations given below, suggest Ukrainian equivalents of the latter.
1. What are the basic elements of the relationship between a language Observe similarity or difference of the associations in the Ukrainian equiva-
and extralinguistic world? lents.
2. What is a language sign, a concept and a denotatum? Give defini- white knight; white heat; yellow press; common sense; die hard; soft
tions. Show the relation between them? (hard) figures; pipe dream; red tape
3. What is a lexical meaning, a connotation and an association? Give
definitions and examples. Ex. 4. Suggest the missing parts of the expressions below; say where the
4. What is the range of application of a word? Give examples. associations are similar in English and Ukrainian.
5. What are the main sources of translation ambiguity stemming from " .... Tom, ... Tom; ... Rouges, ... Rouge; ... sky, .... sky; .... apple; ...
the sign-concept relationship? Apple, apple ..., apple ...., Apple ..., Apple, apple ..., apple ...

Ex. 5. Take three homonyms and synonyms in Ukrainian, translate them

into English, point to the cases of similar and different use.
(§J EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Using a dictionary define the lexical meanings of the following words
and word combinations. Find Ukrainian or English equivalents. Compare
the lexical meanings of the English words and their Ukrainian equivalents
and vice versa.
a) anticlimax; arms; bottom; bout; concert; concoct; date; detail;
end; engineer; fulcrum; fun; the gist; give and take; world; worldly; peer
pressure; peer-bonded; rapport; task force; track record; power broker;
odds; home; war.
b) аматор - любитель - дилетант; аналізувати - розглядати
-розбирати; банкір - фінансист; засновник - основоположник
-фундатор - батько; малий - невеликий - нечисленний - обмежений
- мізерний - нікчемний; неймовірний - неправдоподібний - дикий
- парадоксальний - анекдотичний; простий - щирий - простодушний
- грубий - звичайний.

Ех. 2. Describe connotations of the following words and word combinations.

Suggest Ukrainian translations with similar connotations.
malady - disease - illness; unusual - off-beat; efforts - travails; work
- toil, gun - piece; corpse - stiff; rich - well-to-do; quit - buzz off; liqui
date - iron out.
12 13
Lecture 2. LANGUAGE SYSTEM: PARADIGMS •* In any language system two general planes are usually distinguished: the
formal plane, comprising spoken or written language signs (words and word
AND SYNTAGMAS combinations as well as minor elements, morphemes) and the semantic,
comprising mental concepts (meanings) the language signs stand for.
 This Lecture:
• introduces the concepts of a system;
• introduces the notion of language as a system existing in formal and se-
mantic planes;
• attributes linguistic signs to morphological, lexical or syntactic levels;
• depending on meaning or function, defines what paradigm a unit belongs;
• analyzes syntactic and semantic valence;
• shows how different syntagmas are activated in English and Ukrainian in
the course of translation;
• gives a definition of translation as a specific coding-encoding process.
So, there is a system underlying seemingly random signs of a language.
One may note, for instance, that not all the words are compatible with each
other, their range of application has certain limitations, and through their lexical
meanings and associations they may be united into individual groups.
For example, to take an extreme case, in English speech one will never find
two articles in a row or in an official obituary an English speaker will never say
that the minister pegged out. An evident example of grouping by meaning and
association gives the group of colors in which even a little child will easily
include black, red, blue, etc.
Thus, one may conclude that there is some order organizing hundreds of
thousands of words making it easier to memorize and properly use them in
speech. This order is called the system of a language. Any system is an
organized set of objects and relations between them, but before discussing
objects and relations in the system of a language it is worthwhile to describe the
traditional approach to language system descriptions.
- As a simplified example one may again take words from a dictionary
{formalplane) and their definitions (semanticplane):
corps - 1. one of the technical branches of an army; 2. - military force made
up of two or more divisions
correct - 1. true, right; 2. - proper, in accord with good taste and
conventions.
This example is, of course, simplified since the real semantic content
corresponding to a word is much more complex and not that easy to define. The
general relationship between these planes has been described in the previous
lecture.
•► A language system is traditionally divided into three basic levels:
morphological (including morphs and morphemes as objects), lexical
(including words as objects) and syntactic (comprising such objects as
elements of the sentence syntax such as Subject, Predicate, etc.)
For example, -tion, -sion are the English word-building morphemes and
belong to objects of the morphological level, book, student, desk as well as any
other word belong to objects of the lexical level, and the same words (nouns)
book, student, desk in a sentence may become Subjects or Objects and thus
belong to the set of syntactic level objects of the language.
14 15
•► At each language level its objects may be grouped according to The following paradigms were used to form these sentences and the
their meaning or function. Such groups are called paradigms. following paradigm elements were activated in syntagmas during their
formation (viz. Table below)
 Names of Paradigms Used Elements Activated in the Sentence
to Form the Sentences English Ukrainian
For example, the English morphemes s and es enter the paradigm of
Number (Plural). Words spring, summer, autumn, and winter enter the Personal Pronouns Paradigm he він
lexico-semantic paradigm of seasons. All verbs may be grouped into the Verbs Paradigm Verb Tense used, come приїздив
syntactic (functional) paradigm of Predicates. Paradigm Particles Paradigm Past Indef. минулий час
One may note that one and the same word may belong to different Prepositions Paradigm Noun to none
levels and different paradigms, i.e. the language paradigms are fuzzy sets Paradigm Adjectives to до
with common elements. As an example, consider the lexico-semantic Paradigm Adverbs Paradigm Italy, spring Італія, весна
paradigm of colors the elements of which {black, white, etc.) also belong Noun Cases Paradigm each кожний
to the syntactic paradigms of Attributes and Nouns. Adjective Cases Paradigm none зазвичай
It is important to note that the elements of language paradigms are Common Case род. відм.
united and organized according to their potential roles in speech (text) for-
none род. відм.
mation. These roles are called valences. Thus, words black, white, red, etc.
have a potential to define colors of the objects (semantic valence) and a
potential capacity to serve as Attributes in a sentence (syntactic valence). Comparing the paradigm sets used to form the above English and
Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas
of these sentences one may easily note that both the sets used and the set
•► The paradigms of the language brought together form the system elements activated are often different.
of the language which may be regarded as a kind of construction They are different because English and Ukrainian possess different
material to build sentences and texts. Language paradigms are vir- language systems. It goes without saying, that this fact is very important
tual elements of the language which are activated in syntactically in- for translation and explains many translation problems.
terdependent groups of sentence elements called syntagmas.
 In simple language a syntagma is a pair of words connected by the
master-servant relationship5
As an example, consider sentences in English and in Ukrainian: He
used to come to Italy each spring and Зазвичай кожної весни він приїздив
до Італії.
ШЬ Any language has a particular multi-level organization: its ele-
ments are organized in sets (paradigms) at various levels and a lan-
guage speaker is using the elements of these sets to generate a mes-
sage intended for communication with other speakers of this lan-
guage and entirely incomprehensible for those who have no com-
mand of this language.
5
This is an approach typical for Immediate Constituents (IC) Grammar.
P
16 Б І Б Л і З "і 6КЙ
Луганське! о державного 7?
ЦЗГОГІЧНОГО
університету мені Тараса
Шевченка
2№
 The latter fact is easy to illustrate by a sentence in a language pre-
sumably unfamiliar to the readers of this Manual. Consider Dutch sen-
tence: Dat vat ik niet. One will understand it if he knows that:
ik is a Personal Pronoun, first person singular (English I);
vat is the first person singular of the verb vatten (English catch, get);
niet is the negation (English not, no);
dat is a Pronoun (English it, this).
Then being aware of the relevant English words (paradigm ele-
ments) one may render this sentence in English as I do not get it.
From the above one may conclude that a language is a code under-
stood only by its users (speakers)6. Then, may be, translation is a process
of decoding a message in one code and encoding it in another which is
understood by another group of users using a different code. However,
this is the subject of the next lecture.
6
This viewpoint is widely accepted by computational linguistics (viz., e.;
Grishman R. Computational Linguistics: An Introduction - Cambridge, 1987).
18
Ј?3 QUESTIONS
1. What are the two main planes of a language? What is the
relationship between them?
2. What levels are traditionally distinguished in a language? Give ex-
amples of the objects of each level.
3. What is a language paradigm? Give examples of lexico-semantic and
grammatical paradigms.
4. -What is a syntagma? Qive a definition.
5. What is the language system? fiive a definition.
(§} EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Give the elements ofthe following lexico-semantic paradigms.
a) furniture, colors, time, times of the day, seasons
b) вибори; судова система; переговори; фінанси
Ех. 2. Compare the grammatical paradigms which enter the following Eng-
lish words and their Ukrainian equivalents.
house, man, easy, do-little, easy-going, white
Ex. 3. In the text below, name as many lexico-semantic and grammatical
paradigms as you can find.
BOTH SIDES WILL MAKE SURE AMERICAS CULTURE WARS
CONTINUE The Internaitonal
Herald Tribune. April 12, 2001. ByNeal Gahler.
The culture wars that so enlivened the 1980s and 1990s in America
are said to be over. The savage fights that raged full-scale as recently as
two years ago over gay rights, abortion, gun control, environmental pro-
tection and general permissiveness, and that culminated in the Antietam
of culture battles, Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial, seem to have just
petered out.
19
 Pundits say the combatants, exhausted from all the verbal shelling, have
accepted compromise rather than press on for total victory, and this has led to a
new spirit of accommodation. One observer writes that the «crackle of cultural Lecture 3. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS
gunfire is now increasingly distant.» OF COMMUNICATION
It makes you wonder what country they're living in.

Ex. 4. Compare the paradigm sets used to form the following English and This Lecture
Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas of these • introduces the concepts of:
sentences. _• (a) communication;
Jack is an early riser. Джек рано встає. • (b) components communication consists of (message, message
sender, message recipient);
• (c) ways of communicating;
• shows the difference between bilingual communication and translation;
• shows which tools are helpful in coping with ambiguity of messages and
gives their definitions.

Thus, a language may be regarded as a specific code intended for in-

formation exchange between its users (language speakers). Indeed, any
language resembles a code being a system of interrelated material signs
(sounds or letters), various combinations of which stand for various messages.
Language grammars and dictionaries may be considered as a kind of Code
Books, indicating both the meaningful combinations of signs for a particular
language and their meanings.
For example, if one looks up the words (sign combinations) elect and
college in a dictionary he will find that they are meaningful for English (as
opposed, say, to combinations ele or oil), moreover, in an English grammar he
will find that, at least, one combination of these words: elect college is also
meaningful and forms a message.

Ш* The process of language communication involves sending a message

by a message sender to a message recipient - the sender encodes his
mental message into the code of a particular language and the recipient
decodes it using the same code (language).
20 21
 The communication variety with one common language is called the
monolingual communication.
If, however, the communication process involves two languages
(codes) this variety is called the bilingual communication.
Bilingual communication is a rather typical occurrence in countries
with two languages in use (e. g. in Ukraine or Canada). In Ukraine one
may rather often observe a conversation where one speaker speaks
Ukrainian and another one speaks Russian. The peculiarity of this com-
munication type lies in the fact that decoding and encoding of mental
messages is performed simultaneously in two different codes. For exam-
ple, in a Ukrainian-Russian pair one speaker encodes his message in
Ukrainian and decodes the message he received in Russian.
the Bible, a code,a book, etc. as a noun) but one will easily and without
any doubt understand this message:
1. as Book tickets! in a situation involving reservation of tickets or
2. as Give that book! in a situation involving sudden and urgent
necessity to be given the book in question
So, one of the means clarifying the meaning of ambiguous messages
is the fragment of the real world that surrounds the speaker which is
usually called extralinguistic situation.
Another possibility to clarify the meaning of the word book is pro-
vided by the context which may be as short as one more word a (a book)
or several words (e.g., the book I gave you).
In simple words a context may be defined as a length of speech (text)
necessary to clarify the meaning of a given word.
•► Translation is a specific type of bilingual communication since
(as opposed to bilingual communication proper) it obligatory in-
volves a third actor (translator) and for the message sender and re-
cipient the communication is, in fact, monolingual.
^ The ambiguity of a language makes it necessary to use situation
and context to properly generate and understand a message (i. e. en-
code and decode it) Since translation according to communicational
approach is decoding and encoding in two languages the significance
of situation and context for translation cannot be overestimated.
 Translation as a specific communication process is treated by the
communicational theory of translation discussed in more detail else-
where in this Manual7.
Thus, a language is a code used by language speakers for communi-
cation. However, a language is a specific code unlike any other and its
peculiarity as a code lies in its ambiguity - as opposed to a code proper a
language produces originally ambiguous messages which are specified
against context, situation and background information.
Let us take an example. Let the original message in English be an in-
struction or order Book!. It is evidendy ambiguous having at least two
grammatical meanings (a noun and a verb) and many lexical ones (e. g.,
7 sional, age groups, etc.). This applies mosdy to specific vocabulary used
See also: Kade O. Kommunikationswissenschaftliche Probleme
der Translation // Grundfragen der Uebersetzungwissenschaft. - Leipzig, 1968.
22
There is another factor also to be taken into account in communica-
tion and, naturally, in translation. This factor is background information,
i. e. general awareness of the subject of communication.
To take an example the word combination electoral college will mean
nothing unless one is aware of the presidential election system in the
USA.
Apart from being a code strongly dependent on the context, situa-
tion and background information a language is also a code of codes.
There are codes within codes in specific areas of communication (scien-
tific, technical, military, etc.) and so called sub-languages (of profes-
by these groups though there are differences in grammar rules as well.
23
 As an example of the elements of such in-house languages 8 one may (??) QUESTIONS
take words and word combinations from financial sphere (chart of ac-
counts, value added, listing), diplomatic practice {credentials, charge 1.
d'affaires, framework agreement) or legal language (bail, disbar, plaintiff). 2.
All said above is undoubtedly important for translation and will be
discussed in more detail elsewhere during this lecture course, however, it 3.
is high time to answer the seemingly simple question «What is transla-
tion?». And this is the subject of the next lecture. 4.
5.
What is language communication? What actors does it involve?
What is monolingual communication? What is bilingual communi-
cation? Give examples.
Describe translation as a special kind of bilingual communication.
Why is it called special?
What is peculiar about a language as a code? Which factors specify
the meaning of a message?
What is context, situation and background information? Give defi-
nition of context. Give examples of extralinguistic situations and
items of background information that would clarify a message.
(§] EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Suggest the elements of the context that clarify the meanings of the
italicized words in the following phrases (messages). Translate into Ukrain-
ian and English, accordingly.
a) You are doing well\ Water is deep down the well. Top-to-bottom
structure. The submarine lies on the sea bottom. College vote. University
college. Drugs plague modern society. The drug is to be taken with meals.
b) Він пишався своєю рідною землею, що дала світу так багато
видатних людей. У цій частині країни всі землі придатні для
вирощування пшениці. На чорній землі біла пшениця родить. На
чиїй землі живеш, того й воду п'єш. Колос плідний до землі гнеться,
а пустий - вгору дереться. Земля багата - народ багатий.

Ех. 2. Describe situations and/or items of background information that clar-

ify the meanings of the italicized words in the following phrases (messages).
Translate into Ukrainian.
Bottoms up! Her Majesty man-o'-war 'Invincible'. Bugs in the room.
Global net.
1
The term used by some scholars for sub-
languages. 25
24
Ex. 3. Describe situations and/or items of background information that clar-
ify the meanings of the following Ukrainian words. Suggest English equiva-
lents.
презентація, КВН, бомж, зачистка, прем'єріада, ЖЕК.
Ex. 4. Translate the text into Ukrainian. Suggest items of background in-
formation necessary for its proper translation.
HAS THIS BEEN A TERM OF ENDEARMENT? The
Observer, Sunday April 29, 2001. Andrew Rawnsley, columnist of the year.
Tony Blair's government has made history. What it has yet to
demonstrate is the capacity to change the country's destiny.
A week is a long time in politics; 48 months is an eternity. Four years
ago this Wednesday, Tony Blair stood before the black door on his sun-
dappled first day in office. 'Enough of talking,' said the man of action. 'It
is time now to do'. 'Strip off the hype which has gushed from Number 10
ever since; blow away the froth of the daily headlines. How has his gov-
ernment actually done? Let us try, as clinically as is possible, to assess the
performance of New Labour.
The starter test of any government, I would suggest, is that it is rea-
sonably accomplished at governing. This sounds an undemanding hurdle,
but it is a first fence many previous governments have failed to sur-
mount. The Blair government has made serious, self-inflicted mistakes
-the Millennium Dome blasts them still. The unexpected has come close
to blowing them over. Foot and mouth has not been - I am being chari-
table - a textbook example of how to handle an emergency. The Gov-
ernment teetered on, the lip of the abyss during last autumn's fuel pro-
tests. It is natural that we should curse their blunders more than we offer
credit for the mistakes they have avoided. But the Blair government has
eschewed perpetrating any spectacular errors.
The novices to red boxes who took office four years ago have
broadly run a competent government. Its life has been punctuated by
crises, which have been invariably generated not by dissident backbench-
ers or off-message Ministers, but erupted from the inner core of the re-
26
gime. There have been gripping soap operas, none more so than the
double resignations of Peter Mandelson. But the damage done has been
to the actors, not to the country at large. There has not been the economic
calamity or civil crisis which destroys governments and wrecks
countries.
The Blair government has not inflicted upon us a Suez, a Three Day
week or a Winter of Discontent. There has not been the vicious social
conflict of the inner-city riots and the miners' strike in the Eighties. There
has not been anything approaching the ruinousness of Thatcher's poll tax
or Major's Black Wednesday. Just by being reasonably adept at ruling,
the Blair administration is lifted above the average run of postwar
governments.
The next test of any government is whether it has been true to its
promises. Generally, the so-distant People's Prime Minister has fulfilled
the rather low expectations the people had of him. Blair was elected on a
paradoxical prospectus. The subtext of his campaign was: everything is
appalling; we will change it very slowly. The Conservatives may have left
office in May 1997, but their term of power did not properly end until
just two years ago, when Gordon Brown finally released the Government
from the Tory spending corset. Transformed schools and hospitals await
realisation. If not delivered in the second term, the punishment of the
electorate may be terrible.
Blair's most reckless pledge was to restore faith in public life. Back
on May Day 1997, even the most cynical observer did not anticipate they
would have quite so much sleaze in them. In other respects, this gov-
ernment has delivered more than it promised. The last manifesto pledged
nothing about child benefit - it has actually risen by 25 per cent. They did
not claim to be able to create full employment, yet they have achieved
that historic goal of Labour.
Any set of rulers with an eye on claiming a large place in posterity
must aspire to be more than competent deliverers. The superior rank of
government is occupied by those which make changes lasting beyond
t hei r lifetime. It is not conceivable that the Conservatives could unravel
27
devolution to Scotland and Wales, an aspiration of progressive govern-
ments dating back to Gladstone.
One of the ironies of Blair is that, for all his relentless emphasis on
the modern, his bigger achievements have been based on ambitions set
by long-dead predecessors. A settlement in Ireland has eluded every pre-
mier since the nineteenth century. The minimum wage was a Labour goal
when Keir Hardie founded the party. The Tories have been compelled to
accept it, just as they have been forced to support independence for the
Bank of England. This government could come to a full stop today - and
would leave enduring legacies.
There are other elements of the Blair record which the Right accepts
because they are as amazed as many on the Left are disgusted that they
have been enacted by a Labour government.
Which takes us to my next test of a government: has it permanently
altered the framework of political choice? The verdict here is mixed.
With a little help from the grisly pantomime that is William Hague's
Conservative Party, New Labour commands the centre ground and
swathes of territory on both flanks. Harold Wilson's unrequited dream of
making Labour'the natural party of government' is closer to realisation by
Tony Blair than under any previous Labour Prime Minister.
But he has achieved it more by following the consensus than by chal-
lenging the status quo. His government has pandered to illiberality more
often than it has confronted prejudice. It has become a little less bashful
about making the case for the active state and a fairer society, but re-
mains coy of full candour.
Since the Third Way was giggled to death, it has become ever clearer
that this is a government which moves by inches rather than leaps. There
is nothing intrinsically wrong with that: small steps, provided there are
enough of them, can take you on a long journey.
Baby bonds are an eyecatching device to give the poor an asset stake
in society. But this is the safest sort of radicalism. The first beneficiaries
of the scheme will not come into possession of their modest endowments
until Mr Blair is eligible for his pension. He, Qordon Brown, David
Blunkett and Alistair Darling, along with the Institute for Public Policy
Research and the Fabian Society, all claim paternity over baby bonds.
When one good notion has to be spread around four Cabinet Ministers
and two think tanks, it tells us that New Labour is not bursting with bold
and innovatory ideas.
This brings me to the last and most demanding test. The outstanding
governments are those which alter the country's destiny. The project to
secure the exclusion of the Conservatives from power for a generation
has withered as Blair's enthusiasm for changing the Westminster voting
system has shrivelled. In terms of the private goals he set for his
premiership, the most evident failure has been Europe. Towards Europe
as a whole, and towards the single currency especially, public opinion is
more aggressively hostile than ever.
The greatest wrangling between the Prime Minister and the Chan-
cellor about the next manifesto is not over what it says about tax, but
about the warmth of the phraseology towards the single currency. The
fiercest struggle about that is within Mr Blair himself. Will he hedge his
self-perceived destiny with deadening qualifications or will he articulate
the belief that his epochal role is to make Britain a fully engaged partner
in Europe?
The Blair government has demonstrated that it can make history.
Only in its second term will we discover whether it has the capacity to
change the future.
28 29
 Lecture 4. TRANSLATION DEFINITION
In this Lecture the reader will:
• find the definition of translation as an object of linguistic study in terms
of process and outcome;
• find the definitions of languages translated from and into.
The lecture also describes:
• stages of the translation process;
• the role of verification process.
Usually when people speak about translation or even write about it
in special literature they are seldom specific about the meaning. The pre-
sumption is quite natural - everybody understands the meaning of the
word. However, to describe translation intuitive understanding is not
sufficient - what one needs is a definition.
Translation means both a process and a result, and when defining
translation we are interested in both its aspects. First of all, we are inter-
ested in the process because it is the process we are going to define.
But at the same time we need the result of translation since along-
side with the source the translated text is one of the two sets of observed
events we have at our disposal if we intend to describe the process. In
order to explain translation we need to compare the original (source) text
and the resulting (target) one.
However, the formation of the source and target texts is governed by
the rules characteristic of the source and target languages. Hence the
systems of the two languages are also included in our sphere of interest.
These systems consist of grammar units and rules, morphological and
word-building elements and rules, stylistical variations, and lexical dis-
tribution patterns (lexico-semantic paradigms).
Moreover, when describing a language one should never forget that
language itself is a formal model of thinking, i.e. of mental concepts we
use when thinking.
In translation we deal with two languages (two codes) and to verify
the information they give us about the extralinguistic objects (and con-
cepts) we should consider extralinguistic situation, and background in-
formation.
Having considered all this, we shall come to understand that as an
object of linguistic study translation is a complex entity consisting of the
following interrelated components:
-a. elements and structures of the source text;
b. elements and structures of the target language;
c. transformation rules to transform the elements and structures of
the source text into those of the target text; systems of the languages involved
in translation;
e. conceptual content and organization of the source text;
f conceptual content and organization of the target text;
g. interrelation of the conceptual contents of the source and target
texts.
In short, translation is functional interaction of languages9 and to
study this process we should study both the interacting elements and the
rules of interaction.
Among interacting elements we must distinguish between the ob-
servable and those deducible from the observables. The observable ele-
ments in translation are parts of words, words, and word combinations of
the source text.
However, translation process involves parts of words, words, and
word combinations of the target language (not of the target text, because
when we start translating or, to be more exact, when we begin to build a
model of future translation, the target text is yet to be generated). These
translation components are deducible from observable elements of the
source text.
In other words, one may draw the following conclusion:
30 The definition suggested by V.Komissarov. See: Комиссаров В.Н. Линг-
вистика перевода. - M., 1981.
31
 Ш* During translation one intuitively fulfills the following opera-
tions:
a. deduces the target language elements and rules of equivalent
selection and substitution on the basis of observed source text
elements;
b. builds a model consisting of the target language elements se
lected for substitution;
c. verifies the model of the target text against context, situation
and background information;
d. generates the target text on the basis of the verified model.
Thus, the process of translation may be represented as consisting of
three stages:
1. analysis of the source text, situation and background informa-
tion,
2. synthesis of the translation model, and
3. verification of the model against the source and target context
(semantic, grammatical, stylistic), situation, and background information
resulting in the generation of the final target text.
Let us illustrate this process using a simple assumption that you re-
ceive for translation one sentence at a time (by the way this assumption is
a reality of consecutive translation).
For example, if you received:
«At the first stage the chips are put on the conveyer» as the source
sentence. Unless you observe or know the situation your model of the
target text will be:
«На першому етапі стружку (щебінку) (смажену картоплю)
(нарізану сиру картоплю) (чіпи) кладуть на конвеєр».
Having verified this model against the context provided in the next
sentence (verification against semantic context):
«Then they are transferred to the frying oven» you will obtain: «На
першому етапі нарізану сиру картоплю кладуть на конвеєр».
It looks easy and self-evident, but it is important, indeed, for under-
standing the way translation is done. In the case we have just discussed
the translation model is verified against the relevance of the concepts
corresponding to the word chips in all its meanings to the concept of the
word frying (Is it usually fried? or Is it worth frying?).
Ш* Verification against semantic and grammatical contexts is per-
formed either simultaneously (if the grammatical and semantic ref-
erences are available within a syntagma) or the verification against
semantic context is delayed until the availability of a relevant seman-
tic reference which may be available in one of the following rather
than in one and the same sentence. Cases when the grammatical, se-
mantic or situational references are delayed or missing present serious
problems for translation.
The examples of specifying contexts are given in Table below.
long stick - long run grammatical and semantic context
in one syntagma
The results are shown in the table - grammatical and semantic context
Put this book on the table in one sentence
The tanks were positioned in spe- semantic context in different sen-
cially built shelters and the tank tences
operation proved successful. The
enemy could not detect them from
the air.
With these simple examples we want to stress a very important fact
for translation: the co-occurring words or the words situated close to each
other in a source text have invisible pointers indicating various kinds of
grammatical, semantic, and stylistic information. This information is stored
in human memory, and the principal task of a translator is to visualize all
of this information.
In the examples with chips that were just discussed we used so called
deduction modeling, that is we built our translation on the basis of our
knowledge about the languages involved in translation and the knowl-
32 33
edge of «the way things are in life» (e.g. that it is hardly reasonable to fry fried
potatoes or fragmented stones). We intuitively formulated hypotheses about
translation of certain words and phrases and then verified them.
So, speaking very generally, when we translate the first thing we do is
analyze the source text trying to extract from it all available information
necessary for generating the target text (build the intermediate model of the
target text), then verify this information against situation and background
knowledge and generate the target text.
For example, let the source text be:
Europe's leaders trust that these criticisms will pale into insignificance
when the full import of expansion begins to grip the public mind
Then, omitting the grammatical context which seems evident (though, of
course, we have already analyzed it intuitively) we may suggest the following
intermediate model of the target text that takes into account only semantic
ambiguities:
Європейські лідери/лідери європейської інтеграції/ вважають/
вірять/, що ця критика вщухне/поступово зійде нанівець/, коли важливість
поширення (Євросоюзу) почне завойовувати громадську думку/, коли
суспільство почне краще усвідомлювати важливість розширення
Євросоюзу/.
On the basis of this model we may already suggest a final target text
alternative10:
Лідери європейської інтеграції вважають, що ця критика поступово
зійде нанівець, коли суспільство почне краще усвідомлювати важливість
розширення Євросоюзу.
It is important to bear in mind that in human translation (unlike automatic)
the intermediate representation of the target text will comprise on the conscious
level only the most problematic variations of translation which one cannot
resolve immediately.
We seldom notice this mental work of ours but always do it when
translating. However, the way we do it is very much dependent on general
approach, i.e. on translation theories which are our next subject.
10
It goes without saying that this target text alternative is not the only one
-many other alternatives are possible.
34
J??) QUESTIONS
1. What interrelated components does translation include as an object of
linguistic study?
2. Give short definition of translation (after Komissarov).
3. What are the interacting elements in translation? What elements are
observable? What elements are deducible?
4. What interrelated operations does one fulfill in the process of translation?
5. What three stages does one distinguish in translation?
{§} EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Suggest situation and/or background information necessary to clarify the
meanings of the italicized words in the following sentences. Suggest Ukrainian
equivalents for the italicized words and explain your choice. Translate the texts
into Ukrainian and English, respectively.
1. He stopped for gas at an all-night Texaco with a clerk who seemed
uncommonly friendly.
2. Here was the most powerful country on earth in suspended animation: in
the age of Internet, the age of instant information, the race between Al Gore and
George W. Bush was frozen by a laborious manual recount.
3. All that the unsuspecting Bilbo saw that morning was an old man with a
staff.
«Good morningl» said Bilbo, and he meant it. The sun is shining, and the
grass was very green. But Gandall looked at him from under his long bushy
eyebrows that stuck out further than the brim of his shady hat.
«What do you mean?» he said. «Do you wish me a good morning, or mean
that it is a good morning whether I want it or not; or that you feel good this
morning; or that it is a morning to be good on?
«All of them at once,» said Bilbo. And a very fine morning for a pipe of
tobacco out of doors, into the bargain. (Tolkien)
4. Як поет, він вперше серйозно заявив про себе під час
«відлиги». Час минає, гласність стала асоціюватися з конкретним
історичним періодом перебудови, на зміну їй прийшов термін про-
35
зарість. Спілкуючись з іноземцями, дізнаєшся, що для багатьох із
них Україна - це Чорнобиль і Шевченко, зробимо паузу ... фут-
боліст.
Ех. 2. Build an intermediate model of translation and suggest final target
text for the source text below.
He could almost feel the campfire glow of the screen, an interna-
tional sameness of news that must accompany businessmen everywhere.
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest elements of the context that helped
you choose the Ukrainian equivalents.
WASHINGTONS NEW SALUTE TO COMPROMISE
New York Times September 6, 1998, by Herbert Muschamp
Bad things happen to good architects. James Ingo Freed is the man
who designed the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, one of the
most powerful buildings of our time. It gives me no pleasure to report
that Freed's most recent project, the Ronald Reagan Building, is a
disappointing piece of work. The building has intermittent merit. It is an
impressive feat of urban planning. It also offers some fine interiors and
an excellent outdoor space. Its flaws are mostly the result of the design
constraints under which Freed was compelled to operate. He was ex-
pected to design a neo-classical edifice of stone, as if in 1998 that concept
were still able to fill anything larger than a Bart Simpson frame of values.
As someone once said, the scariest sentence in the language is, «Everyone
has their reasons.» This building is such an overwhelming monument to
compromise that one comes away resenting the talent, intelligence, ma-
terials, time and space absorbed by its creation.
Officially called the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade
Center, this edifice is second in size only to the Pentagon among federal
buildings. It fills in the last empty plot of ground in the Federal Triangle,
the 70-acre urban slice that fans out between the Mall and Pennsylvania
Avenue. Physically and symbolically, the Triangle both joins and sepa-
rates the executive and legislative branches of government.
The area is slightly larger than Vatican City, though its turn-of-the-
century image did not occupy high moral ground. A century ago, the
Triangle was called the Hooker District for the many brothels there. Now
36
it houses the National Archives, the Departments of State and Com-
merce, and the Internal Revenue Service. The grand neo-classical faces of
these huge, foursquare buildings hark back to a time before federal bu-
reaucracy became a term of contempt.
The project began with an idealistic vision. The concept was to pull
together beneath one roof a cultural center and agencies for international
trade. What a wonderful idea: a government building dedicated to the
historical and continuing interaction between global trade and cultural
exchange. Sadly, the cultural components, mainly performance spaces,
were largely eliminated from the project in 1992. As realized, the Reagan
Building houses some small government agencies, private business of-
fices, shops, restaurants and the Woodrow Wilson Center. Essentially, it
is a speculative real estate venture built on public land. The major disap-
pointment is that the building itself makes no cultural contribution.
The site is a vast irregular space, just south of the Post Office Build-
ing, left vacant when work on the Triangle was halted in the late 1930s.
For decades, the lot was used for parking. In plan, it looks something like
a guitar after a mad rock star has smashed off part of the handle. Like the
Holocaust Museum, this building has a dual personality. Its neo-classical
limestone exterior belies the modern spaces within. At the Holocaust
Museum, however, Freed subverted the classical vocabulary to create a
gaunt, hauntingly sinister facade, an image that evokes the official face of
a totalitarian regime.
Here, he gives us neo-classicism straight, without even a whiff of
postmodern irony. There are rusticated stone bases, ionic columns,
arches both round and square, two little round tempietti, windows with
triple-layered stone reveals. This overwrought classicism is the kind that
Louis Sullivan, in 1893, predicted would set American architecture back
by 50 years. Do I hear 100? Inside the building, Freed has attempted to
realize the modernist ideals of structure and clarity that have guided most
of his work. Beyond the main entrance, on 14th Street, is the building's
main public space, a vast atrium with an exposed metal framework that
rises toward a glass roof in the form of a half-cone.
The arrangement is similar to Cesar Pelli's Winter Garden at Battery
Park City: glazed atrium; palatial staircase; a ring of shops and restau-
rants; art gallery. But instead of looking out toward the Hudson River,
37
 ceptance. The city has been denied the knowledge Freed has gained in a
this atrium faces an imposing mezzanine adorned with a brilliant neon
lifetime of distinguished work, integrity and intellect. As a former dean
sculpture by Keith Sonnier.
of the Illinois Institute of Technology, once headed by Mies van der
Freed's other major departure from beaux arts precedent is the inte-
Rohe, Freed needs no architecture critic to remind him that Mies was the
rior circulation. Instead of axial symmetry, the organization of halls and
heir to neo-classicism in this century, and that the Reagan Building was
corridors reflects the site's irregular shape. Imagine the diagonal criss-
an opportunity to rethink neo-classicism in the light of that history. All
cross of an airports runways and you gain some impression of the effect.
those pilasters and cornices are just so much fireworks, easy applause.
The plan is mildly disorienting but never boring. This is not a bureau-
This should have been a glass building, a literal and metaphoric
cratic Kafkaland. What remains of the buildings initial program of per-
reflection on Classicism and the City Beautiful movement. It would have
forming arts is a small but exquisite auditorium, its walls festooned with
taken courage to insist on a modern building - or maybe just a serious
swags of copper-colored fabric, acoustically functional and visually rav-
phone call to Sen. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, whose influence on public
ishing. A large illuminated grid of white opaque glass - an Adolf Loos
works is potent. What is most deplorable about this building is that it
marquee - rises two stories in the hall outside the theater.
pitches Classicism back into exhausted debates over Traditional vs. Mod-
Behind the building is a large plaza, the most successful element of
ern, Conservative vs. Progressive, debates that debased esthetic currency
the design. Fronting upon the grand hemicycle of the Post Office Build-
in the 19th century and have certainly not created architectural value in
ing, the design counters this curve with a long diagonal wall to create a
the comic post-modern mimicry of historical styles.
dynamic public space. The Reagan Building reaches out toward the
As Freed must know, his design for the lavits Center in New York is
hemicycle with a pavilion that will house the Woodrow Wilson Center.
more authentically classical, in the principles it conveys of structure, clar-
The pavilion's attentuated curve is balanced in the center of the plaza by a
ity, detail and proportions, in its relationship to context and urban history,
two-story tempietto designed for an upscale restaurant. The space offers a
in its expression of personal conviction. Or if Moynihan was otherwise
grand procession toward a Metro stop and is adorned by a perfectly
indisposed and a masonry building had to be the order of the day, Freed
scaled sculpture by Martin Puryear.
might have modeled this structure on the radical Classicism of Boullee
The work resembles at once an exclamation point and a punching
and Ledoux, and thus enriched the Federal Triangle with an architectural
bag: a fine symbol of the emotions evoked by a government of, by, for
reminder of our country's roots in the Enlightenment. Those abstracted,
and against the people. Best of all is a long arcade facing out on the
18th-century designs are also among the historical sources of Freed's
courtyard, and stretching its full length. It is divided into shallow bays,
architecture.
each outfitted with a lamp of exaggerated length. The spatial proportions
In the Holocaust Museum, Freed, who was born in Nazi Germany,
may remind visitors of a first childhood trip to Washington. Recently, I
rose to the great creative challenge of drawing upon his intense personal
listened to the recording of Maria Callas Juilliard master class in which
experience of history's greatest evil. With greater fidelity to his own sense
she says good-bye to her students. Callas tells them that it makes no dif-
of architectural diction, phrasing and feeling, Freed might have created a
ference whether she keeps on singing or not. They are the younger gen-
building that assured modern democracy's capital city of its own place in
eration, they must keep on going in the proper way, with courage, phras-
time.
ing and diction: not with fireworks, or for easy applause, but with the
expression of the words, and with feeling.
If I hear her correctly, what she is saying works to take the measure
of this building. External authority - a musical score, an urban context,
the classical tradition - can be properly grasped only by an artists coura-
geous acceptance of her internal authority. This building lacks that ac-
39
38

Lecture 5. BASIC TRANSLATION THEORIES
The lecture discusses:
• transformational approach;
• denotative approach:
• communicational approach;
and shows both the strength and limitations of each.
In this lecture we shall discuss the most common theoretical approaches to
human translation paying special attention to their limitations and ability to
explain the translation process.
Roughly, the human translation theories may be divided into three main
groups which quite conventionally may be called transformational approach,
denotative approach, and communicational approach.
The transformational theories consist of many varieties which may have
different names but they all have one common feature: the process of translation
is regarded as transformation.
•^ According to the transformational approach translation is viewed as the
transformation of objects and structures of the source language into those of
the target.
Within the group of theories which we include in the transformational
approach a dividing line is sometimes drawn between transformations and
equivalencies11.
11
See, e. g.: Бархударов Л. С. Язьік и перевод. - M., 1975; Латьішев Л.К.
Курс перевода. - М., 1981; Латьішев Л.К. Текст и перевод. - М., 1989; Рец-
кер Я.И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. - М., 1974; Ширя-ев
А.Ф. Синхронний перевод. - М., 1979; Марчук Ю.Н. Методн моделиро-
вания перевода. - М., 1985; Марчук Ю.Н. Проблеми машинного перевода. -
М., 1983.
40
According to this interpretation a transformation starts at the syntactic level
when there is a change, i.e. when we alter, say, the word order during
translation. Substitutions at other levels are regarded as equivalencies, for
instance, when we substitute words of the target language for those of the
source, this is considered as an equivalence.
In the transformational approach we shall distinguish three levels of
substitutions: morphological equivalencies, lexical equivalencies, and syntactic
equivalencies and/or transformations.
In the. process of translation:
♦ at the morphological level morphemes (both word-building and word-
changing) of the target language are substituted for those of the source;
♦ at the lexical level words and word combinations of the target language
are substituted for those of the source;
♦ at the syntactic level syntactic structures of the target language are
substituted for those of the source.
For example, in the process of translation, the English word room is
transformed into Ukrainian words кімната or простір or French words
chambre or espace or German words Zimmer or Raum.
The syntactic transformations in translation comprise a broad range of
structural changes in the target text, starting from the reversal of the word order
in a sentence and finishing with division of the source sentence into two and
more target ones.
The most common example of structural equivalencies at the syntactic
level is that of some Verb Tense patterns, e.g. English to German: (shall (will)
go —> werde/werden/wird gehen).
The above examples of transformations and equivalencies at various levels
are the simplest and, in a way, artificial because real translation transformations
are more complex and often at different levels of languages involved in
translation.
This kind of transformation is especially frequent when translation
involves an analytical and a synthetic language, e. g. English and Ukrainian.
From the above you may conclude that according to the transformational
approach translation is a set of multi-level replacements of a text in one
language by a text in another governed by specific transformation rules.
41

However, the transformational approach is insufficient when the original
text corresponds to one indivisible concept which is rendered by the translator
as a text in another language also corresponding to the relevant indivisible
concept.
For instance, the translation of almost any piece of poetry cannot be
explained by simple substitution of target language words and word
combinations for those of source language.
This type of translation is characteristic of any text, written or spoken,
rather than only for poetry or high-style prose and the denotative approach is an
attempt to explain such translation cases.
Though denotative approach to translation is based on the idea of
denotatum (see above the relationship of signs, concepts and denotata), it has
more relevance to that of a concept.
•► According to denotative approach the process of translation is not just
mere substitution but consists of the following mental operations:
♦ translator reads (hears) a message in the source language;
♦ translator finds a denotatum and concept that correspond to this message;
♦ translator formulates a message in the target language relevant to the
above denotatum and concept.
It should be noted that, according to this approach during translation we
deal with similar word forms of the matching languages and concepts deduced
from these forms, however, as opposed to the transformational approach, the
relationship between the source and target word forms is occasional rather
than regular.
To illustrate this difference let us consider the following two examples:
(1) The sea is warm tonight- Сьогодні ввечері море тепле.
(2) Staff only - Службове приміщення.
In the first instance the equivalencies are regular and the concept, per-
taining to the whole sentence may be divided into those relating to its indi-
42
vidual components (words and word combinations): sea - море, tonight-
сьогодні ввечері, is warm — тепле.
In the second instance, however, equivalence between the original sentence
and its translation is occasional (i.e. worth only for this case) and the concept,
pertaining to the whole sentence cannot be divided into individual components.
The indivisible nature of the concept pertaining to the second example may
be proved by literal translation of both source and target sentences - Тільки
персонал and Service room. Service - Тільки or room -персонал are hardly
regular equivalencies (i.e. equivalencies applicable to other translation
instances).
The communicational theory of translation was suggested by O. Kade and
is based on the notions of communication and thesaurus. So, it is worthwhile to
define the principal terms first.
Communication may he defined as an act of sending and receiving some
information, which is called a message
It should go without saying that this definition is oversimplified and not all
communication terms used here are standard terms of communication and
information theories. Our purpose, however, is to describe the act of
communication in the simplest possible terms and to show translation as a part
of this act.12
Information, which is sent and received (communicated) may be of any
kind (e.g. gestures, say, thumbs up), but we shall limit ourselves to verbal
communication only, i.e. when we send and receive information in the form of a
written or spoken text.
Naturally enough when communicating we inform others about something
we know. That is in order to formulate a message, we use our system of
interrelated data, which is called a thesaurus11.
We shall distinguish between two kinds of thesauruses in verbal
communication: language thesaurus and subject thesaurus.
See more in: Естественннй язьік, искусственнме язьїки и информа-
ционньїе процессьі в современном обществе. - М.. 1988; Попов З.В. Об-
щение с ЗВМ на естественном язьіке. - М.,1982.
See more on thesauruses in: Нариньяни А.С. Лингвистические про-
цессорьі и представление знаний. - Новосибирск, 1981; Никитина СЕ. Те-
заурус по лингвистике. - М., 1978.
43
 Language thesaurus is a system of our knowledge about the language
which we use to formulate a message, whereas subject thesaurus is a sys-
tem of our knowledge about the content of the message.
Thus, in order to communicate, the message sender formulates the
mental content of his or her message using subject thesaurus, encodes it
using the verbal forms of language thesaurus, and conveys it to the mes-
sage recipient, who decodes the message also using language thesaurus and
interprets the message using subject thesaurus as well. This is a simple
description of monolingual communication.
It is very important to understand that the thesauruses of message
sender and recipient may be different to a greater or lesser degree, and
that is why we sometimes do not understand each other even when we
think we are speaking one and the same language.
So, in regular communication there are two actors, sender and re-
cipient, and each of them uses two thesauruses (Although they use the
same language their underlying knowledge bases may differ).
In special bilingual communication (i.e. translation), we have three
actors: sender, recipient, and intermediary (translator).
The translator has two language thesauruses (source and target one)
and performs two functions: decodes the source message and encodes the
target one to be received by the recipient (end user of the translation).
Ш* O. Kade's communicational theory of translation describes the
process of translation as an act of special bilingual communication in
which the translator acts as a special communication intermediary,
making it possible to understand a message sent in a different lan-
guage.
However, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the com-
municational aspect in the success of translation.
To understand this better let us consider an example of message
formulation (encoding), message translation (encoding/decoding), and
message receipt (decoding).
Let the original message expressed by a native speaker of English
(encoded using the English language as a code to convey the mental con-
tent of the message) be:
Several new schools appeared in the area.
Let us assume then that the message sender, being a fisherman and
using relevant subject thesaurus, by schools meant large number of fish
swimming together rather than institutions for educating children, and
the correct translation then had to be:
У районі з'явились нові косяки риби whereas the translator who
presumably did not have relevant information in his subject thesaurus
translated schools as institutions for educating children:
У районі з'явились нові школи, which naturally lead to
misunderstanding (miscommunication).
The above example shows a case of miscommunication based on the
insufficiency of extralinguistic information. However, there are also cases
of miscommunication caused by the insufficiency of linguistic informa-
tion.
This example is, of course, an exaggeration, but it clearly illustrates a
dividing line between linguistic and extralinguistic information in trans-
lation as visualized by the communicational approach to translation.
Thus, the communicational approach to translation, though saying
little about translation as such, highlights a very important aspect of
translation.
 One may note that the communicational approach pays special at-
tention to the aspects of translation relating to the act of communication,
whereas the translation process as such remains unspecified, and one
may only presume that it proceeds either by a transformational or deno-
tative path (see their relevant descriptions above).
•^ According to communicational approach translation is a message
sent by a translator to a particular user and the adequacy of translation
depends on similarity of their background information rather than only
on linguistic correctness.
44 45
1??J QUESTIONS
1. What are the basic theoretical approaches to translation?
2. What is translation according to the transformational approach?
3. What are the steps involved in translation according to the denotative
approach?
4. What are the principal differences between transformational and
denotative equivalencies?
5. What is translation according to the communicational approach?
What is the key to successful translation according to this approach?
f§) EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Compare the Ukrainian text and its English translation, find mis-
matching text elements. Suggest the approach used by the translator.
Слово може обманути. Очі, руки, ритм серця - ніколи... Задля
цієї правди якась дитина сьогодні вперше одягне пуанти і стане до
станка... І з тої миті, якщо вистачить їй волі і бажання, кожен день
власним різцем на власному тілі буде годинами «відсікати все зай-
ве»...
Words deceive, while the eyes, hands and heart never do... Learning
this simple truth, another youngster dons her toe shoes and approaches
the bar for the first time... From this very moment, if she has enough will
and desire, she will start shaping her body several hours a day...
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using the transformational approach and
observing syntactical transformations of the italicized text fragments.
No bail for South African police.
Bail should be denied for six white police officers arrested after a
videotape showed them setting dogs on alleged illegal immigrants, beating
them and shouting racial slurs, Justice Minister said Wednesday
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian using both transformational and denotative
approaches. Suggest reasons for your choice of a particular approach.
SPRING-CLEAN
The Times, March 162001
The Clinton foreign policy is in for an overhaul For a President who
took office with the reputation of being almost exclusively interested in
domestic policy, George W. Bush has moved with remarkable speed and
concentration to distance his Administration's foreign and security poli-
cies from those of the Clinton era. Almost every major aspect of Amer-
ica's international profile is under intensive scrutiny. Even on missile
defence, where there is no doubting President Bush's determination to
press ahead, if possible with the assent and co-operation of America's
allies and of Russia but if need be without, analysts have been sent back
to the technical and diplomatic drawing boards. But it is already clear
how different will be the priorities and style of this Administration.
It will be scrupulously polite, as Tony Blair found, but on substance
it will be a good deal less emollient than the Clinton White House. It will
have a preference for the bilateral over the multilateral; and it is deeply
sceptical of the Clintonite mantra of «constructive engagement» with
governments, such as China's, North Korea's or even Russia's, which in
the words of the Secretary of State, Colin Powell, «do not follow interna-
tional standards of behaviour». The new Administration may also, al-
though the Bush team does not yet, and may not in future, speak with
one voice, be more reliable to deal with than the Clinton White House,
which was disconcertingly prone to abrupt policy shifts.
This is no «new look» team. Mr Bush has drawn his biggest hitters
from his fathers generation, and in so doing has created a novel variation
on the tensions, familiar from the days of Henry Kissinger, between the
State Department, Defence and the National Security Adviser. Both Gen-
eral Powell at State and, to a lesser extent, Condoleezza Rice at National
Security are finding themselves outpaced by the formidable duo of Don-
ald Rumsfeld at Defence and Richard Cheney, who shows no sign of set-
tling into the conventional near-anonymity of the vice-presidency. Both
46 47
men view the present through the prism of the Cold War and its immediate
aftermath and are more at home assessing «the true threats facing America» than
they are with the rhetoric of opportunity. Those threats are, in the new
conspectus, heavily concentrated in Asia, where China is seen not as a «partner»
but a potential strategic challenge and North Korea - with which Mr Bush has
cancelled plans for talks and in effect told Pyongyang that the road to
Washington lies through Seoul - as an unpredictable, unreformed menace.
Chinas conciliatory reaction goes some way towards proving the wisdom of
this more sceptical approach. Time was when Beijing would have taken loud
offence at being told that its Foreign Minister must wait in the White House
queue behind Japans lame duck Prime Minister; instead, yesterday, it hastened to
issue its own invitation to Mr Bush. Its chief arms negotiator, Sha Zukang, has
even announced that China will not contest US plans to deploy a missile defence
system in Asia to protect US troops there - a with its hitherto shrill opposition to
missile defence in any form. With Russia showing interest in missile defence and
European Union resistance slackening, China fears being left out in the cold.
Above all, it wants to dissuade the US from equipping Taiwan, as it is inclined to
do, with anti-missile defence systems.
There is some risk that Europeans will misinterpret Washington's
intentions. On European defence, a muted tone should not be mistaken for
assent to EU plans for a rival military structure to Nato; the US will accept no
such thing. A second mistake would be to see «realism» towards Russia as any;
there is more intense US scrutiny of Moscow in Washington than there has been
for some time. US foreign policy is undergoing a thorough spring-cleaning.
Foreign governments would do well to turn out their own attics.
Lecture 6. TRANSLATION RANKING
The lecture deals with:
• various ranks of translation;
• means to ensure adequate translation which have been suggested by dif-
ferent scholars and translation ranks;
• fields of application and hierarchy of transformational, denotative and
communicational approaches depending on type of translation;
• priorities in training translators;
• meaning, equivalence and extralinguistic information as three basic com-
ponents of translation;
• the use of different approaches depending on translation variety.
Even in routine translation practice one can see that there are different
ranks of translation, that one rank of translation consists of rather simple
substitutions whereas another involves relatively sophisticated and not just
purely linguistic analysis.
Several attempts have been made to develop a translation theory based on
different translation ranks or levels as they are sometimes called. Among those
one of the most popular in the former Soviet Union was the «theory of
translation equivalence level (TEL)» developed by V. Komissarov14.
According to this theory the translation process fluctuates passing from
formal inter-language transformations to the domain of conceptual
interrelations.
V. Komissarov's approach seems to be a realistic interpretation of the
translation process, however, this approach fails to demonstrate when and why
one translation equivalence level becomes no longer appropriate and why, to get
a correct translation, you have to pass to a higher TEL.
 14
48 See: Комиссаров В.Н. Слово о переводе. - M., 1973; Комиссаров В.Н.
Лингвистика перевода. - М., 1981.
49
 Ideas similar to TEL are expressed by Y. Retsker' 3 who maintains that any
two languages are related by «regular» correspondences (words, word-building
patterns, syntactical structures) and «irregular» ones. The irregular
correspondences cannot be formally represented and only the translators
knowledge and intuition can help to find the matching formal expression in the
target language for a concept expressed in the source
language.
According to J. Firth16, in order to bridge languages in the process of
translation, one must use the whole complex of linguistic and extralin-guistic
information rather than limit oneself to purely linguistic objects and structures.
J. Catford17, similar to V. Komissarov and J. Firth, interprets translation as a
multi-level process. He distinguishes between «total» and «restricted» translation
- in «total» translation all levels of the source text are replaced by those of the
target text, whereas in «restricted» translation the substitution occurs at only one
level.
According to T. Catford a certain set of translation tools characteristic of a
certain level constitutes a rank of translation and a translation performed using
that or another set of tools is called rank bound. We have borrowed this
terminology and call the theories that divide the translation process into different
levels theories with translation ranking.
Generally speaking, all theories of human translation discussed above try to
explain the process of translation to a degree of precision required for practical
application, but no explanation is complete so far.
Ш* The transformational approach quite convincingly suggests that in any
language there are certain regular syntactic, morphological, and word-
building structures which may be successfully matched with their analogies
in another language during translation.
Besides, you may observe evident similarity between the transformational
approach and primary translation ranks within theories suggesting the ranking of
translation (Komissarov, Retsker, Catford and others).
As you will note later, the transformational approach forms the basis of
machine translation design - almost any machine translation system uses the
principle of matching forms of the languages involved in translation. The
difference is only in the forms that are matched and the rules of matching 18.
•* The denotative approach treats different languages as closed systems with
specific relationships between formal and conceptual aspects, hence in the
process of translation links between the forms of different languages are
established via conceptual equivalence.
This is also true, especially in such cases where language expressions
correspond to unique indivisible concepts. Here one can also observe similarity
with higher ranks within the theories suggesting the ranking of translation.
^ The communicational approach highlights a very important aspect of
translation - the matching of thesauruses. Translation may achieve its
ultimate target of rendering a piece of information only if the translator
knows the users' language and the subject matter of the translation well
enough (i.e. if the translator's language and subject thesauruses are
sufficiently complete). This may seem self-evident, but should always be
kept in mind, because all translation mistakes result from the insufficiencies
of the thesauruses.
 15
Рецкер Я.И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. - М., 1974. See, e. g. Staples Ch. The LOGOS Intelligent Translation System //
16
Firth J.R. Linguistic Analysis and Translation // For Roman lakobson. Proceedings of Joint Conference on AI. - Karlsruhe, 1983; SYSTRAN
The Hague. - 1956. Linguistische Beschreibung. - Berlin, 1990; Hiroaki Kitano. Speech-to-speech
17
Catford J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. - London, 1967. Translation: A massively parallel memory-based approach. - Boston, 1994.
50 51
 Moreover, wholly complete thesauruses are the ideal case. No translator So, to put it differently, what you can do in translation is either match
knows the source and target languages equally well (even a native speaker of individual words and combinations of the two languages directly
both) and even if he or she does, it is still virtually impossible to know (transformational approach), or understand the content of the source message
everything about any possible subject matter related to the translation. and render it using the formal means of the target language (denotative
Scientists and translators have been arguing and still do about the priorities approach) with due regard of the translation recipient and background
in a translators education. Some of them give priority to the linguistic knowledge information (communicational approach).
of translators, others keep saying that a knowledgeable specialist in the given The hierarchy of these methods may be different depending on the type of
area with even a relatively poor command of the language will be able to provide translation20. Approach priorities depending on the type of translation are given
a more adequate translation than a good scholar of the language with no special in Table below.
technical or natural science background.
In our opinion this argument is counter-productive - even if one or another Translation Type Translation Method Priorities
viewpoint is proved, say, statistically, this will not add anything of value to the Oral Consecutive Denotative, Communicational
understanding of translation. However, the very existence of this argument Oral Simultaneous Transformational, Communica-
underscores the significance of extralinguistic information for translation19. tional
Summing up this short overview of theoretical treatments of translation we Written (general & technical) Transformational
would again like to draw your attention to the general conclusion that any theory
Written (fiction & poetry) Denotative
recognizes these three basic components of translation, and different approaches
differ only in the accents placed on this or that component. So, the basic
components are: Thus, in oral consecutive translation priority is given to denotative method,
Meaning of a word or word combination in the source language (concept or because a translator is first listening to the speaker and only after some time
concepts corresponding to this word or word combination in the minds of the formulates the translation, which is very seldom a structural copy of the source
source language speakers). speech.
Equivalence of this meaning expressed in a word or word combination of In simultaneous translation as opposed to consecutive priority is given to
the target language (concept or concepts corresponding to this word or word direct transformations since a simultaneous interpreter simply has no time for
combination in the minds of the target language speakers). conceptual analysis.
Extralinguistic information pertaining to the original meaning and/or its In written translation, when you seem to have time for everything, priority
conceptual equivalent after the translation. is also given to simple transformations (perhaps, with exception of poetic
translation). This is no contradiction, just the path of least resistance in action -
it is not worthwhile to resort to complex methods unless simple ones fail.
19
This viewpoint is also shared by, e. g.: Batori I. Paradigmen der It should be born in mind, however, that in any translation we observe a
maschineller Sprachuebersetzung // Neue Ansaetze in maschineller
combination of different methods.
Sprachbearbeitung. - Tuebungen, 1986; Новиков А.И., Слюсарева Н.А. Линг-
вистические и зкстралингвистические аспектьі семантики текста. - М.,
L982.
See, e. g.: Ревзин И.И., Розенцвейг В.Ю. Основи общего и машинно-
52
го перевода. - М., 1964.
53
 From the approaches discussed one should also learn that the E?| QUESTIONS
matching language forms and concepts are regular and irregular, that
seemingly the same concepts are interpreted differently by the speakers 1. What is the main idea of Komissarov's theory of 'translation equiva-
lence level'?
of different languages and different translation users.
2. What is translation according to Retsker, Catford and Firth?
Now, having discussed briefly the main theoretical treatments of 3. What is translation ranking?
human translation, we pass over to basic translation parameters being the 4. What translation ranks do you know?
subject of the following lectures. 5. What relationship is there between the approaches to translation and
types of translation?
0D EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Divide translation equivalents into regular
and occasional.
Only those who have talent and willpower can make the most daring
dreams come true. Many of us thought that we already knew all about
the professional abilities of Bogdan Stupka, People's Artist of Ukraine
and winner of numerous prizes. However, the news again held quite a
surprise. The news of his tremendous success and the international rec-
ognition heaped on him this year reached us quickly and shattered all the
long established clichiis in one big bang. Bogdan Stupka won his latest
victory in the movie With Sword and Fire. Jerzy Hofman's film shown in
Poland, the United States and Australia raised the Ukrainian actor to the
level of international film star. It was indeed his finest hour.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using appropriate ranks (levels) of transla-

tion as required by the source text content and style. Comment on your deci-
sions. 1) «I am trustworthy, loyal, and helpful. But I struggle with
obedient.»
Tripp smiled faintly. «I am not looking for a boy scout,» he said.
«Next best thing,» I said.
«Well» Trip said, «Lieutenant Quirk said you could be annoying, but
you were not undependable.
«He's always admired me,» I said.
54 55
 «Obviously you are independent,» Tripp said. «I understand that. Animals also throw up historical «what-ifs». What if Richard III had
I've had my moments. 'He who would be a man must be a non- traded his kingdom for a horse, Dick Whittington not been so bounteous
conformist.'» (R.B.Parker). with his cat, or Catherine the Great been less pony crazy? In the multi-
media age pets can win the ultimate prizes and emerge as global mega-
2) ANIMALS HAVE TRADITIONALLY SHAPED HUMAN EVENTS. stars. The orbit of Sputniks dog, Laika, made him the fantasy comrade of
Leading article The Times, April 27, 2001 the worlds youth.
There everyone is, caught between horror at the ghastly enormity
The Prime Minister's personal intervention as Phoenix's saviour is a
that is foot-and-mouth and ennui that it has dragged on for so long, when bow to the electoral beasts of the apocalypse. It is a case of chicken, but
suddenly from the ashes there rises the sacred calf, Bambi reincarnate. the public will see only a happy ending to The Calfs Tale.
With her fluffy white fur, ox-eyed gaze and perfect pink pout Phoenix is
the prettiest page 3 star Fleet Street has had in years. Suddenly amid the Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest the ranks (levels) of translation
big, ugly world of slaughter trip the words «tiny», «white» and and explain your decision.
«innocent». Ministers quail and policy is made on the hoof. The first plant you will notice by the glass doors of the terminal will
People talk about causes needing a human face, but on the whole be a tangerine tree with tangerines «for real». The aroma, the color of
prefer an animal countenance. Mute bestial appeal is considered easier on their warm peel and even tiny dimples on the surface are so attractive
the ear than, say, the guttural petition of asylum-seekers. We can be that you, sick and tired of stony winter landscapes, will feel very much
fairly indifferent to our own kind; it takes an animal to make us human. like putting some tangerines in your pocket. This country is fun already!
Phoenix's life would have been pretty dreadful under normal circum-
stances, but no matter. She has assumed the symbolic status of The Cow
That Changed History.
Animals have altered the course of events more often than might be
imagined. Many's the time when mankind has felt himself to be sturdily
at the helm, when in fact matters have been bunted along by beak or
snout. Europe itself began this way when Europa was carried off into the
ocean by a bullish Zeus, kicking and flailing before submitting to become
a continent. For Christians the instigating beast is the serpent, worming
his way into Eve's confidences with sinuous insinuations.
Ancient history is a positive bestiary of cloven goings on. The no-
blest incidence of animal magic came in the form of the sacred geese
whose cackling alerted their masters to a stealthy advance upon the Capi-
toline Hill. Caligula's bestowal of a consulship upon his horse was rather
less successful, being one of all-too-many final straws that broke the
populace's back and led to his being dispatched at the Palatine Games.
Cleopatra's exit pursued by an asp showed far better judgment.
56 57
 Lecture 7. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE
AND EQUIVALENTS
This Lecture: » introduces the notion of equivalence and
translation units;
» shows:
• how the notion of equivalence can be applied to translation at
syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels;
• how dictionary equivalents can be used in translation;
• how translation equivalence is related to that of units of translation;
• discusses:
• the optimal length of text for translation;
• to what extent the idea of full equivalence is adequate;
• how and how often translators deal with partial equivalents;
• the importance of semantic and pragmatic similarity.
Translation equivalence is the key idea of translation. According to A.S.
Hornby21 equivalent means equal in value, amount, volume, etc. What does it
mean if applied to translation? This lecture is an attempt to answer this question
which - you will see it yourself - is not so simple.
The principle of equivalence is based on the mathematical law of
transitivity that reads: if A is equal to C and В is equal to C, then В equals A.
•* As applied to translation, equivalence means that if a word or word
combination of one language (A) corresponds to certain concept (C) and a
word or word combination of another language (B) corresponds to the same
concept (C) these words or word combinations are considered equivalent
(connected by the equivalence relation).
In other words, in translation equivalent means indirectly equal, that is
equal by the similarity of meanings. For example, words table and стіл are
equivalent through the similarity of the meanings of the Ukrainian word стіл
and one! of the meanings of the English word table. In general sense and in
general case words table and стіл are not equal or equivalent - they are
equivalent only under specific translation conditions.
This simple idea is very important for the understanding of translation: the
words that you find in a dictionary as translations of the given foreign language
word are not the universal substitutes of this word in your language. These
translations (equivalents) are worth for specific cases which are yet to be
determined by the translator.
Let us recall now the relationship between signs of the language, mental
concepts and denotata (see Lecture 1). As you might remember the relation
between a language sign (word or word combination) and the fragment of the
real world it denotes is indirect and intermediated by the mental concept. You
might also recall that the mental concept of a given language sign is usually
rather broad and complex, consisting of a lexical meaning or meanings, a
grammatical meaning or meanings, connotations and associations. It is also
worth reminding that the mental concept of a word (and word combination) is
almost never precisely outlined and may be different even in the minds of
different speakers of the same language, not to mention the speakers of different
languages.
All this naturally speaks for the complexity of finding the proper and only
translation equivalent of the given word. Moreover, considering all just said, one
may conclude that translation equivalence never means the sameness of the
meaning for the signs of different languages.
Ш* Translation equivalents in a dictionary are just the prompts for the
translator. One may find a proper equivalent only in speech due to the
context, situation and background knowledge.
 21
Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English
Oxford, 1982.
58 59
 Let's take an example. English word picture is generally considered
equivalent to Ukrainian word картина. However, already in the context to take
pictures {фотографувати) this equivalent is no longer correct and the word
picture seems to have here no equivalent (zero equivalent); in another context
English in pictures because of the situation (pictures in the book are small)
equivalent картина acquires a diminutive suffix англійська в картинках; in a
different situation, that of a painters studio or gallery it is полотно that becomes
the Ukrainian equivalent of the English word picture and this equivalent, as well
as others, disappears again in the context put me in the picture (введіть мене в
курс справ).
Even in case of terms and geographical names one cannot say for sure that
their meanings in different languages are universally equivalent. Again one can
say this only in relation to a specific context, situation and piece of background
information. For example, such seemingly unambiguous chemical term as zinc
diethyl dithiophosphate is translated in special texts as протизадирна присадка
but not always as діетилдитіо-фосфат цинку. То take another example,
Africa is not always translated as Африка, one may also find чорний
континент as its equivalent and this again means that translation equivalence
depends on the context, situation and background knowledge.
•► The idea of translation equivalence is strongly related to that of the unit
of translation, i. e. the text length required to obtain proper equivalent.
From our previous discussion we already know that one word is hardly a
common unit of translation. It is especially true for so called analytical
languages like English in which the words are usually polysemantic and their
meaning strongly depends on the environment.
One is more likely to find a universal equivalent for a word combination, in
particular for a clicheed one (e. g. hands up, ready made, good riddance, etc.),
because a word combination is already a small context
60
and the clicheed expressions are commonly used in similar situations. The
general rule of translation reads: the longer is the source text, the bigger is a
chance to find proper and correct translation equivalent11.
Ш* Traditionally and from practical viewpoint the optimal length of text for
translation is a sentence.
Being a self sustained syntactic entity a sentence usually contains enough
syntactic and semantic information for translation. However, there are cases
(and not so rare ones) when a broader stretch of the source text (called
discourse25) is required. It supplies additional information necessary for
translation.
Let's consider the sentence: Partisans do not always play to type. One can
obtain its proper Ukrainian equivalent Члени партії не завжди діють
відповідно до типового уявлення про цю партію only having considered the
information supplied by the discourse (that George W. Bush after the election
might not behave as a typical Republican).
Thus, put with certain degree of simplification, equivalence is a similarity
of meaning observed in the units of different languages and used for translation.
The units of the target language with meanings similar to the relevant units of
the source language are called translation equivalents. Modern translation
theory suggests two basic grades of translation equivalents.
a) Full Translation Equivalents
From the previous discussion (bearing in mind differences in mental
images standing for the equivalent words in different languages and context
dependence of equivalents) it may be righteously presumed that one can hardly
find truly full and universal equivalents for a word. However,
This makes so hard the task of a simultaneous interpreter who deals with
small speech fragments.
23
A discourse is a text fragment united by common topic, author and style
(Нелюбий Л.Л. Переводческий словарь - M., 1999).
61
as you all know practical translation dates back to ancient times and since then
translations are commonly regarded and used as full-pledged substitutes of the
relevant source texts. That is why despite contradicting theoretical evidence full
equivalence is commonly accepted as a convenient makeshift.
•► For practical purpose full equivalence is presumed when there is
complete coincidence of pragmatic meanings of the source and target
language units24.
This rule applies both to individual words and their regular combinations.
Speaking generally, translation equivalents of all words and word combinations
one finds in a good dictionary are full because the translation practice reflected
in dictionaries shows them as complete substitutes universally accepted by the
speakers' community of the target language (i. e. as pragmatically equivalent).
Of them the stylistically neutral words with reference meanings 25 (terms,
geographical and proper names, words denoting physical objects and processes)
are more likely to have full translation equivalents because semantic and
pragmatic parts of their meaning are less ambiguous.
b) Partial Translation Equivalents
To understand the partiality and incompleteness of translation equivalence
let us consider the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of equivalence,
because the partiality of equivalence is, as a matter of fact, the absence of one or
more of these aspects.
Let us start from examples. Книга as an equivalent of the English word
book is full in all equivalence aspects because it has similar syntactic functions
(those of a Noun), its lexical meaning is also generally similar,
and the pragmatic aspect of this equivalent (the message intent and target
audience reaction) coincides with that of the English word. Thus, книга is
conventionally regarded as a full equivalent of the word book16.
Strictly saying, however, the Ukrainian word протестувати, for example,
is a partial equivalent of the English word protesting (say, in the sentence
Protesting is a risk - Протестувати ризиковано) because of different
grammatical meanings (a Gerund and a Verb), the semantic and pragmatic
aspects being similar.
To take another example of partial equivalence consider the English saying
Carry coal to Newcastle. If one translates it as Возити вугілля до Ньюкасла it
would lack the pragmatic aspect of equivalence (The intent of this message
Bring something that is readily available locally would be lost, because the
Ukrainian audience could be unaware of the fact that Newcastle is the center of a
coal-mining area). If, however, one translates it їхати до Тули з власним
самоваром' it would lose the semantic similarity, but preserve the pragmatic
intent of the message, which, in our opinion, is the first priority of translation.
Anyway, both suggested translation equivalents of this saying are considered
partial.
9Ґ Partial equivalence is, as a matter of fact, the absence of one or more of
equivalence aspects, i. e. of syntactic, semantic or pragmatic aspect.
It should be born in mind, however, that syntactic equivalence of
translation units longer than several words is a rare case, indeed, if one deals
with two languages having different systems and structures (English and
Ukrainian are a good example). Moreover, it is hardly a translator's

" By pragmatic meaning of a translation equivalent we understand the
reaction of the translation user to the verbal message in target language.
25
Reference (or direct) meaning directly refers a word to the fragment of
the reality (Zgusta L. Manual of Lexicography. - Prague: Academia, 1971).
62
26
It should be noted, however that the complete formal equivalence between
the English and Ukrainian language units is, of course, missing in this case* as
well as in all other translation cases - because all paradigmatic forms in the two
languages never coincide.
63
 target to preserve the structure of the source texts and in many instances
this means violation of syntactic and stylistic rules of the target language.
Semantic similarity between the source and target texts is desirable,
but again it is not an ultimate goal of a translator. More often than not
slight differences in meaning help to adapt the idea of the original mes-
sage to the target audience.
What is really important for translation adequacy is the pragmatic
equivalence. When the original message is lost for the target audience it is
a failure of the translation and translator and no semantic or syntactic
similarity will redress the damage.
Let us take several examples of semantic and/or pragmatic equiva-
lents to illustrate the idea;
зелений - green; (недосвідчений) verdant; зелений горошок - green
peas; зелений театр - open-air stage; зелений хлопчисько - greenhorn;
зелена вулиця - green, go; давати зелену вулицю - to give open passage,
to give the go-ahead; туга зелена - utter boredom; зелене будівництво
-laying out of parks, etc.; зелений борщ - sorrel soup; потопати в зелені
-to be buried in verdure
Thus, one may suggest that translation equivalence partiality is more
a translation tool than a flaw in translator's ability to render the content
of the source message in its full. This evidently does not apply to the
pragmatic equivalence which is a universal prerequisite of good transla-
tion.
64
[??! QUESTIONS
1. What is translation equivalence? Define it.
2. What helps to find proper translation equivalents?
3. What is a unit of translation? What are the optimal units for practical
translation?
4. What is full and partial translation equivalence? Give definitions.
5. What are syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of translation
"equivalence? Which of them is the most important for adequate
translation?
(JO EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Define translation equivalence conditions
(context, situation, background information) that helped you find proper
equivalents. Divide the text into translation units and prove your choice of
units.
BUSH PUSHES RESEARCH ON GLOBAL WARMING
Washington Post Service; Monday, June 11, 2001
Europe to Get Offer of Alternative to Kyoto
President George W. Bush plans to tell European allies this week
that he wants to spend millions of dollars on research into the causes of
global warming and the technologies to reduce it, but he will not back
down on his opposition to mandatory controls on emissions of green-
house gases, administration officials say. .The research and technology
initiatives, which the president plans to outline in a speech on Monday
before leaving Washington for Europe, constitute the administration's
first detailed response to the criticism from Europe and Asia that fol-
lowed Mr. Bush's decision to abandon the Kyoto global warming treaty.
White House officials said Mr. Bush plans to emphasize how seriously he
regards the problem of global warming, even as he remains adamant in
his rejection of the 1997 accord reached in Kyoto, Japan..That agreement
committed the United States and 167 other nations to the first binding
limits on carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases that scientists say
may cause catastrophic changes in the planet's climate.
65
 Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Indicate missing aspects of translation
equivalence, if any.
a) Chief justice; justice of the peace; court is in session; take the lead;
take shape; to hold at arm's length; closed matter; harbor hopes; take a
dim view; exit polls; gender gap; popular vote.
b) Keep off the grass; in the exact middle; floors tiled and carpeted;
for time out of mind; to throw caution with the wind; to collect one's
wits.
c) He felt very weak and wobbly in the legs; a crown of leaves; to be a
little way ahead; it looks as if my dreams were coming true; there was
nothing to be done to tighten the belt round the empty stomachs, and
trudge along without any great hope of ever getting to the end before they
lay down and die of starvation. Dead silence fell in the middle of the
world. I suppose hobbits need some description nowadays, since they
have become rare and shy of the Big People, as they call us. They are in-
clined to be fat in the stomach; they dress in bright colours (chiefly green
and yellow) wear no shoes because their feet grow natural leathery soles
and thick warm brown hair like the stuff on their heads (which is curly);
have long clever brown fingers, good-natured faces and laugh deep fruity
laughs (especially after dinner, which they eat twice if they can get it).
(Tolkien)
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian, suggest units of translation and types of
equivalents used in translation. Pay special attention to the italicized text
and suggest background information required for translation.
BOY POWER Lock up your daughters and
unleash your sons Leading article, The Times, APRIL 26,
2001
Life used to be so straightforward. Father made a daily trek to the of-
fice, while Mother held the fort at home, cooking, sewing and popping the
odd tranquilliser. Their 2.2 children watched and learnt. Peter wanted to
be an engine driver when he grew up, but would end up in middle man-
agement like his father. Jane wanted to be just like Mummy, but better
dressed. The only thing their upbringings had in common was a shared
affection for Pat the dog. It was a man's world and that world meant
work. A «Girl's World» was a ghoulish dummy's head on which to ex-
periment with make-up.
Then came the bra-burning, banner-wielding, placenta-eating Sixties
and suddenly Jane got herself some options. Wimmin needed men like
fish needed, well, any form of transport, sisters were revolting and nights
were reclaimed. Everywhere was insurrection and the flap of dungaree.
But it took another couple of decades to realise that the next generation
of Janes should be dragged to their parent's work-places to alert them to
the -professional choices before them. «Take Our Daughters to Work
Day» was born and today is the latest outing for these loitering Lolitas.
And what dazzling monsters feminism has created. Little girls used
to be made of sugar and spice. These days they are made out of an inde-
structible combination of stamina and ambition. Girls outshine boys at
all stages of their development from thumb-sucking to number-crunching.
And at last these Amazons are reaching adulthood ready set to head butt
the glass ceiling. Backlash was inevitable. An American academic called
Christina Hoff Sommers has published a polemic entitled «The War
Against Boys» in which she argues that it is males who have become the
«second sex», while girls continue to be cosseted by positive discrimina-
tion.
Certainly too many boys loaf around in a state of affable fecklessness
- skate-boarding, girl-watching and navel-gazing their way through
school, pickling themselves at university and slacking through their careers.
The only statistics in which young men consistently beat girls are those
for criminality and suicide.
With this in mind, forward thinking organisations might choose to
extend tomorrow's invitations to the less fair sex. Boys can get a taste of
the feminine work ethic. Girls can stay at home to witness the one spec-
tacle that would promise them a more optimistic future - the phenome-
non of fathers participating on the domestic scene in any way at all.
66 67
 Lecture 8. TRANSLATION AND STYLE
This Lecture
• deals with the style as an essential component of adequate translation;
• introduces:
• major styles: belles-lettres (prose, poetry, drama); publicistic style;
newspaper style; scientific style; official documents style;
• stylistic devices and expression means (metaphor, metonymy, pun,
irony, transferred qualifier, zeugma, paraphrase, overt and covert
quotations and allusion).
The problem of translation equivalence is closely connected with the
stylistic aspect of translation - one cannot reach the required level of equivalence
if the stylistic peculiarities of the source text are neglected. Full translation
adequacy includes as an obligatory component the adequacy of style, i. e. the
right choice of stylistic means and devices of the target language to substitute for
those observed in the source text. This means that in translation one is to find
proper stylistic variations of the original meaning rather than only meaning
itself.
For example, if the text You'll see... everything will be hunky-dory27 is
translated in neutral style (say, Побачиш...усе буде добре) the basic meaning
will be preserved but colloquial and a bit vulgar connotation of the expression
hunky-dory will be lost. Only the stylistically correct equivalent of this
expression gives the translation the required adequacy: (e. g., Побачиш...усе
буде тіп-топ).
^ The expression of stylistic peculiarities of the source text in translation is
necessary to fully convey the communication intent of the source text.
Stylistic peculiarities are rendered in translation by proper choice of the
target language translation equivalents with required stylistic coloring. This
choice will depend both on the functional style of the source text and the
individual style of the source text author.
The types of texts distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication
are called functional styles. Modern stylistics distinguishes the following
varieties of functional styles28
1. belles-lettres (prose, poetry, drama);
"2. publicistic style;
3. newspaper style;
4. scientific style;
5. official documents
Any comparison of the texts belonging to different stylistic varieties listed
above will show that the last two of them (scientific style variety and official
documents) are almost entirely devoid of stylistic coloring being characterized
by the neutrality of style whereas the first three (belles-lettres (prose, poetry,
drama), publicistic and newspaper style) are usually rich in stylistic devices to
which a translator ought to pay due attention.
Ш* Special language media securing the desirable communication effect of
the text are called stylistic devices and expression means.
First of all a translator is to distinguish between neutral, bookish and
colloquial words and word combinations, translating them by relevant units of
the target language. Usually it is a routine task. However, it sometimes is hard
to determine the correct stylistic variety of a translation equivalent, then - as in
almost all instances of translation - final decision is taken on the basis of
context, situation and background information.
Greene G. The Captain and the Enemy. - London: Penguin Books. Galperin I.R. Stylistics. - M., 1981.
68 69
 For example, it is hard to decide without further information, which
•► Metonymy is similarity by association, usually one of the con-
of the English words - disease, illness or sickness - corresponds to the
stituents of an object replaces the object itself
Ukrainian words хвороба and захворювання. However, even such short
contexts as infectious disease and social disease already help to choose ap-
propriate equivalents and translate the word disease as інфекційне
захворювання and соціальна хвороба, accordingly. As a rule translators keep to literal translation when translating the
cases of metonymy. For example, crown (meaning the royal family) is
This example brings us to a very important conclusion that style is
usually translated as корона, hand - рука (є. g. in: He is the right hand of
expressed in proper combination of words rather than only in stylistic the president), etc.
coloring of the individual words.
•* Stylistic devices are based on the comparison of primary (dic- •* Irony is expressed through words contradicting close text
tionary) meaning and that dictated by the contextual environment; on environment.
the contradiction between the meaning of the given word and the
environment; on the association between words in the minds of the
language speakers and on purposeful deviation from accepted
Cases of irony do not present serious problems for translation and
grammatical and phonetic standards.
the approaches similar to those mentioned above (semantic or pragmatic
equivalence) are commonly used. For example, the ironical expression
paper war may be translated as паперова війна or війна паперів.
 The following varieties of stylistic devices and expression means are
most common and frequently dealt with even by the translators of non- Ш* Semantic and syntactic irregularities of expression used as stylis-
fiction texts. tic devices are called transferred qualifier and zeugma, respectively.
 Ш* Metaphor is the transfer of some quality from one object to
another.
Usually the metaphors (especially trite29 ones) are rather easy for
translation: they are translated either by keeping to semantic similarity
(e. g. ray of hope - промінь надії) or by choosing an appropriate prag-
matic equivalent (e. g. flood of tears - море сліз).
Trite - commonplace, not new.
70
A good example of a transferred qualifier is he paid his smiling atten-
tion to... - here the qualifier smiling refers to a person, but is used as an
attribute to the state {attention). Translator's task in this case consists in
rendering the idea in compliance with the lexical combination rules of
the target language. For instance, in Ukrainian it may be expressed as
Посміхаючись, він звернув увагу...
Zeugma is also a semantic irregularity, e. g. if one and the same verb
is combined with two or more nouns and acquires a different meaning in
each of such combinations. For example, He has taken her picture and
71
another cup of tea. Here again the translator's task is to try to render this ironical Special attention is to be paid by a translator to overt and covert quotations.
comment either by finding a similar irregularity in the target language or, failing Whereas the former require only correct rendering of the source quotation in the
to show a zeugma (and irony of the author), stick to regular target language target language (Never suggest your own homemade translation for a quotation
means (i. e. separate the two actions Він зробив її фото і випив ще одну чашку of a popular author!), the latter usually takes the shape of an allusion and the
чаю or try to render them as a zeugma as well Він зробив її фото і ще один pragmatic equivalence seems the most appropriate for the case. For example,
ковток чаю з чашки). «the Trojan horse raid» one may translate as напад, підступний, як кінь
A pun (so called 'play of words') is righteously considered the most difficult троянців (i.e. preserving the allusion) or as підступний напад (loosing the
for translation. meaning of the original quotation).
A translator is to be ready to render dialect forms and illiterate speech in the
target language forms. It goes without saying that one can hardly render, say,
•* Pun is the realization in one and the same word of two lexical meanings
cockney dialect using the Western Ukrainian dialect forms. There is no universal
simultaneously.
recipe for this translation problem. In some cases the distortions in the target
grammar are used to render the dialect forms but then again it is not 'a cure-all'
and each such case requires an individual approach.
A pun can be translated only by a word in the target language with similar Thus, any good translation should be fulfilled with due regard of the
capacity to develop two meanings in a particular context. English is stylistic peculiarities of the source text and this recommendation applies to all
comparatively rich in polysems and homonyms, whereas in Ukrainian these text types rather than only to fiction.
word types are rather rare. Let's take an example 30 of a pun and its fairly good
Ukrainian translation.
- What gear were you in at the moment of impact?
- Gucci's sweats and Reebok.
- На якій передачі ви були під час зіткнення?
- «Останні новини».
Another stylistic device is a paraphrase. Its frequent use is characteristic of
the English language. Some of the paraphrases are borrowed from classical
cources (myths and the Bible); others are typically English. To give an example,
the paraphrases of the classical origin are «Beware Greeks...», «Prodigal son»
{Війтеся данайців...», «Блудний син») whereas «Lake Country» («Озерна
країна») is a typically English paraphrase. As a rule paraphrases do not present
difficulties for translation, however, their correct translation strongly depends on
situation and appropriate background information.
 30
Cited from: Мирам Г. Профессия - переводчик. - K.: Ника-Центр,
1999.
72 73

ЦЗ QUESTIONS
1. What is the relation between translation equivalence and style?
2. Define functional style. What functional styles are distinguished by modern
linguistics?
3. What are the stylistic devices and expression means?
4. What is metaphor, metonymy, irony, transferred qualifier, zeugma,
paraphrase, quotation? Give definitions. Suggest translation approaches.
5. What is pun? What are the ways of translating a pun?
QU EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Define the style of the following texts. Translate into Ukrainian preserving
stylistic colouring.
a) The best friend a man has in the world may turn against him and become
his enemy. His son or daughter that he has reared with loving care may prove
ungrateful. Those who are nearest and dearest to us, those whom we trust with
our happiness and our good name may become traitors to their faith. The money
that a man has, he may lose. It flies away from him, perhaps when he needs it
most. A man's reputation may be sacrificed in a moment of ill-considered action.
The people who are prone to fall on their knees to do us honor when success is
with us may be the first to throw the stone of malice when failure settles its cloud
upon our heads.
The one absolutely unselfish friend that man can have in this selfish world,
the one that never deserts him, the one that never proves ungrateful or
treacherous is his dog. A man's dog stands by him in prosperity and in poverty,
in health and in sickness. He will sleep on the cold ground, where the wintry
winds blow and the snow drives fiercely, if only he may be near his master's
side. He will kiss the hand that has no food to offer; he will lick the wounds and
sores that come in an encounter with the roughness of the world. He guards the
sleep of his pauper master as if he were a prince. When all other friends desert,
he remains.
74
When riches take wings, and reputation falls to pieces, he is as constant in his
love as the sun in its journey through the heavens.
If fortune drives the master forth an outcast in the world, friendless and
homeless, the faithful dog asks no higher privilege than that of accompanying
him, to guard him against danger, to fight against his enemies. And when the
last scene of all comes, and death takes his master in its embrace and his body is
laid away in the cold ground, no matter if all other friends pursue their way,
there by the graveside will the noble dog be found, his head between his paws,
his eyes sad, but open in alert watchfulness, faithful and true even in death.
(Scoff not at 'Tribute to the Dog.'
The New York Times Magazine, June 1, 1999. By WILLIAM SAFIRE)
b) EMBASSY OF UKRAINE TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 3350
M Street, NW Washington DC 20007-27 December 1998
For immediate released
[Press, Releases Homel atu
Statement of the Ministry Of Foreign Affairs Of Ukraine
On December 25, 1998, the State Duma of the Russian Federation's
Federal Assembly ratified the Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and
Partnership between Ukraine and Russia. CO.&*H*IJ- y^f°pЈ^
A long-awaited-for ratification of the Treaty, the bedrock of the legal
basis of the relations between the two sovereign states, will permit in- '■'
creasing relationships between Ukraine and Russia to a qualitative new
level and opening up new opportunities for further comprehensive de
velopment of Ukrainian-Russian relations. This is exactly for what lead
ers and peoples of the two fraternal nations are striving. « tTЈe*Ј-
Ratification of the Treaty by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on., January 14,
1998 and its ratification by the Russian State Duma con- ' d firmed that both Ukraine
and. the Russian Federation legally recognized the inviolability of the "existing
between them borders^ as well as their sovereignty and territorial integrity. They have
also pledged to develop their further relations on the basis of universally recognized
standards of international law.
Ratification of the Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Partner-ship
between Ukraine and the Russian Federation constitutes a landmark
75 f^^n.
 (
' , r

о historic event not only in their bilateral relations, but also in a broader context of please, on a range of issues, and if the world doesn't like it - tough. So, not
European and global security. It testifies to the.fact that both Ukraine and Russia are surprisingly, when the members of this U.N. commission got a chance to vote
well" aware of their role and responsibility in building up a new European security anonymously on whether the U.S. should be a member, they stuck it to us.
architecture and maintaining stability and security not only in Europe but also in the People with power often don't think about it; people without power think about
world as a whole. t _ * , it all the time.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine expresses its satisfaction with (The New York Times, May 29, 2001
the ratification by the State Duma of the major political Treaty between the two By THOMAS L. FRIEDMAN)
states, as well as its confidence that the,Treaty's entering into force will provide
for further development of 'equal Ukrainian-Russian cooperation for the benefit
of the peoples of the two states. Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian preserving the stylistic coloring of the source
text.
a) She made an embarrassed laugh, though there was nothing funny.
Ex. 2. Define the underscored stylistic devices and means of expression in the She laughed again, an extraneous laugh, something to punctuate the
following text. Translate the text into Ukrainian preserving its stylistic silence. The word [she uttered] was almost nonexistent, squeezed out in the
colouring. smallest of voices. Her Barbie doll face, devoid of character lines, showed no
Ever since the U.S. got voted off the island at the U.N. Human Rights sign of the adult struggle she was waging. It remained placid, hidden behind the
Commission three weeks ago, Congress has been hopping mad and the U.N.- affectless makeup. (R.B.Parker).
haters have been on a tear. So I have an idea: Let's quit the U.N. That's right, let's b) It was a Babylon of glass and chrome and spandex, where per
just walk. Most of its members don't speak English anyway. What an insult! sonal trainers trained up people on politically correct way to tone up and
Let's just shut it down and turn it into another Trump Tower. That Security be better.
Council table would make a perfect sushi
bar.
No? You don't want to leave the U.N. to the Europeans and Russians? Then
let's stop bellyaching about the U.N., and manipulating our dues, and start taking
it seriously for what it is - a global forum that spends 95 percent of its energy
endorsing the wars and peacekeeping missions that the U.S. wants endorsed, or
taking on the thankless humanitarian missions that the U.S. would like done but
doesn't want to do itself. The U.N. actually spends only 5 percent of its time
annoying the U.S. Not a bad deal.
The vote that got the U.S. booted off the Human Rights Commission was to
the U.N. what Senator Jim Jeffords's vote to leave the Republican Party was to
the Senate - a wake-up call, a signal that the world will push back against radical
Bush policies just as Senator Jeffords did.
When President Bush trashed the Kyoto treaty on climate change, the
message the world got was that the Bushies will do whatever they

76
77
 Lecture 9. TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION of syntactic structures is a rare (and generally hardly desirable) case, which
means that in English-Ukrainian translation we often observe transformations.
One should note, however, that the majority of syntactic transformations in
English-Ukrainian translation are occasional, i. e. the translator transforms the
This Lecture
• introduces the notion of: source syntactic structures on case-by-case basis, each case being dependent on
• transformation as a change of the source text at the syntactic level the context, situation, pragmatic intent and many other factors some of which
are unknown and the translator's decisions relevant to the ease are often
during translation,
intuitive.
• discusses:
To put it differendy, it is impossible to formulate the rules for the
• the conditions under which regular and occasional transformations
overwhelming majority of such occasional transformations and one simply
take place in English Verbal Complexes;
cannot list all occasional transformations that are observed in English-Ukrainian
• Pluralia and Singularia Tantum;
translation.
• Gender Forms;
• Sequence of Tenses.
•► In English-Ukrainian translation occasional transformations are often the
Speaking about translation equivalence we mentioned that there were three matter of translator's individual choice and, in general, strongly depend on
basic types of it - syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. The students might stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the source text.
remember that syntactic equivalence meant the structural similarity of the source
and target texts. If the syntactic similarity is missing we observe a
transformation^. Yet, in English-Ukrainian translation there are also cases of regular
syntactic transformations, where a translator is expected to observe certain
transformation rules more or less stricdy.32
•* Transformation is any change of the source text at the syntactic level
during translation.
 On the one hand, even for the languages of different structure general Ш* Regular syntactic (grammatical) transformations are the matching rules
structural similarity in translation is common enough. Just compare any English for the grammars of the two languages involved in translation
text and its translation into Ukrainian and you will see much in common at the
syntactic level (e. g. Subject-Predicate-Object sequences, Attribute-Noun
structures, etc.). On the other, total similarity

31
It is worth saying that any formal identity of the signs of different lan-
guages is out of the question and one may speak only about similarity or differ-
ence of certain modeling representation, e. g. of syntactic models.
78
32
Even in case of regular trasformations certain deviations from regular
transformation patterns are possible. For example, in certain situation and/or
context one may translate 'I saw him running' as 'Я подивився і побачив:
біжить' rather than ' Я бачив, як він біг ' as required by the rule
79
 Detailed description of regular English-Ukrainian grammatical (syn-
tactic) transformations one can find in any English manual for Ukrainian
audience (for example, the matching system of English and Ukrainian
Verb Tenses, Noun Numbers and Cases, Adjectives, Pronouns, etc.)33.
We think that the readers and users of this Manual are generally
aware of these matching rules and that it is hardly a goal of a translation
manual to duplicate the information of the language manuals for the
beginners. Moreover, we consider that the goal of a translation manual is
to show (where possible) how and why the matching rules (regular trans-
formations) of the grammatical systems of the two languages involved in
translation are violated.
However, there are certain unique elements of the English and
Ukrainian grammar systems which, because of their uniqueness deserve
special attention as translation problems. The most common of those are
mentioned below.
English Verbal Complexes
A verbal complex is a unique structure of the English language sys-
tem missing in Ukrainian. The complex includes a predicate verb, an
object and an object predicate comprising either Infinitive or Participle I
(e. g. I saw him run or I saw him running).
Depending on the predicate verb and type of the object predicate
there may be several alternatives of the verbal complex translation into
Ukrainian, the most important thing for translation into Ukrainian,
however, is the necessity of the inner partitioning of the source sentence.
Usually, the object subordinate clauses with що and як are the Ukrainian
substitutes of the verbal complexes in the target sentence.
For example,
John watched Larry jump over the rails and disappear - Джон
дивився, як Ларрі перестрибнув через паркан і зник.
3
It is worth reminding that the grammatical transformations in translation
are, as a matter of fact, the matching patterns of the paradigm systems of two
languages described in Lecture 3 of this Manual.
80
Gerund
Gerund is a peculiar English language phenomenon missing in
Ukrainian. As a rule Gerund is translated into Ukrainian by Infinitive or
Verbal Nouns (see more below).
Pluralia and Singularia Tantum
"In English-Ukrainian translation the cases of missing Plural or Sin-
gular Noun Forms are also worth paying attention to because of their
frequent mismatch with the corresponding Ukrainian words. These cases
are, of course, shown in the dictionaries that is why several examples
seem to be sufficient to illustrate this minor translation problem: oats
-овес, onions - цибуля.
Gender Forms
The category of Noun Gender is known to be expressed in English
indirectiy: either through pronouns or by lexical means. This information
is to be born in mind by translators when translating from Ukrainian into
English. Again an example will do to illustrate the problem: кіт - tom-
cat, he-cat
Sequence of Tenses
As the readers of this Manual might know from their language
course the Sequence of Tenses is a peculiar system of correlation between
the Verb Tenses in the main and subordinate clauses. Since similar sys-
tem is missing in Ukrainian it may present a problem for translation,
especially from Ukrainian into English.
Speaking generally, however, this problem hardly belongs to the
most critical problems of translation similar to all other regular trans-
formations including those mentioned above in this lecture.
81
 9Ь Regular transformations do not present a serious problem for
translation because of their regularity and predictability: what is
needed is to know the relevant rule and use it in translation practice,
unlike occasional transformations and equivalents which require in-
dividual and sometimes unique solutions
The issue of regular and occasional transformations is related to dif-
ferent translation devices and variations which are dealt with in the lec-
tures that follow. Besides, regular grammatical transformations in trans-
lation of official documents (diplomatic, legal, and economic) are ex-
plained in more detail below in this Manual.
82
QUESTIONS
1. What is a transformation?
2. What types of transformations do you know?
3. What is an occasional transformation? Give examples.
4. What regular transformations are typical for English-Ukrainian
translation?
5. Which type of transformations presents major translation problems and
why?
EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Observe regular transformations in trans-
lation.
KING OF THE STAGE 9ТлСи£'(
Only those who have talent and willpower can make the most daring
dreams come true. Many of us thought that we already knew all about the
professional abilities of Bogdan Stupka, People's Artist of Ukraine and winner
of numerous prizes. However, the news again held quite*УУ££ surprise. The
news of his tremendous success and the international recognition heaped on
hiin this year reached us quickly and shattered all the M#*** long established
clichns in'one big bang. Bogdan Stupka won his latest victory in the movie
«With Sword and Fire». Jerzv Hofman's film shown in Poland, the United
States and Australia'raised'the Ukrainian actor to the level of international film
star. It was indeed, his finest hour.
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Observe regular and occasional transfor-
mations in translation.
THE TROUBLE WITH THE SONS OF ENGLAND IS THEY HAVE NO
FOUNDING FATHERS
The Times, July 6, 2001. PHILIP HOWARD
We are the people of England that never have spoken yet. Accordingly,
after this water(slurry?)shed of an election it behoves us to speak
83
up for our nation. But it is difficult to decide what our nation is. We lack
a foundation myth that defines what it means to be English.
In the Middle Ages King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table
were described as the Matter of Britain. But they are improbably cosmo-
politan heroes for the British National Party or the UK Idiots' Party. At a
literary level, they are anachronistic medieval freelances from an EU elite
of bullies. On a historical level (if they existed), their descendants survive
in the wild west of Wales. «Lancelot» came from Brittany, and Tristram
from Celtic Atlantis in the West. If he is more than legend, you can imag-
ine Arthur leading the last stand of the armoured cavalry of the legions
against the alien English asylum-seekers. In other words, he was a Ro-
man. St George was a Levantine?/ Roman?/ Jew?/ Peculant pork butcher?
Definitely not British.
Other nations have less problematic foundation myths. Italians can
choose Horace or Garibaldi as their national hero, according to taste. The
French have Charlemagne, Joan of Arc or Asterix. The Germans,
Hermann or Arminius. The Dutch, snatching a living on land from the
sea, make the most of the references in Tacitus to die Batavians, who
splashed a living in their watery world. Their cavalry were good at
swimming across rivers with their horses. But the Old Testament is an
even more powerful foundation myth for the Dutch. Their Calvinist pas-
tors taught them that they were the Chosen People, saved from the Flood,
threatened on all sides by monarchs, Papists, and the other hosts of
Midian, who prowl and prowl around.
Foundation myths come more easily to nations that sprang from
revolution, like the Dutch. Or the Americans, who left the Old World to
seek religious and political liberty in the West. Their New England
preachers also used the Old Testament as a myth to validate their Chosen
People.
Political correctness has censored the Western movie, the founda-
tion myth and art form of the past century. Dim drums can no longer
throb in the hills half heard, as the Comanche appear over the crest. The
heroic latter-day Joshuas and Davids no longer stand silent in the white
sunlight of their empty midday streets, waiting for the enemies of Zion.
The American bard of the noble savage and the last frontier is even
more rubbished than McGonagall as national prophet. But the new edi-
tion of his poems reminds us that Longfellow was technically jolly good,
in spite of having missed the modernist boat and the Ark of the Cove-
nant. My grandfather used to adore Hiawatha in the Albert Hall, with a
feathered cast of thousands chanting, «By the shores of Gitche Gumee,/
By the shining Big-Sea-Water».
Longfellow was a skilful versifier when poems still rhymed and
scanned. «This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the
hemlocks,/ Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the
twilight...» Not even Tennyson wrote such good English hexameters.
And as many of Longfellow's tags have entered the American quotation
bank as Tennyson's have the English. «Under a spreading chestnut-tree,/
The village smithy stands». «I shot an arrow into the air,/ It fell to earth, I
knew not where.» «Ships that pass in the night.» «Footprints on the sands
of time.» «When she was good, she was very, very good.» «Life is but an
empty dream.»
Longfellow spoke up against slavery long before Emerson and Tho-
reau. From youth he was a Unitarian, a follower of William Ellery Chan-
ning, who believed that human beings are basically good. Longfellow's
narrative poetry and visionary preaching are unfashionable. But he is still
a ghost in the background of American identity. Kipling and Tennyson
are not so influential for English nationalism. Shakespeare is too elusive.
Perhaps the nationalists of our old and mongrel race should follow the
foundation myths of the Dutch and the Americans by adopting the Old
Testament as their manifesto.
Come to think of it, we have. The lost ten tribes of Israel were car-
ried away into Assyria in 721BC, about 140 years before the Babylonian
captivity exiled the tribes of Judah. Since at least 1649 various religious
and nationalist nutters have suggested that the English are the lost tribes.
This is as dotty as the first verse of Blake's Jerusalem, which opens with
three questions, the answer to each of which is, «Certainly not: don't be
silly.» But that does not stop Jerusalem being a battle hymn of True Eng-
lish nationalism. Just as Gideon, Joshua and Noah were once seen as
Dutch or New England patriots.
84 85

Ex. 3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitive or
infinitive constructions.
The Security Council is so organised as to be able to function con-
tinuously.
The Trusteeship Council is composed of members of the United Na-
tions administering Trust Territories, permanent members of the Security
Council which do not administer Trust Territories and enough members
to make an equal division between countries which administer Trust
Territories and countries which do not.
The function of the Trusteeship Council is to supervise the admini-
stration of Trust Territories.
Subsidiary and ad-hoc bodies are set up to fulfill a special task and
are dissolved after completion of the job.
The increasing population of the world creates unprecedented waste
and the methods used to dispose of it - burying it, burning it, or dis-
charging it into streams or lakes - have further polluted the environment.
Members of the Organisation, whether developed or developing,
should undertake to lend their assistance towards the success in settling
economic difficulties.
United Nations efforts to rectify this issue have been ineffective be-
cause some nations disregard its decisions.
In the Charter of the United Nations, the peoples express their de-
termination to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war
which has brought untold sorrow to mankind.
In 1957 the Assembly called for collective action to inform and
enlighten the peoples of the world to the dangers of the armament race,
and particularly to the destructive effects of modern weapons.
86
The Convention on Biological Diversity (also called the «Conven-
tion on Life») is not only a legal instrument to protect and manage en-
dangered species and habitats, but it also includes the far-reaching con-
sequences of modern biotechnology.
Recently the Conference of the Parties agreed to start negotiations
on a protocol on biosafety.
„We urge the United States to ratify the Basel Convention that regu-
lates the export and import of dangerous waste.
In so doing, we are simply trying to shoulder the responsibility that
we all share for our common future.
Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the gerund or
gerundial constructions:
Should the president falter in these races, some politicians speculate,
he might step aside as Lyndon Johnson did after running into trouble in
early 1968.
If a business cannot make a profit, the government cannot prevent it
from declaring bankruptcy.
The result is a complicated interaction of business and society, and
the key to understanding this interaction is the systems theory.
Disregarding feedback has led to the demise of many once-powerful
companies.
Basic research is aimed at discovering new knowledge. Applied re-
search is aimed at discovering new knowledge that has some specific po-
tential use. Development is aimed at putting new or existing knowledge
to use in producing goods or services.
The poison pill describes a situation in which the target-company
adds large amounts of corporate debt through borrowing.
87
 None the less, the professor does not present legal theory as a given
at the be ginning of the course; the students must themselves construct
the legal theory by working from the texts or from concrete problems.
The Constitution provides for the protection of works of authorship
in these terms: 'Congress shall have Power... to promote the Progress of
Science... by securing to Authors... for limited Times the exclusive Right
to their... Writings.'
Authors may use parts of the work (e.g., tables, figures) in subse-
quent works without requesting permission from the AHA. If a joint
work, all co-authors must transfer rights in said work to the AHA by exe-
cuting this Agreement.
Ex. 5.Translate the following sentences paying attention to the participles or
participial constructions.
I wasn't looking for any more difficult jobs in this world, but the
near possibility of one coming along allowed me to enjoy my slippered
days with a quieter conscience.
Ex. 6. Divide the words below into two groups: those having the same form
for singular and plural; and those having '-s' ending but singular in their
meaning. Can you find any similar examples in Ukrainian?
Barracks, news, crossroads, statistics, mathematics, physics
headquarters, means, series, species, works, Swiss, draughts, measles,
politics
Ex. 7. Translate the sentences paying special attention to the pronouns.
God send everyone their heart's desire (Sheakspear). Sufficient unto
the day is the evil thereof. (Bible) If anyone wants my umbrella they can
take it. Nobody called me, did they? Whoever is late tell them to wait till
the break. Everybody in this group thinks they are cleverer than the other
group. If a person does not know what they want from life they find it
hard to be a success.

In developing rules and regulations, care must be taken to insure that

the conditions are not changed.

It is next to impossible to convey here even an approximate impres-

sion of the essence and range of this brilliant, content-packed volume.

It is not possible for contamination to occur here.

Much more stringent constraints than the requirement of formal

consistency associated with formalist philosophies are posed here.

My father was watching them with mild blue eyed interest.

Numerous articles have appeared dealing with this intricate prob-

lem.
88 89

Lecture 10. BASIC TRANSLATION DEVICES
This Lecture:
• introduces basic translators' devices:
• partitioning;
• integration;
• transposition;
• replacement;
• addition;
• omission and
• antonymous translation;
• shows where and how these devices are applied as tools to ensure
adequate translation.
You might have already guessed from previous discussion that
translation was a rather individual matter brinking on art and almost in
any case requiring unique and unprecedented decisions. And yet even in
translation of poetry, which undoubtedly demands the most individual
approach, a translator is bound to use a more or less standard set of de-
vices which helps to convey the ideas of the source text in the best possi-
ble way and, generally speaking, makes it possible to translate.
Although the choice of particular devices depends on the text type,
genre and style as well as on the translation variety (oral, written, con-
secutive, simultaneous) and translation direction (into or from a foreign
language), the basic set of translation devices (a kind of'translator's tool
kit') usually comprises partitioning and integration of sentences, transpo-
sition of sentence parts, replacement, addition and omission of words and
word combinations as well as a special type of transformations called
antonymous translation.
Partitioning
•► Partitioning is either replacing in translation of a source sentence
by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence
into a compound or complex target one.
One is to distinguish between inner partitioning (conversion of a
simple sentence into a compound or complex one) and outer partitioning
(division of a sentence into two or more). For example, inner partitioning
is used when translating English verbal complexes into Ukrainian:
Come along and see me play one evening. - Приходь коли-небудь
увечері - побачиш, як я граю.
More often than not inner partitioning is a regular translation trans-
formation accounted for by the differences in the Ukrainian and English
syntactic structures, although it may be also used on individual occasions
as required by the text genre and style and communication variety of the
source sentence.
When translating from English into Ukrainian outer partitioning
(unlike inner) is more a matter of personal translator's choice based, of
course, on the proper account of stylistic and genre peculiarities and
communication intent of both the source text and its translation.
Outer partitioning is out of the question in case of translating official
legal or diplomatic documents (laws, contracts, memos, etc.) but it be-
comes a totally justified translation option, say, in consecutive transla-
tion of a long and complex sentence.
The following example from Graham Greene34 is one of the cases
where outer partitioning seems a proper translation device (although, of
course, not a universal recipe):
There was a real game too, not a party game played in the old school
hall and invented by my eldest brother Herbert, who was always of an ad-
venturous character until he was changed by the continual and sometimes
shameful failures of his adult life.
90 Greene G. A Sort of Life. - London: Vintage Classics, 1999.
91
 Була і справжня, а не салонна гра, у яку ми грали в актовому залі The flight will be boarding at Gate 17 in about fifteen minutes,' the girl
старої школи. Цю гру вигадав мій старший брат Герберт — людина added with a smile35 - «Приблизно за п'ятнадцять хвилин на цей рейс буде
винахідлива і схильна до всіляких пригод, доки постійні і часом ганебні посадка біля виходу номер 17», — посміхаючись, додала дівчина.
негаразди дорослого життя не змінили його вдачу.

Replacement
Integration
ШЬ Integration is the opposite of partitioning, it implies combining two or •* Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphological, lexical
(seldom) more source sentences into one target sentence. and syntactic levels of the language when the elements of certain source
paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms36.
 Generally, integration is a translation device wholly depending on stylistic
peculiarities and communication intent of the text being translated. In oral It seems worth to discuss again the example from our previous lecture on
translation, however, integration may be a text compression tool (see below), language paradigms. Let us consider sentences in English and in Ukrainian: He
when an interpreter (consecutive or simultaneous) is to reduce the exuberant used to come to Italy each spring and Зазвичай він приїздив до Італії кожної
elements of the source text to keep in pace with the speaker. весни.
An example will do to illustrate the idea of integration: The following paradigms were used to form these sentences and the
Олена Філіп'єва любить усі свої ролі. Якщо якусь із них довго не following paradigm elements were activated in syntagmas during their
танцює - починає сумувати. formation (viz. Table below).
Olena Filip'eva loves all her roles and even misses them should too much
time pass without performing them. Elements Activated
Names of Paradigms Used to in the Sentence
Form the Sentences English Ukrainian
Transposition he він
used, come приїздив
Past Indef. минулий час
•► Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner partitioning in translation
to none
meaning a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements
(Subject, Predicate, Object, etc.) as compared with that of the source Personal Pronouns Paradigm
sentence dictated either by peculiarities of the target language syntax or by Verbs Paradigm Verb Tense
the communication intent. Paradigm Particles Paradigm

An example will suffice to illustrate the idea of transposition.

92
I
35
Archer J. Honour Among Thieves. - London: Harper Collins, 1994. 36 Our definition of
replacements somewhat differs from the viewpoints of other scholars the reason being the

specific target audience of this Manual. The Manual is targeted to the students of
non-linguistic disciplines with only basic linguistic awareness that is why we try
to make our explanations simple and practical rather than present a detailed
linguistic classification of translation pa-
 Prepositions Paradigm to do
Noun Paradigm Italy, spring Італія, весна
Adjectives Paradigm each кожний
Adverbs Paradigm none зазвичай
Noun Cases Paradigm Common Case pod. відм.
Adjective Cases Paradigm none pod. відм.
Comparing the paradigm sets used to form the above English and
Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas
of these sentences one may easily spot numerous replacements.
Of interest for student translators are changes observed in Complex
Sentences where transposition of the Subjects is combined with their
mutual replacement. To prove the statement, let us consider the follow-
ing example:
No sooner did he start his speech than the President was interrupted.
-He встиг президент розпочати промову, як його перервали.
The replacements are necessary because English and Ukrainian pos-
sess different language systems. It goes without saying that this fact is
very important for translation and explains many translation problems.
Thus, replacement is a universal and widely used translation device.
One may even say that replacements in that or another form are observed
in any translation from English into Ukrainian and even more so — from
Ukrainian into English.
The following basic types of replacements are observed in English-
Ukrainian translation:
1. Replacement of Noun Number and Verb Tense and Voice Para-
digms, e. g. replacing Singular Form by Plural and vice versa; re-
placement of Active Voice by Passive; replacement of Future by Pre-
sent, Past by Present, etc.
2. Replacement of Parts of Speech (the most common is replacing
Ukrainian Nouns by English Verbs when translating into English
/see in more detail below/; common enough is the replacement of
English 'Nomina agentis' /drinker, sleeper, etc./ by Ukrainian Verbs).
3. Replacement in translation of a negative statement by an affirmative
94
one is an efficient device called antonymous translation. It is a means
of text compression extensively used in interpretation and discussed
in more detail elsewhere in this Manual (viz. Lecture 15 Interpreta-
tion: Professional Skills and Training)
Replacements of all kinds are so common in English-Ukrainian
translation that even a beginner is sure to use this device more than once,
so to save space we shall give examples in the attached exercises.
Addition
•► Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensation
of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or
paradigm forms missing in the target language
Additions in translation from English into Ukrainian stem from the
differences in the syntactic and semantic structure of these languages. In
English, being an analytical language the syntactic and semantic relations
are often implicitly expressed through order of syntactic elements and
context environment whereas in predominantly synthetic Ukrainian these
relations are explicit (expressed in relevant words). When translating
from English into Ukrainian a translator is to visualize the implicit
objects and relations through additions. So-called 'noun clusters' fre-
quently encountered in newspaper language are especially rich in 'hidden'
syntactic and semantic information to be visualized by addition in
translation:
Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених,
призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні
fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на
паливо
peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною
віковою групою
95
Omission Ш QUESTIONS
 ШЬ Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text considered What are the basic translation devices?
redundant from the viewpoint of the target language structural patterns and What is partitioning and integration? Define them and give examples.
stylistics Describe transposition as a variety of inner partitioning What is
replacement? Define it. What are the basic types of replacements in
practical translation? Give examples. What is addition? Give definition and
4. examples. What is omission? Give examples of Ukrainian-English
Omission is the opposite of addition - to understand it consider the literal
5. translation.
translation into English of the above noun clusters from their Ukrainian
WHY THE BEST? The ^ЧОМУ НАЙКРАЩЕ? «Нью-
translation and compare these translations with the original English text.
Йорк Тайме Мегезин», 1 червня 1999
Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених, призначені EXERCISES p. Автор: Френк Річ
на вибори на федеральному рівні - Green Party money intended for the New York Times Magazine, June
elections at the federal level Ex. 1. Compare the English text and its translation into Ukrainian. Comment on
fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на translation devices used.
паливо -protests related to the increase of the fuel tax 1, 1999 Може, зараз існує більше роз-
peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною біжностей щодо тлумачення слова
There may be less agreement
віковою групою — goods designed for use by certain age groups «найкращий», ніж їх було коли-небудь
than ever about what it is. But the
Furthermore, the meaning of their constituents being the same, a number of до цього, але концепція «найкращого»
concept has become an essential
expressions do not require translation into Ukrainian in full, e.g., null and void - стала суттєвим засобом своєрідної
tool. The Best has become a search
недійсний. селекції.
engine. By FRANK RICH
So, as one can see, proper omissions are important and necessary Історик Пітер Стернз розкопав у
Some nine decades later, the
translation devices rather than translator's faults as some still tend to believe. старих номерах «Тайме» есе, яке
historian Peter N. Stearns
Thus, basic translation devices discussed in this lecture are, indeed, the побачило світ приблизно дев'яносто
disinterred the old Times essay
only 'tool kit' available to a translator, however, a big question remains років тому і, зауважив, що йому не
and, while finding it not without
unanswered: Where and when to use that or another device? A complete answer бракує глибини. Він звернув увагу на
insight, noted the conspicuous
is hardly possible, but we shall try, at least, to give some recommendations in відсутність у есе згадки про
omission of «an amazing number
the lectures that follow. «дивовижну кількість подій і фактів,
of developments that we now
які ми зараз вважаємо важливими для
consider to have been crucial in the
XIX століття». Пройшли
19th century.» Among the missing
непоміченими: повалення рабства,
were the abolition of slavery, the
мистецька революція імпресіоністів і
artistic revolution of Im-
майже все, що
96 97
 стосується Азії. А сьогодні 1992 followed the signing in New York a host agreement between
«Тайме» розкопує завали на го- Ukraine's Foreign Minister and the United Nations Secretary-General. 3.
рищі історії і перетрушує минуле I hear that you have been promoted. Congratulations! 4.Please be quiet.
тисячоліття у пошуках Найкращо- You re continually interrupting! 5.Pay no attention to him. He is just
го. Ні, не десятка кращих і не сотні being naughty. 6.When he was rich, he used to stay in this hotel. 7. Scien-
найліпших, а саме Найкращого. tists are on the point of making a vital breakthrough. No sooner did the
Якщо хтось помітить у цих President start his speech than he was interrupted. 8.Principal hereby
пошуках абсурдистську нотку, ти- appoints Agent as its non-exclusive service provider. 9.This Agreement
пову для XX сторіччя, то це так і
було заплановано. У 1999 році сам
цей вираз «найкращий» визначає
словесну бійку або, якщо вислови-
тись більш конструктивно, прово-
кує дебати.
pressionism and virtually the
entirety of Asia.
Now The Times is upping
the ante exponentially and ran-
sacking an entire millennium in
search of the Best. Not the 10
best, or the 100 best, but the
Best. If you detect a distinctly
20th-century absurdist grace
note in this endeavor, it's inten-
tional. In 1999, the very term
«the Best» amounts to fighting
words-or, to put it more con-
structively, a provocation to
debate.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian, using the suggested, and, if needed, other
devices:
a)partitioning:
Similar artifacts have been found at sites throughout North and
South America, indicating that life was probably well established in much
of the Western Hemisphere by some time prior to 10,000 B.C. One result
of these restrictions was to reduce the appeal of nativists organizations37
d) replacement:
1. Everyone was talking but stopped the moment she entered the
room. 2. The establishment of the United Nations Office in November
may not be amended or supplemented except by written agreement
signed by both parties hereto. lO.The terms used hereunder shall have the
following meaning. 11. Each Party may, within 20 days after receiving the
minutes, suggest amendments thereto.
e) addition:
Publications on Foreign Policy; the United Nations; Ministry of
Health
. J) omission:
a) The Court of Justice; null and void; rejected and omitted; as far
back as; as early as; he is head and shoulders above his comrades; prim
and proper; power to execute and perform the duties and responsibili
ties; continue in full force and effect; foreign policy problem; electoral
base; political scientist;
b) Статут Організації Об'єднаних Націй; Члени Організації
Об'єднаних Націй; юристи з визнаним авторитетом у галузі
міжнародного права; постійна Палата Третейського Суду; взяти на
себе обов'язки; подати заяву про відставку; у порядку спрощеного
судочинства; у випадку рівності голосів суддів голос старшого за
віком дає перевагу; термін повноважень п'яти суддів закінчується
через три роки.
g) antonymous translation:
Valid with diploma only. Keep off the grass. Take it easy. Take it or
leave it. She was not like a bird. Staff only. It won't be long before the
help arrives. It wasn't until 1983 that Connor could afford a holiday
abroad. It would take these first North Americans thousands of years
more to work their way through the openings in great glaciers south to
what is now the United States. The armed forces shall not be used save in
the common interests.
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian, making necessary transformations.
Primaries; academia; turnout (at the polls); caucus; Ministry of
Health; the Exchequer; to investigate; to accommodate; airborne; breeze;
refinery; publicist; body of independent judges.
Nativist organizations - організації «американців за походженням».
98 99
 Ex. 4. Translate into Ukrainian. Comment on translation devices used.
DICK WHITTINGTON AND HIS CAT
Lecture 11. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE
Tales of cats that bring gpod fortune to their owners can be found in
OF EQUIVALENTS
cultures throughout the world. One of the most famous is the English
legend of Dick Whittington, a poor orphan in the late 1300s, whose only
possession was a cat. Dick worked in a rich traders house, but was ill-
This Lecture:
treated and ran away. A peal of bells tells him to return and he does so to • outlines basic factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents,
find that his cat has been sold for a great fortune to a Moorish ruler who І^ф i.e. context, situation and background information;
is plagued by rats. ^ • defines context varieties and their influence on the choice of translation
The story of Dick Whittington and his cat is a familiar one to most equivalents;
schoolchildren. A poor orphan comes to London and finds work in the v kitchens of ■a • shows the role of cultural background in equivalent selection.
a rich merchant-trader called Fitzwarren. One day Dick earns a penny by shining a „ФҐ>\
rich man's shoes ,an,d buys a cat to keep the vermin in his room at bay. Fitzwarren
allows his employees to put one item on his ship that could be traded abroad,. The From the previous lectures and your own translation experience you know
employee will then get all the profits. Dick had nothing^xceptW cat, and so he that the choice of translation equivalents depends on the context, situation and
reluctantly gives up
background information. This lecture presents more detailed information on the
f. ніг
his pet. role these and some other important factors play in the process of translation
ІД^ * equivalent selection.
^_______1JMT,. Thus, the main factors are context, situation and background information.
«Л><Я& STORM AT SEA ^ They are well-known, but, regrettably, their definitions by various scholars
^ о^Ц^Опе day, Fitzwarren's ship encounters a fierce storm and is blown into uncharted substantially differ.
territory on the African Barbary coast. The Moorish king, « dining with the To start with, let us define the context38.
captain, tells him that he will pay a fortune if anyone can rid him of a plague of
rats. The captain, who has seen how Dick's cat has rid the ship of vermin, gives
the cat to the king. The cat immediately sets about its work and then goes to sit on Ш* For the purpose of practical translation we shall call the context the
the queen's lap, purring. The king is so happy that he gives the captain gold and length of speech (text) necessary to specify the meaning and translation of a
jewels worth ten times the value of the entire ship's cargo. Dick becomes a rich given word.
man.

Also for the purpose of practical translation we shall distinguish between

immediate and general context.
100 See also: Нелюбин Л.Л. Переводческий словарь. - M., 1999.
101
 •* Immediate context is a sequence of syntactically and semantically related
words that determines the meaning and syntactic function of a given word
and forms the basis for its translation.
Note the words 'forms the basis' in the above definition - these words are
critical indeed, because immediate context is seldom sufficient for the proper
choice of equivalents. Usually immediate context is limited to a sentence, though
in many cases a length of text shorter than a sentence is sufficient as an
immediate context.
However, to get all information necessary for translation one should take
into account the general context as well.
потрібна, окрім релігії, щоб вижити у час, коли нове тисячоліття летить
прямо на нас; це ілюзія, що ми ще можемо зупинити годинник і знайти
спосіб, навіть у цю останню мить, щоб підкорити простір і час.
Perhaps, you will agree that in the first instance the immediate context is all
that one needs for translation whereas to translate properly the text of the second
example one will need broader context and, probably, some additional
background information as well. This brings us to the first conclusion:
•* The choice of translation equivalents depends both on immediate and
general context.
 Ш* General context is the source text as a whole.
Any source text, however, consists of words and word combinations which
you are to translate to finally end up in a target text. And to say the least, words
and word combinations are very different as to the problems they present for
To feel the difference compare the translation of the following two translation.
examples. Compare, for example, words and word combinations in the left and right
After becoming involved in city politics, he was rewarded for his services to columns of the Table below.
the King by being made Lord Mayor of London, serving four terms between
1397 and 1420.
organization insider
Він став брати активну участь у політичному житті міста, і король society power-broker
відзначив його заслуги перед короною, призначивши лорд-мером Лондона. territory mainstream
На цій посаді він залишався чотири строки - з 1397 по 1420 рік. development hot button
The hope that we can still pare down our choices to a list of essentials is region marginal
the other faith, besides religion, that we need to survive as the new millennium
rushes toward us - the illusion that we can stop the clock and somehow, even at I It is easy to note that the entries in the left column present no prob-
this late date, master space and time. lem for translation whereas to find proper equivalents for those in the right
Сподівання, ніби-то ми все ще в змозі відмовитися від усього зайвого column one needs at least broad context and desirably also a piece of
і обрати найсуттєвіше, - це своєрідна віра, яка нам background information.
102
103
 The explanation lies in the fact that unlike those in the left column the right You will get more of such texts in the exercises after this lecture that prove
column words are relatively new language formations standing for also the final conclusion39:
relatively new phenomena of the American culture. Then the next conclusion
may be:
•* To select proper equivalents one needs to be aware of the cultural
background underlying the source text being translated.
9Ґ The choice of translation equivalents for individual words and word
combinations depends on the translator's awareness in the underlying
cultural background.
 To get a better idea of the above equivalent selection factor consider an
example:
The conservative commentator David Brooks argues in «Bobos in Para-
dise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bohemians have in the last generation
morphed into what he calls «Bobos» - bourgeois bohemians. The longhaired,
tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free spirit is now in the corporate boardroom, and
the things that seemed to divide the counterculture from the business culture
have largely disappeared as a result.
These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian prede-
cessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are products
of that culture, and they like it.
Консервативний коментатор Девід Брукс у своєму есе «Бубо у раю»
стверджує, що стара буржуазія і стара богема в останньому поколінні
переродилися у те, що він називає «бубо» - буржуазна богема. Колишні
патлаті носії вільного духу в сандалях та яскравих сорочках сидять зараз
у респектабельних офісах, і в результаті зникло все те, що, здавалось би,
відділяло культуру протесту від бізнес-культури. На відміну від членів
Ротаріанських клубів, місце яких вони зараз посіли, «бубо», очевидно,
менш схильні до пуританських хрестових походів проти попкультури, бо
вони самі є продуктом цієї культури, і ця культура їм до вподоби. 39
We purposefully include in the exercises after this lecture the texts partly
or fully shown elsewhere in this Manual. We think it is worth analyzing these
texts at a different angle.
104 105
ЕЗ QUESTIONS
1. What are the basic factors that influence the choice of translation
equivalents?
2. What is immediate context? How does it influence the choice of
translation equivalents?
3. What is general context? How does it influence the choice of transla-
tion equivalents?
4. What are the factors that influence the choice of translation equiva-
lents of individual words and word combinations?
5. What is the role of cultural background in finding proper translation
equivalents?
j§J EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest factors that influence the choice of
translation equivalents.
BOTH SIDES WILL MAKE SURE AMERICA'S CULTURE WARS
CONTINUE The International
Herald Tribune. April 12, 2001. ByNeal Gabler
The culture wars that so enlivened the 1980s and 1990s in America
are said to be over. The savage fights that raged full-scale as recently as
two years ago over gay rights, abortion, gun control, environmental pro-
tection and general permissiveness, and that culminated in the Antietam
of culture battles, Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial, seem to have just
petered out.
Pundits say the combatants, exhausted from all the verbal shelling,
have accepted compromise rather than press on for total victory, and this
has led to a new spirit of accommodation. One observer writes that the
«crackle of cultural gunfire is now increasingly distant.»
It makes you wonder what country they're living in.
If Americans don't hear the crackle, it might be because the bombs
detonating overhead drown it out. If Americans look around they will see
that abortion, gun control, environmental protection, gay rights and,
lately, campaign finance reform are still hot-button issues, and neither
106
side seems especially willing to lay down arms. If anything, they seem
emboldened after an election that showed the citizenry to be evenly di-
vided. No one wants to give ground for fear the tide of battle will turn.
But while the political war over social issues rages on, what these observ-
ers might have really sensed is an increasing tolerance in the popular cul-
ture for things once considered unacceptably outside the mainstream.
Just a decade ago, there were no gays in television situation comedies.
Now NBC's «Will Grace,» one of the most popular sitcoms, celebrates
gay characters, and no one seems particularly lathered about it.
A decade ago, television commercials barely hinted at sex, lest they
offend potential consumers. Now they hurl sexual innuendo, and no one
bats an eye.
More than a decade ago, Madonna scandalized polite society with
the suggestion that a new romance made her feel like a virgin. Now radio
plays the most sexually explicit music, and no one notices. One might be
excused for assuming, then, that there has been a truce and that a new era
of cultural coexistence has dawned. But in truth this is hardly a new state
of affairs. The popular culture has always been more tolerant than the
political culture, and the tension between the two has accounted, in part,
for the launching of the culture wars. Although it is a chicken-and-egg
question, cultural conservatives raise a taboo and purveyors of popular
culture violate it. Then the conservatives rail against the violation, and the
purveyors of popular culture rise to the challenge and push the envelope.
Then the conservatives howl over the latest transgression, and the
popular culture transgresses once again. And so it goes. It is a dynamic
and continuous process, a symbiosis not only between the so-called con-
servatives and liberals but also between both of these cohorts and society
generally. Without it the culture would be directionless, which is not
only why culture wars will continue but also why America need them to
continue. How dull the culture would be without them. Conservatives
might be ascendant in politics, setting the agenda since at least the days
of Ronald Reagan, but they are always the beleaguered ones in the war
over the popular culture.
That discrepancy between political power and cultural power is
something to which they have never quite been able to reconcile them-
selves. Militant conservatives simply cannot fathom how one can vote
Republican, profess to embrace conservative values and yet buy Eminem
107
CDs or watch NBC's «The West Wing» or go see R-rated movies. To
them it is both inconsistent and a betrayal.
The barrier, as they see it, isn't between politics and culture but be-
tween conservative values and liberal values. They won the political war,
so how come their troops aren't carrying the cultural one, too? Much to
their dismay, the answer is that there are two different sets of armies in
these two theaters of combat. In the political theater you have the familiar
forces of liberalism and conservatism. In the cultural one, you have a
variegated group of pop culture consumers including political right-
wingers on the one side, and a bellicose band of religious and moral con-
servatives on the other. The conservative commentator David Brooks
argues in «Bobos in Paradise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bo-
hemians have in the last generation morphed into what he calls «Bobos»
- bourgeois bohemians. The longhaired, tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free
spirit is now in the corporate boardroom, and the things that seemed to
divide the counterculture from the business culture have largely
disappeared as a result.
These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian
predecessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are
products of that culture, and they like it.
Despite their heated rhetoric and noise, cultural conservatives just
don't have the numbers.
When the culture wars began in America 150 years ago, it was be-
cause elites and aristocrats, a tiny faction, feared and detested the rise of a
genuinely democratic culture of almanacs, crime pamphlets, dime nov-
els, penny newspapers, theatrical melodramas, popular music, circuses.
As the elites saw it, this new culture, appealing to the masses, threatened
the country by degrading its standards and morals. It was a culture of the
proverbial lowest common denominator. As the 19th century progressed,
the elites gradually gave way to middle-class moralists and reformers, but
the moralists' arguments were essentially the same as the aristocrats'.
Popular culture undermined American values. It promoted sex,
violence,.vulgarity and disrespect for authority.
That was the argument when cultural conservatives were attacking
saloon shows at the end of the 19th century, silent films, including the
films of Charlie Chaplin, early in the 20th century, and sexual comedies
in the 1920s and gangster pictures in the 1930s. It is still the argument
108
when they attack movie blockbusters, cutting-edge television programs
and rock CDs.
In professing to save America from the toxin of popular culture,
conservatives were also saving themselves. Popular culture promoted the
sort of values that further marginalized the critics and made them seem
even more old-fashioned and irrelevant. It is a war they cannot afford to
lose, so they have to keep soldiering on no matter how inexorably the
popular culture seems to advance. They don't seem to realize that this
culture might not be a form of cultural illiteracy. It might be a form of
rebellion for people who deliberately choose what is likely to infuriate
cultural commissars intent on telling them what is good for them.
Since the days of Andrew lackson, people embraced the «trashy» in
direct proportion to the critics' hatred of it, thus asserting their cultural
independence and power. It is one of the reasons the popular culture
often goes to extremes. At the extremes lies the greatest irritation value.
The culture wars might ebb and flow, but they will never end. Con-
servatives cannot concede defeat, because to do so would end the hope of
their worldview ever prevailing.
And consumers of popular culture need that opposition to give
themselves a target, a boundary to transgress. Without conservatives to
excoriate it, the popular culture would lose its subversive subtext and the
sneaky thrill of violation that fuels it.
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest items of cultural background neces-
sary for translation.
ANIMALS HAVE TRADITIONALLY SHAPED HUMAN EVENTS.
Leading article The Times, April 27, 2001. &>Ш
There everyone is, caught between horror at the ghastly enormity
that is foot-and-mouth and ennui that it has dragged on for so long, when
suddenly from the ashes there rises the sacred calf, Bambi reincarnate.
With her fluffy white fur, ox-eyed gaze and perfect pink pout Phoenix is
the prettiest page 3 star Fleet Street has had in years. Suddenly amid the
big, ugly world of slaughter trip the words «tiny», «white» and
«innocent». Ministers quail and policy is made on the hoof.
People talk about causes needing a human face, but on the whole
prefer an animal countenance. Mute bestial appeal is considered easier
109
 on the ear than, say, the guttural petition of asylum-seekers. We can be fairly
indifferent to our own kind; it takes an animal to make us human. Phoenix's life
would have been pretty dreadful under normal circumstances, but no matter. She
has assumed the symbolic status of The Cow That Changed History.
Animals have altered the course of events more often than might be
imagined. Many's the time when mankind has felt himself to be sturdily at the
helm, when in fact matters have been bunted along by beak or snout. Europe
itself began this way when Europa was carried off into the ocean by a bullish
Zeus, kicking and flailing before submitting to become a continent. For
Christians the instigating beast is the serpent, worming his way into Eve's
confidences with sinuous insinuations.
Ancient history is a positive bestiary of cloven goings on. The noblest
incidence of animal magic came in the form of the sacred geese whose cackling
alerted their masters to a stealthy advance upon the Capi-toline Hill. Caligula's
bestowal of a consulship upon his horse was rather less successful, being one of
all-too-many final straws that broke the populace's back and led to his being
dispatched at the Palatine Games. Cleopatra's exit pursued by an asp showed far
better judgment.
Animals also throw up historical «what-ifs». What if Richard III had traded
his kingdom for a horse, Dick Whittington not been so bounteous with his cat, or
Catherine the Great been less pony crazy? In the multimedia age pets can win
the ultimate prizes and emerge as global mega-stars. The orbit of Sputnik's dog,
Laika, made him the fantasy comrade of the world's youth.
The Prime Minister's personal intervention as Phoenix's saviour is a bow to
the electoral beasts of the apocalypse. It is a case of chicken, but the public will
see only a happy ending to The Calfs Tale.
Lecture 12. TRANSLATION VARIETIES
This Lecture:
• introduces the classification of translation based on physical parameters;
• familiarizes the students with sub-categories of translation depending on
genre;
• "outlines approaches translators use when handling these varieties.
Generally speaking all translation varieties have much in common -similar
approaches, similar translation means and devices. According to physical
parameters of translation process, however, translation is divided into written
translation (or simply translation) and oral (or interpretation).
Interpretation, in its turn, is traditionally divided into consecutive in-
terpretation and simultaneous interpretation. Chuchotage and at-sight in-
terpretation are commonly regarded as alternatives of consecutive interpretation
despite minor differences in physical procedures.
Written translation is also divided into several sub-categories depending on
the genre of the text being translated, such as literary translation (fiction, poetry
and publicistic texts), translation of official documents, etc.
Ш* In consecutive interpretation the interpretation follows the source
utterance, whereas simultaneous interpretation is performed simultaneously
with the original speech.
This time lag of the interpreter relative to the speaker is the main
distinction of consecutive interpretation, which determines the peculiarities of
the approach and translation devices used by the interpreter.
110 Ill
 In a similar way almost zero time lag of the interpreter during simul-
taneous interpretation is critical for the choice of translation devices and
approaches as well as determines the necessity of using special equip-
ment for interpretation.
•* Consecutive interpreter generally prefers denotative approach
since it is virtually impossible to memorize the entirety of the long
text passages being translated and translate close to the source text.
Simultaneous interpreter is bound to keep to transformational
approach interpreting the source text by small fragments.
 •► Without special equipment simultaneous interpretation is im-
possible.
The equipment for simultaneous interpretation comprises earphones,
a microphone and a sound-insulated booth which serves as the
interpreter's work-place. Because of physical and mental strain simulta-
neous interpretation is considered the hardest and most stressing inter-
pretation variety that requires special skills and qualities. It is regarded as
a top class of interpretation and demands special vocation and training.
Basic skills and training methods of consecutive and simultaneous inter-
preters are discussed below in this Manual (Lecture 15).
As it has been already mentioned all translation varieties use similar
approaches and translation devices. Both in written translation and dur-
ing the interpretation the translator (interpreter) may use either trans-
formational or denotative approach.40
Basically, the choice of one or another approach in written transla-
tion depends on the genre of the text being translated rather than on the
translation variety. In interpretation practice, however, there are two in-
stances when the choice of approach is determined by the working envi-
ronment.
40
It is worth reminding here that according to transformational approach
translation (interpretation) is performed by relatively small and regular syntac-
tico-semantic fragments of the source sentences whereas the denotative approach
is based on larger text fragments (at least, a sentence) with occasional equivalents
(see more above).
112
It should be added mat in translation the decisions made by the
translator are the results of thorough speculation and, ideally, are con-
scious, whereas in interpretation the interpreter's decisions are mainly
subconscious and intuitive.
As concerns translation devices, they are basically the same for all
translation varieties. Moreover, it is hardly possible and feasible to ex-
plain when to use which device - in many aspects translation is an art
implying constant search for unprecedented decisions. However, in this
Manual we attempt to file a sort of translation device inventory when it
seems rational (Lectures 10 and 15). For example, one of the instances
when particular devices are feasible is text compression during interpre-
tation (see below in Lecture 15).
Chuchotage and at-sight interpretation are two specific alternatives
of consecutive interpretation proper. During chuchotage the interpreter
speaks in low voice, almost whispers so that only the interpretation user
can hear. This interpretation alternative is rather hard for the interpreter
who has to control the pitch of his or her voice. As concerns the ap -
proach it is similar to that used in standard consecutive interpretation.
At-sight interpretation is another variety of consecutive interpreta-
tion. The difference is that the interpreter reads a written text in a source
language rather than listening to the speaker as in ordinary consecutive
interpretation. However, there is a peculiarity of this interpretation vari-
ety which, unfortunately, is often overlooked.
It is stylistical discrepancy between the written document and its oral
interpretation: the styles of written documents (literary, official, etc.)
radically differ from the colloquial style any interpreter tends to use in
113
interpretation (the expressions used in written language are different and
the interpreter has to adapt to them which is not as easy as it might seem
at first sight)41. To check the truthfulness of this statement do exercises
after this lecture.
Completing this discussion of translation varieties it is worth dis-
cussing the translation accessories and working environments of transla-
tion and interpretation. The difference is substantial. A translator has at
hand dictionaries and reference materials and, as a rule, observes no spe-
cific time limits for the work; translation may be self-edited and redone if
so required.
An interpreter is entirely self-dependent and cannot rely on any out-
side help: mistakes, slips of tongue are immediately noticeable and derate
the translation. In other words, the interpretation and translation tasks are
equally hard, but different as different are the required skills and training
methods discussed below in the lectures that follow.
Similar difficulty is experienced by the interpreters when the speaker
reads his paper prepared in advance rather than speaking off-hand.
114
О QUESTIONS
1. What varieties are distinguished in translation?
2. Are translation approaches and devices similar in different transla-
tion varieties?
3. What are the principle differences between consecutive and simulta-
neous interpretation?
4. What are chuchotage and at-sight interpretation?
5. Describe differences in working environments of a translator and
interpreter?
\§} EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Interpret the text recording your interpretation, then translate in writ-
ing. Compare the translation and interpretation, comment on the differ-
ences.
The star had made seven enormously popular horror films, five of
them talking pictures, and was being compared to the great American
actor Lon Chaney. Yet nobody knew anything about Johann Ingersoll.
There were no photographs of him except in the grotesque makeup he
invented for each picture. His biography listed only his films. He never
granted interviews and went to unusual lengths to protect his real iden-
tity. Adding further to his mystique was Ingersoll's eccentric habit of ar-
riving on the set each day in makeup and leaving the same way.
Ex. 2. Ask your fellow student to read the text for you. Interpret it in con-
secutive manner recording the interpretation. Observe the difference between
at-sight and regular consecutive translation.
HAS THIS BEEN A TERM OF ENDEARMENT? The
Observer, Sunday April 29, 2001. Andrew Rawnsley, columnist of the year.
Tony Blair's government has made history. What it has yet to dem-
onstrate is the capacity to change the country's destiny.
A week is a long time in politics; 48 months is an eternity. Four years
ago this Wednesday, Tony Blair stood before the black door on his sun-
115
dappled first day in office. 'Enough of talking,' said the man of action. 'It
is time now to do.' Strip off the hype which has gushed from Number 10
ever since; blow away the froth of the daily headlines. How has his gov-
ernment actually done? Let us try, as clinically as is possible, to assess the
performance of New Labour.
The starter test of any government, I would suggest, is that it is rea-
sonably accomplished at governing. This sounds an undemanding hurdle,
but it is a first fence many previous governments have failed to sur-
mount. The Blair government has made serious, self-inflicted mistakes
-the Millennium Dome blasts them still. The unexpected has come close
to blowing them over. Foot and mouth has not been - I am being chari-
table - a textbook example of how to handle an emergency. The Gov-
ernment teetered on the lip of the abyss during last autumn's fuel pro-
tests. It is natural that we should curse their blunders more than we offer
credit for the mistakes they have avoided. But the Blair government has
eschewed perpetrating any spectacular errors.
The novices to red boxes who took office four years ago have
broadly run a competent government. Its life has been punctuated by
crises, which have been invariably generated not by dissident backbench-
ers or off-message Ministers, but erupted from the inner core of the re-
gime. There have been gripping soap operas, none more so than the
double resignations of Peter Mandelson. But the damage done has been
to the actors, not to the country at large. There has not been the economic
calamity or civil crisis which destroys governments and wrecks
countries.
The Blair government has not inflicted upon us a Suez, a Three Day
week or a Winter of Discontent. There has not been the vicious social
conflict of the inner-city riots and the miners' strike in the Eighties. There
has not been anything approaching the ruinousness of Thatcher's poll tax
or Major's Black Wednesday. Just by being reason ably adept at ruling,
the Blair administration is lifted above the average run of postwar
governments.
The next test of any government is whether it has been true to its
promises. Generally, the soi-distant People's Prime Minister has fulfilled
the rather low expectations the people had of him. Blair was elected on a
paradoxical prospectus. The subtext of his campaign was: everything is
appalling; we will change it very slowly. The Conservatives may have left
116
office in May 1997, but their term of power did not properly end until
just two years ago, when Gordon Brown finally released the Government
from the Tory spending corset. Transformed schools and hospitals await
realisation. If not delivered in the second term, the punishment of the
electorate may be terrible.
Blair's most reckless pledge was to restore faith in public life. Back
on May Day 1997, even the most cynical observer did not anticipate they
would have quite so much sleaze in them. In other respects, this gov-
ernment has delivered more than it promised. The last manifesto pledged
nothing about child benefit - it has actually risen by 25 per cent. They did
not claim to be able to create full employment, yet they have achieved
that historic goal of Labour.
Any set of rulers with an eye on claiming a large place in posterity
must aspire to be more than competent deliverers. The superior rank of
government is occupied by those which make changes lasting beyond
their lifetime. It is not conceivable that the Conservatives could unravel
devolution to Scotland and Wales, an aspiration of progressive govern-
ments dating back to Gladstone.
One of the ironies of Blair is that, for all his relentless emphasis on
the modern, his bigger achievements have been based on ambitions set
by long-dead predecessors. A settlement in Ireland has eluded every pre-
mier since the nineteenth century. The minimum wage was a Labour
goal when Keir Hardie founded the party. The Tories have been com-
pelled to accept it, just as they have been forced to support independence
for the Bank of England. This government could come to a full stop to-
day - and would leave enduring legacies.
There are other elements of the Blair record which the Right accepts
because they are as amazed as many on the Left are disgusted that they
have been enacted by a Labour government.
Which takes us to my next test of a government: has it permanently
altered the framework of political choice? The verdict here is mixed.
With a little help from the grisly pantomime that is William Hague's
Conservative Party, New Labour commands the centre ground and
swathes of territory on both flanks. Harold Wilson's unrequited dream of
making Labour 'the natural party of government' is closer to realisation
by Tony Blair than under any previous Labour Prime Minister.
117
 But he has achieved it more by following the consensus than by chal-
lenging the status quo. His government has pandered to illiberality more
often than it has confronted prejudice. It has become a little less bashful Lecture 13. LITERARY TRANSLATION
about making the case for the active state and a fairer society, but re-
mains coy of full candour.
Since the Third Way was giggled to death, it has become ever clearer This Lecture:
that this is a government which moves by inches rather than leaps. There • describes written translation subcategories;
is nothing intrinsically wrong with that: small steps, provided there are • introduces the notion of hypertext;
enough of them, can take you on a long journey. • discusses challenges facing a literary translator.
Baby bonds are an eye-catching device to give the poor an asset stake
in society. But this is the safest sort of radicalism. The first beneficiaries As mentioned in the previous Lecture, written translation is divided
of the scheme will not come into possession of their modest endowments into several subcategories depending on the genre of the texts being
until Mr Blair is eligible for his pension. He, Gordon Brown, David translated. Literary translation forms one of such subcategories being,
Blunkett and Alistair Darling, along with the Institute for Public Policy perhaps, unique and the most sophisticated of all.
Research and the Fabian Society, all claim paternity over baby bonds. This translation variety requires special skills and talents and, unlike
When one good notion has to be spread around four Cabinet Ministers some other varieties (e.g., translation of official documents) it cannot be
and two think tanks, it tells us that New Labour is not bursting with bold formalized or standardized. The explanation of the uniqueness and un-
and innovatory ideas. precedented nature of each literary translation piece lies in the following
This brings me to the last and most demanding test. The outstanding statement.
governments are those which alter the country's destiny. The project to
secure the exclusion of the Conservatives from power for a generation
has withered as Blair's enthusiasm for changing the Westminster voting •► In literary translation the translator is to render the images of the
system has shrivelled. In terms of the private goals he set for his source text rather than only facts like in other translation and inter-
premiership, the most evident failure has been Europe. Towards Europe pretation varieties.
as a whole, and towards the single currency especially, public opinion is
more aggressively hostile than ever.
The greatest wrangling between the Prime Minister and the Chan-
Below, to illustrate the statement, let us compare the following pas-
cellor about the next manifesto is not over what it says about tax, but
sage from A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway with its translation
about the warmth of the phraseology towards the single currency. The
into Ukrainian.
fiercest struggle about that is within Mr Blair himself. Will he hedge his
self-perceived destiny with deadening qualifications or will he articulate
I stopped at a barber shop Я зайшов до перукарні й по-
the belief that his epochal role is to make Britain a fully engaged partner
and was shaved and went home голився, потім попростував до
in Europe?
to the hospital. My leg was as госпіталю. Моя нога вже так змі-
The Blair government has demonstrated that it can make history. well as it would get for a long цніла, що кращого й бажати було
Only in its second term will we discover whether it has the capacity to time. I had been up for examina- годі. За три дні перед тим я був
change the future.
tion three days before. There на комісії. Мені залишалось усьо-
118 119
were still some treatments to
take before my course at the
Ospedale Maggiore was finished
and I walked along the side street
practicing not limping. An old
man was cutting silhouettes
under an arcade. I stopped to
watch him. Two girls were pos-
ing and he cut their silhouettes
together, snipping very fast and
looking at them, his head on one
side. The girls were giggling. He
showed me the silhouettes before
he pasted them on white paper
and handed them to the girls.
«They're beautiful» he said.
«How about you, Tenente?»
The girls went away looking
at their silhouettes and laughing.
They were nice-looking girls.
One of them worked in the wine
shop across from the hospital.
«All right,» I said.
«Take your cap off.»
«No. With it on.»
«It will not be so beautiful,»
the old man said. «But,» he
brightened, «it will be more
military.»
He snipped away at the
black paper, separated the two
thicknesses and pasted the pro-
files on a card and handed them
to. 'How much?»
«That's all right». He waved
his hand. «I just made them for
го кілька процедур до кінця ліку-
вання в Головному госпіталі, і я
йшов бічною вулицею, намагаю-
чись не кульгати. Під склепінчас-
тим під'їздом одного будинку
якийсь старий вирізував паперові
силуети. Я зупинився подиви-
тись. Йому позували двоє дівчат,
і він вирізував їхні силуети вкупі,
швидко орудуючи ножицями й
раз по раз нахиляючи голову вбік,
щоб позирнути на дівчат. Дівчата
хихотіли. Він показав силуети
мені, а тоді вже наклеїв їх на
білий папір і віддав дівчатам.
- Он які красуні,- сказав
він.- А ви не хочете, лейтенанте?
Дівчата пішли, роздивляю-
чись свої силуети і сміючись.
Обидві були гарненькі. Одна з
них працювала у кав'ярні проти
нашого госпіталю.
- Ну зробіть, - сказав я.
Зніміть кашкета.
- Ні. В кашкеті.
- Буде не так гарно,- сказав
старий.- Зате,- усміхнувся він, -
дуже войовниче.
Він заходивсь обрізувати
складений удвоє чорний папір,
потім розняв готові профілі, на-
клеїв їх на картку й подав мені.
- Скільки з мене?
- Пусте.- Він махнув рукою.-
Я зробив їх вам за спасибі.
- Ну будь ласка.- Я витяг з
120
you.»
«Please,» I brought out
some coppers. «For pleasure.»
«No. I did them for a pleas-
ure. Give them to your girl.»
«Many thanks until we
meet.»
«Until I see thee.»
I went on to the hospital.
There were some letters, an offi-
cial one, and some others. I was
to have three weeks' convales-
cent leave and then return to the
front. I read it over carefully.
Well, that was that. The conva-
lescent leave started October
fourth when my course was fin-
ished. Three weeks was twenty-
one days. That made October
twenty-fifth. I told them I would
not be in and went to the restau-
rant a little way up the street
from hospital for supper and
read my letters and the Corriere
della Sera at the table. There was
a letter from my grandfather,
containing family news, patriotic
encouragement, a draft for two
hundred dollars, and a few clip-
pings; a dull letter from the
priest at our mess; a letter from a
man I knew who was flying with
the French and had gotten in
with a wild gang and was telling
about it, and a note from Rinaldi
asking me how long I was going
121
кишені кілька монет.- Зробіть
мені приємність.
- Ні. Мені самому було при-
ємно вирізати їх. Подаруйте своїй
дівчині.
- Дуже вам дякую. Бувайте
здорові.
- Ходи здоровий, синку.
Я повернувся до госпіталю.
Там на мене чекало кілька листів,
один з них - службовий. Мені
надавали тритижневу відпустку
на одужання, а потім я мав пове-
рнутися на фронт. Я уважно пе-
речитав листа. Еге ж, отак воно.
Відпустка починалася з четверто-
го жовтня, того самого дня, коли
я закінчував курс лікування. Три
тижні - це двадцять один день.
Отже, двадцять п'ятого жовтня. Я
сказав у госпіталі, що знов іду, й
подався до ресторану на тій-таки
вулиці, майже поруч госпіталю,
повечеряти і почитати листи й
«Corriere della Sera». Один лист
був від мого діда: родинні
новини, патріотичні гасла, чек на
двісті доларів та кілька газетних
вирізок; ще був нудний лист від
нашого священика, лист від од-
ного знайомого, який служив у
французькому авіазагоні й весело
проводив час у гурті відчайдуш-
них гультяїв, про що й сповіщав
мене; та ще коротка писулька від
Рінальді. Він запитував, чи довго
to skulk in Milano and what was я ще думаю огинатися в Мілані й
all the news? He wanted me to що нового взагалі. Крім того,
bring him phonograph records просив привезти грамофонних
and enclosed a list. платівок і додав до листа їх спи-
сок.
The most striking examples, however, of this unique feature of liter-
ary translation gives us poetry:
The Testament Заповіт
Тарас Шевченко
Як умру, то поховайте
Мене на могилі, Серед
степу широкого На
Вкраїні милій, Щоб лани
широкополі, І Дніпро, і
кручі Було видно, було
чути Як реве ревучий. Як
понесе з України У синєє
море Кров ворожу... отоді
я І лани,і гори -Все
покину і полину До
самого бога Молитися... а
до того Я не знаю бога.
Поховайте та вставайте
Кайдани порвіте І
вражою злою кров'ю
Волю окропіте. І мене в
сім'ї великій В сім'ї
вольній, новій, Не
забудьте пом'янути
Незлим тихим словом.
I will lie and watch the cornfields,
Listen through the years
To the river voices roaring,
Roaring in my ears.
When I hear the call
Of the racing flood,
Loud with hated blood,
I will leave them all,
Fields and hills; and force my way
Right up to the Throne
Where God sits alone;
Clasp His feet and pray...
But till that day
What is God to me?
Bury me, be done with me,
Rise and break your chain,
Water your new liberty With
blood for rain. Then, in the
mighty family
122

by Taras Shevchenko
Dig my grave and raise my barrow
By the Dnieper-side
In Ukraina, my own land,
A fair land and wide.
 Of all men that are free, May be That is why literary
sometimes, very softly You will translation is an artistic
speak of me? creation and to be suc-
Translated by E.L. Voynich cessful it must be accepted
London, 1911 by the language speakers'
community of the target
It is easy to note that in the above translation example of the well- language as a piece of
known Shevchenko's «Testament» individual information items (facts) literary prose in their
are sometimes radically different or missing but the images forming in native language, unlike
the translation readers' minds are virtually similar to those triggered in other translation varieties
the minds of the source text readers. The same applies to the translation
which may be tolerated by
of prose pieces, though, maybe, to a lesser degree.
To fully understand the task of the literary translator it is worthwhile the users even in poor
to recall the communicational scheme of translation. As you might re- quality (factual
member, the author of the source text sends a message to the source lan- information sometimes is
guage speakers and the translator's task is to render this message for the more important for the
speakers of the target language. For the translated message to be under- users than grammatical
stood properly by the target language audience it is necessary that the and stylistic correctness).
knowledge bases (thesauruses) of the author, translator and translation Besides, there is
users were similar.
another factor that makes
This task is rather easy when the translator deals with facts as in
literary texts so difficult
translation of technical or official documents - one is only to match
for translation - it is so
grammar patterns (perform regular transformations) and properly choose
the equivalents.42 called hypertext.
Should the translator manage to achieve these goals, the translation
will be a success, because facts are objective and understood in the same
way by all people with similar educational background. •► Hypertext is the
The situation with literary translation, however, is radically different. collective meaning of a
In literary translation literary text
♦ the translator is to render mental images and trigger emotions comprising all
similar to those initiated by the source text in its readers; associations and
♦ the images and emotions are known to be extremely subjective; allusions acquired by
♦ the words causing similar images and emotions may be different the words and word
in different languages. combinations of this
text in their previous
Sometimes this is not that easy, but still easier than create a unique image. usage.
123
Since means and
devices of hypertext may
be different in source and
target languages, the
translator is to find
appropriate target language
substitutes for the source
hypertext elements.
It is hardly possible
and desirable to give a
universal prescription for
hypertext substitutions in
translation - the grounds of
the choice are unique in
each case.
Moreover, because of
the unique cultural
background of each nation
a large share of the source
hypertext is lost in
translation.43
Thus, in literary
translation an important
role is played by literary
images and hypertext,
however, speaking about
this translation variety one
should also keep in mind
the following.
♦ The target text of
literary translation is a
piece of fiction belonging
to the target language
literature. That is why the
knowledge of the target
language is so critical for
this translation type.
 These associations and allusions may be acquired when words and
word combinations were used in other texts: books, popular songs, say-
ings, films, etc. For instance, word combination реве та стогне is closely •* Literary translation should be recognized by the target language
speakers as a literary text in their native language.
connected in the minds of Ukrainian speakers with the popular song and
when used in a different context still preserve this connection. The same
applies to words бузина and дядько. Used together in any context they
still remain associated with the saying На городі бузина, в Києві дядько ♦ In literary translation of dialogues the translator should take exact
and this association rings a bell in the native speakers' minds, though account of the speakers' character and situation of the dialogue. This in-
often subconsciously. formation determines the style of translation.
Of course, these examples are the simplest - generally the hypertext ♦ Stylistic devices and expression means as well as connotations and
allusions are extremely subtle and often not even recognized at the con- shades of meaning of individual words are critical elements of 'image-
scious level. Yet, they are very important for the adequate perception of a making' in literary translation.
literary text which makes translator's task especially hard.
In order to explain possible ways to render the hypertext in transla-
tion let's recall again the communication theory. The author's text must
comply with the hypertext thesaurus of the source text readers and in a
similar way the hypertext of translation must 'ring a bell' in the minds of
the target text readers.
See also the lecture on translation into English in this Manual.
124 125
О QUESTIONS
1. What are the distinctive features of literary translation?
2. What is hypertext? Define it. Give examples of hypertext allusions
and associations.
3. Can a translator render the whole of the source hypertext? If not, then
what part of the hypertext is lost?
4. What is the attitude of the target language audience to a piece of lit-
erary translation?
5. What is to be taken into account in translation of dialogues?
dJ EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Try first word-by-word translation. Ex-
plain why it fails and give literary translation. Suggest stylistic means and
devices that are used to create the images of the source text, compare them
with those in your translation.
He was struck by the realization that what had been a traumatic and
monumental moment in his life had been an infinitesimal part of the
battle, by the insignificance of his part in the brutal encounter. And as
Rudman read on, the story gathered a kind of chilling energy unto itself
and Keegan began to feel its power. (William Diehl)
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using characters' backgrounds (a journalist
and a young soldier) as a basis for the selection of equivalents.
«Hi,» Rudman had greeted him holding out his hand, «I'm Bert
Rudman, Herald Tribune out of Paris.»
«Keegan,» was all the youngster had mumbled back.
«Were you at Belleau Wood?»
«I think so.»
«How bad is it?» Rudman asked nodding toward his leg.
«Bad enough to get me home.» He paused for a moment and then
asked, «Did we win?»
Rudman had stared at him for a moment, the significance of the
question slowly sinking in. Then he smiled. «You sure did, kiddo. Kicked
the Kaiser's ass right back where it came from and then some.»
«That's good,» Keegan said.
Lecture 14. TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH
This Lecture: • emphasizes the essential features to be remembered
by the students when
translating into English: , , _ • pre-determined
order of words in a sentence;
• verbal style of expression;
• analytical way of expressing semantic and syntactic relations
between words;
• the use of prepositional structures.
When translating into any language one is expected to treat with due
regard the peculiarities of its grammatical and lexico-semantic systems.
Of numerous peculiarities of the system of English the following three
are, perhaps, the most important for translation into this language.
1. Definite (pre-determined) order of words in a sentence.
2. Predominantly verbal style of expression.
1. Analytical way of expressing semantic and syntactic relations
between words (by positioning rather than by prepositions and case
forms).
If one compares the above features of English with
♦ free word order,
♦ predominantly nominative style of expression and
♦ expression of semantic and syntactic relations by prepositions
and/or case forms
typical for Ukrainian the principle objectives of Ukrainian-English
translation may be phrased as follows.
126 127
•► When translating from Ukrainian into English the translator is:
♦ to change the word order in the source sentences in accord with
the English syntax;
♦ to change the source text style into predominantly verbal and
♦ to express the syntactic and semantic relations between nouns by
their proper positioning.
by the target audience. The best way to do this provides a combination of
denotative approach (interpretation of the content) and transformational
scheme (transforming Ukrainian phrases into standard English
expressions).
•* In English-Ukrainian translation the translator is expected to
interpret the content of the source text using standard phrasing of the
target language speakers.
 Speaking of translation means and devices the most applicable ones
for Ukrainian-English translation are restructuring (rewording) of the
source sentences, replacement of noun combinations by verbal structures
and substitution of target noun clusters for source prepositional
combinations.
It should be noted, however, that all said above is valid only for the
general case - each particular translation case demands individual con-
sideration.
Let's take an example to illustrate a typical Ukrainian-English trans-
formations.
Необхідно негайно провести голосування з цього питання.
«The issue is to be voted immediately.»
Note rewording and replacement of the nominative combination by
the verbal construction in the above example.
As concerns the approaches used in Ukrainian-English translation
one is to remember that the denotative approach and transformations are
used in combination.
To explain the necessity of denotative approach when translating
into English one is to apply the communicational scheme of translation.
The matter is that the target audience of Ukrainian-English transla-
tion is foreigners having cultural and educational background which
sometimes radically differs from Ukrainian culture and ways of life.
Hence, in order to convey the source text content in an optimal way one
should translate it using the phrasing common to and easily understood
128
Let's take an example of Ukrainian English translation to illustrate
the above recommendation.
Міцне, повите спокійною The strong face, the smile....
усмішкою обличчя. Вилитий The arched brows. He was the im-
Іван! Чистісінько батькова кру- age of Ivan! Ivan himself may have
тобровість. Наче той ожив, наче come to life again, risen from the
воскрес... dead.
...Вже викликають інших. З ...Others were called. One of
числа цивільних одержує гра- the civilians was the dashing
моту і той модерняга, що young fellow who had come on his
приїздив мотоциклом до motorcycle asking to be given the
кіношників, пропонував зіграти role of anonymous letter-writer. He
роль анонімника. Одержавши took his certificate and as he left
нагороду й відходячи від столу, the table winked at Ko-losovsky, as
підморгнув Колосовському: а ви, though to say: And you didn't want
мовляв, не хотіли брати... Не to take me. You're a poor judge of
знаєте, братці, людей... (Oles people...
Honchar)
As one can see a non-native speaking translator can achieve good re-
sults in Ukrainian-English translation only through using standard (cli-
cheed) English phrasing. The reason of this requirement becomes clear if
you recall the information on hypertext discussed earlier in this Manual.
129
A non-native speaking translator simply may not know the hypertext
0 QUESTIONS
underlying the equivalents and only standard language cliches (to a cer-
tain extent!) guarantee proper choice of equivalents with relevant conno- 1. What are the peculiarities of the English language system which are
tations. to be taken into account in Ukrainian-English translation?
2. What are the most important changes of the source text in Ukrain-
ian-English translation?
•> The use of standard (clicheed) phrases in translation into English 3. What is the optimal approach in Ukrainian-English translation?
is desirable since they are repeatedly tested by native speakers and 4. Why is it desirable to use standard (clicheed) expressions when
carry with them correct associations and allusions. translating into a foreign language.
5. Grade the texts according to difficulties they present for Ukrainian-
English translation.
Of course, in literary translation this aspect is more important than in
translation of technical or official documents. Generally speaking, the {§} EXERCISES
effectiveness of translation into English by a foreigner depends on the
Ex. 1. Read the Ukrainian text and its translation into English. Observe the
type of the source text. The lowest level of connotations is observed in
way the Ukrainian cultural idioms are translated. Describe the structural
legal texts where no ambiguity is tolerated, besides, legal texts are highly changes and changes in the text content.
clicheed. In a way the same is true for technical texts and official docu-
ments. This is where one may expect good results translating into English Місяць все щедріше обб- The moon-silver fell more lav-
ризкував сяйвом оброшені де- ishly on the dew-covered trees and
by standard 'well-worn' expressions.
рева і шлях, чіткіше обрисову- road, picking out the saddled
All said above about translation into English applies both to written вались нерозсідлані коні, а horses; and the muted voices of the
translation and interpretation, although some peculiarities of interpreta- притишені пісні козаків пори- Cossacks still sang of the rapids, the
tion proper are discussed in the lecture that follows. вались і поривались на далекі bowed cherry-trees, the red guelder
дороги, до укляклих вишняків, roses and the black ashes, yearning
до червоних калин і чорних for the distant home where their
пожарищ, де б мати чи батько і father or mother, or sweetheart,
вірне кохання. Було в тих піс- perhaps, awaited them. There was
нях і степове озерце, де плава- the steppe lake, too, in those songs,
ло відеречко три дні під водою, the lake where the bucket floated
був і сердега бурлак, в якого for three days on the water; there
заболіло тіло, ще й голівонька; was the poor boatman dragging
був і кінь, що клонить голову barges up the river with aching
за козаком, була і дівчина, якій head and back; there was the horse
вгортав ноги своєю шапкою hanging his head in grief for his
молодик. Туга віків і надії віків Cossack master and there was the
130 131
сходились у молодих голосах і
слалися старим шляхом, стис-
каючи і веселячи серце...
Старий... схрестив руки на
палиці. Тепер сивина його бо-
роди якраз колихалася над пе-
рехрестям рук.
- То не можна було когось
знайти старшого чи розумні
шого? Ти ж іще пуцьверінок у
мене.
Тимофій посміхнувся, ба-
гатозначно повів очима і одве-
рнув голову від батька, щоб не
розсміятися.
- В такому ділі не по ста-
ршинству, а по совісті виби-
рають, - заступився за друга
Свирид.
- Коли по совісті - нічого
не скажу: мій синаш ніколи,
Свириде, в сірка очей не пози-
чав, але молодий він ще до
цього діла, земля старіших лю-
бить, тих, які не тільки верх, а
й глибину її чують.
-Діду, та який він моло-
дий: вашому Тимофію вже по-
вних тридцять п'ять років.
- Тридцять п'ять, три
дцять п'ять! - перекривив ста
рий.- Швидко ви все робите і
швидко лічите. Спішите ку
дись до дідька. А колись у нас
132
girl whose feet her Cossack warmed
with his fur cap. Ancient sorrow
and ancient hope blended together
in the young voices and flowed
along the old road, wringing and
gladdening hearts.
His hands gripped the top of
his stick and his grey beard fell over
them. «Couldn't they find someone
older, and with more sense, too?
You're only a kid.»
Timofi gave Svirid an eloquent
look and turned away from the old
man to hide his smile.
«In things like that, it isn't age
that counts, it's whether a man's
straight and honest,» said Svirid,
coming to his friend's rescue.
«He's honest all right. My son
has never done a crooked thing in
his life, Svirid. He's too young for
this job though, the land likes to be
handled by older people who know
it through and through.»
«But Granddad, you can't say
he's that young, your Timofi's all of
thirty-five!»
«Thirty-five, indeed,» the old
man snorted. «You do everything
mighty quick these days, and you
count the years quick too, like you
were all of a rush to get somewhere,
to the devil, maybe. We didn't
reckon years that way in my day.»
«How did you do it, Dad?»
The old man thrust his right
hand into his beard where it stirred
не так лічили роки.
- А як же, тату?
Батько вплів у бороду пра-
вицю, вона темним звірятком
заворушилась на сивині.
- Як? Ніби забувся? Літа
були, Тимофію, тоді збоку, а
попереду - чоловік. От коли я
повів тебе наймати до Варчу-
ків, там обдивилися, обмацали
очима з усіх боків і питають:
«Скільки ж років синові?» Я й
кажу: «Та вже пастушок». Так і
пішов ти до череди. А коли в
економію, у строк, од Стрітен-
ня до Семена, записував тебе,
так тож в конторі допитували
ся: «Скільки років синові?» -
«Та вже погонич»,- підказую. І
де не питали про твої роки,
говорив тільки про те, чого ти
по роботі вартий: «Уже й
орач» або «Уже й косар». Ін
ший і до сивого волосу дожи
ве, а косарем не годен стати, а
ти ще й на вулицю вечорами
не заглядав, а на лузі отамана
вів. Отака моя всюди метрика
була, аж поки тобі й лоба не
забрили. А тепер новомодна
метрика почалася: не встиг
зносити першу пару штанів - і
в начальство преться... То що
ти собі думаєш, Тимофію? На
легкий хліб перейти?
Маревом, блиском усе пе-
реповнене. Все злилось, поєд-
like a little brown animal in a
thicket of grey.
«How? Have you forgotten,
Timofi? It was the man that mat-
tered, not his years. That first time I
took you to the Varchuks to work,
they looked you up and they looked
you down, feeling all over you with
their eyes, and then they asked me,
'How old is your lad?' And what did
I answer them? I told them, 'He's a
herdsboy.' So you went to the herd.
And when I signed you on to work
on the estate from St.Valentine's to
St. Semyon's Day, they wanted to
know the same-'How old is your
lad?' 'He's a teamster now,' I told
them. And whenever they asked
your years, I told them your work.
'He's a ploughman,' I'd say, or 'He's
already a mower.' Some grow old
and grey and still can't be called
mowers, but you were taking the
lead with the scythe in the mead-
ows before you ever joined the
dancing on the village green at
night. And that's how your age was
reckoned until you were called up.
They've a newfangled way of reck-
oning age now-a lad can aim to be
an official before he's worn out his
first pair of pants.... What's in your
mind, Timofi? After an easy life, are
you?»
The mirage of shimmering
light filled every thing. That reed!
33

налось в стихії сонця, в гармо-
нії життя. Стоп, катер! Яка
очеретина! Як вона переблис-
кує, торкнута вітерцем... Скі-
льки пластики в коливанні цієї
стеблини з хитливим ритміч-
ним переливом світла на ній!
Віддзеркалена на мигтючім
екрані води, вона похитується,
живе, не-чутно розмовляє з
водою, з вітром, із сонцем, з
другом вашим, може, розмов-
ля... Вхопи, зафіксуй цей порух
очеретини, і світіння вод, і срі-
блястість верб, їх епічну заду-
му... Зафільмуй, збережи цю
велику творчість природи! Але
кому, навіщо? Хто дорожити-
ме? Чи перед ким із прийдеш-
ніх постане цей величавий спо-
кій гирла і ця очеретина в її
плавкім коливанні, чи оживе
вона, як рядок гекзаметра, як
скалка краси, як необхідність?
- Толстой десь сказав: лю-
ди як ріки, - почувся задумли-
вий голос Ярослави.- Наче про
Сергія сказав...
«Ця ріка, вона теж як лю-
дина: сягнула свого апогею,
вибухла повінню світла і саме
тепер, коли світлом мудрості
осяяна, в спокійних розтоках
гирла мусить завершувати свій
плин... Вже стає Океаном».
Не впізнати ріку. Те, що
недавно чорно ревіло, ламало,
How its colours changed as the
breeze rippled through it.... How
much plastic movement there was
in that saying stem with the rhyth-
mic play of light upon it! Reflected
in the shimmering water the reed
lived, talked inaudibly with the wa-
ter, the wind, the sun, and perhaps
with your friend. Photograph it, its
movement, the light on the water,
the silvery willows, their epic pen-
siveness. Photograph it, preserve
this great creation of nature! But for
whom? For what? Who would
treasure it? Would anyone see this
majestic calm of the wide estuary
and that reed with its trembling
sway, as a fragment of beauty, a
necessity?
«Tolstoy said somewhere that
people are like river,» Yaroslava
said musingly. «It might have been
said about Sergei.»
«And this river is like man. It
has reached its apotheosis, broken
out into a flood of light and now,
when it has taken all into itself,
when it is illuminated with the light
of wisdom, it must complete its
flow, pacified, through the bound-
less estuary. And become the
Ocean.»
The river was unrecognisable.
So recently it had roared, smashed,
destroyed, but here there was a dif-
ferent flood, one which lay placid
and destroyed nothing.
34
трощило, тут поступилося мі- The river was bathed in light over
all its great expanse. It parted the
сцем іншій повені - повені, яка
reeds and poured out freely,
не руйнує.
repeating the breadth and blueness of
Плине, ущерть налита сві-
the sky, and spoke to all living things
тлом, ріка. Розсунула очерети,
in its silent speech. Here I mingle
розлилася привільне, відтво-
with the seas and oceans of the
рює саму широчінь і сяйво неба,
world. I take leave of the reeds
з усім живим спілкується своєю
which like the Egyptian papyri
безмовною мовою... Тут я
draw into themselves the generous
впадаю в Світовий океан. З
secrets of light. I take leave of the
цими очеретами прощаюсь,
frontier watch-tower rising above the
що, як єгипетські папіруси,
reeds, where a young border-guard
вбирають й себе щедрі тайно-щі
with field-glasses raised to his eyes
світла... Прощаюсь з при-
stands guard over the blinding
кордонною вишкою, що висо-
silence.... He is on guard over this
чить в очеретах, і прикордонник
day, over the flood of light, the
молодий там чатує угорі з
transparent pensiveness of the
біноклем... Цей день чатує, за-
willows, and the uncontrolled
литий потопом світла, і маревну
flight of birds over all frontier posts.
тишу верб, і безконтрольний
I go to pour my fresh water into
політ птаха понад усі межові
Ocean. It will absorb me, one of the
знаки... Йду, зникаю своїми
many rivers which like me dissolve
прісними водами в Світовім
in its blue infinity. But do I then
океані. Він поглинає мене, одну
vanish and leave no trace? Do I not
з безлічі рік, щоб уподібнити
influence at least to a small degree
собі, розчинити у синіх своїх
the composition of its water, its
безмежжях. А чи так уже й
degree of saltiness, the level of the
безслідно зникаю? Не позначусь
shores, the very character of seas? I,
хіба - хоч певною мірою -на
the river of plains and mountains,
складі його ж власних вод, на
shall yet flow for a long time, and
мірі її солоності, на рівні його
my brown water will be seen far
берегів, на самому характері
Океану? Ріка рівнин і гір, ще away in the blue of the sea; there too
it will keep its river traits, the
довго тектиму й там, серед моря,
далеко буде видно серед freshness of its sources, the yel-
lowness of clay from the mountains
морської блакиті течію рудої
річкової води; вона й там ще and valleys, the inner rhythm of
 довго зберігатиме свою річкову
природу - і прісноту джерел, і
колір гірських та долинних
грунтів, і внутрішній рух життя...
Вода серед води - вже в цьому є
незвичайність; і є щось значне в
самому акті впадання, в цьому
одвічнім єднанні гирла ріки з
Океаном.
life. Water amidst water - in this itself славний був хлопець, душею відданий мистецтву!..
there is something extraordinary; there is
something significant in the very act of
confluence, in the eternal union of the 136
river with the Ocean.
The world is bright with light, it
flows everywhere, an infinite silver
flood.
And the power of the water is no
longer dreadful.
And the sky is no longer the sky, but
the heavens.

Світиться світ. Всюди ро-

зіллялося тихе, сріблясте, без-
крає...
І повінь уже тут не повінь.
І небо вже тут не небо, а
to grow to greater stature in
небеса.
the eyes of
to have caught its master's
way
a professional trick
to stare in the face
absolutely dedicated to art
Ex. 2. Translate into English using the suggested equivalents.
Ніби виріс в очах кіногрупи
Сергій. Його камера - експресивна,
зухвала, різка - її ні з чиєю не сплутаєш.
Вона мовби повторювала вдачу
господаря; його нервову жадобу, його
невситенність, навіть вади його... Раніш
декому не подобалась в Сергієві,
скажімо, ота його набута в кіно
професійна манера безцеремонно
розглядати людину з ніг до голови,
грубувато зазирати незнайомому в очі,
мовби допитуючись: «Ану, на що ти
здатен... Чи хоч трохи ти
кіногенічний?» Але зараз і ці манери
його прочитувались інакше: все ж таки
 There are two main varieties of interpretation, consecutive and si-
multaneous. Though they have much in common and possess all men-
Lecture 15. INTERPRETATION: 137

BASIC SKILLS AND

TRAINING METHODS

This Lecture compares:

• working environments of
♦ written translators and interpreters;
♦ consecutive and simultaneous interpreters;
• approaches - denotative and connotative,
• and tools they use:
♦ text compression and text development
♦ note-taking and its sequence
♦ underlines the importance of being skilful in using
the tools.

To tell the difference between translation and

interpretation let us compare working environments of a
translator and interpreter.
♦ Translator has all time necessary to do and check the
translation.
♦ Interpreter is limited in time and cannot check and redo
the interpretation.
♦ Translator has free access to dictionaries and reference
material.
♦ Interpreter has no access to any outside information.
♦ Translator has no immediate contact with translation
users and often is unaware of their reaction.
♦ Interpreter is in immediate and close contact with the
audience reacting to interpretation mistakes

Ш* Translator is dependent on supporting environment;

interpreter is entirely self-dependent.
 tioned characteristics that distinguish them from translation there are
substantial differences in the working environments as well.
1. In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is much more limited in
time.
2. In simultaneous interpretation the length of the text translated as one
'batch' is much shorter than in consecutive.44
3. Unlike consecutive interpretation where the interpreter may correct
mistakes and slips of the tongue, simultaneous interpreter has no
time for corrections and redoing.
Differences in the working environment of interpreters compared
with that of translators as well as differences between working environ-
ments of simultaneous and consecutive interpreters determine the pecu-
liarities of interpretation approaches and methods.
First of all, as you already know from our previous discussions, the
consecutive interpreter adheres to predominantly denotative approach in
interpretation whereas the basic approach of simultaneous interpretation
is transformational.
•* Long stretches of speech to be translated do not allow the con-
secutive interpreter to keep close to the source text, whereas the si-
multaneous interpreter is forced by time limitation to translate by
small fragments of the source text transforming them according to
the target language grammar.
However, both during consecutive and simultaneous interpretation
interpreters use text compression and text development as basic translation
devices.
44
Although simultaneous interpretation seems continuous the flow of in-
terpreter's speech may be divided into individual fragments.
138
•* Text compression aimed at saving interpretation time and re-
moving source text redundancy is one of the main instruments of
simultaneous interpretation which allows the interpreter to keep in
pace with the source text not sacrificing the content.
In consecutive interpretation text compression is used as well - it al-
lows to get rid of the source text redundancy, but the main instrument of
consecutive interpretation is text development.
Ш* Ability to compress the source text and develop the target one
from the core structure are the basic skills of an interpreter.
Basic compression devices used in Ukrainian-English translation
comprise:
a. transformation of the nominative structures into verbal ones;
b. converting prepositional constructions into noun clusters;
c. omission or transformation of words and word combinations typical
for Ukrainian style and considered redundant according to English
speech standards.
For example:
Згідно з рішенням Ради наглядачів, аудит фінансової діяльності
фірм та установ з надання послуг у сфері юридичного консалтингу
буде проведено у квітні цього року.
The Supervisory Board decided to audit the books of judiciary consult-
ing companies in April this year.
When interpreting into Ukrainian an interpreter is using compres-
sion to a lesser degree because:
♦ limited (even with good interpreters) knowledge of the foreign
language does not permit free interpretation of the source text and
139
 ♦ English way of expression is more concise and often English text 1. кореспонденти зібралися (разом)
contains no redundant words, which is explained by the analytical structure of 2. декілька (деякі, дехто) з нас, американських кореспондентів
this language. 3. зібралися (разом) сьогодні ввечері
4. зібралися (щоб за традицією зустріти Новий рік)
The second basic tool of interpretation - text development - is typical both 5. зібрались у бістро
for English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English interpretation. It should be 6. бістро (наше, улюблене)
mentioned, however, that text development is more usable in consecutive than in
simultaneous interpretation, though simultaneous interpreters also use it. The final target text will appear then as an optimal rearrangement of the
above parts of the text development scheme, e. g., as the one below:
Сьогодні ввечері деякі з нас, американських кореспондентів, за
Ш* Text development in the course of interpretation is the restoration of the традицією зібрались у нашому улюбленому бістро, щоб зустріти Новий
full composition of a source sentence starting from its syntactic and рік.
semantic core accompanied by restructuring of the source sentence in
Text development is reflected in note-taking procedure, which usually
compliance with syntactic and semantic standards of the target language.
includes the following information items.
1. main ideas (skeleton outline) - subject, verb, object;
2. links and separations;
Text development is performed either with note-taking or without it. It 3. viewpoints of the speaker;
usually starts from the Subject-Predicate pair and then other sentence elements
4. tenses and modalities;
are organized around this core.
5. proper and geographical names.

Ш* Text development is the optimal method of interpretation because it There are also certain recommendations for the best way to take notes.
allows to organize the translation in accordance with the target language Some of them are as follows:
♦
style and grammar standards rather than copy the source sentence structure. diagonal notes are preferable for skeleton outline;
♦
left-hand margin for links and viewpoints;
♦
short horizontal line for separations;
♦
The best way to explain text development is an example. Let the source question marks for unclear points.45
text be: Thus, compression and development are the basic interpretation tools and
A few of us American correspondents got together tonight for a traditional in our view they should determine the methods of interpretation training. We
New Year's Eve party at our favorite bistro. would recommend the following exercises.46
Then the interpretation scheme with text development may be as follows:

140 45
More on note-taking see, e. g. in: Johnes R. Conference Interpreting Ex
plained. - New-York, 1999.
46
Methods recommended in this Manual may be used together with other
interpreters' training exercises, e. g., those suggested by A. Shiryayev.
141
 Text compression exercises for Ukrainian-English interpretation
Type 1.
In the course of interpretation of a Ukrainian text into English
♦ omit redundant words;
♦ convert nominative constructions into verbal;
♦ transform prepositional noun sequences into noun clusters.
The exercises are first done in writing, then follows oral training (in
terpretation).
of interpretation with a short resume of interpretation concept presenting
it as a variety of martial arts.47 Here are the principles:
1. reality is whatever happening right at this moment (here and now);
2. to deal with reality you have to be totally aware;
3. for this your body and mind have to be in the 'here and now';
4. in this state of mind there is no room for thoughts: instead there is
an instantaneous intuitive response.

Type 2.
Conversion of individual Ukrainian prepositional nominative con-
structions into English noun clusters.
Conversion of Ukrainian set phrases of noun-verb type into verbs.

Text development and reduction exercises (Ukrainian-English and

English- Ukrainian interpretation)
Type 1.
Develop a text from the given core (first done in one language, then
with interpretation, first - in writing, then - orally)

Type 2.
Reduce the text to the core, then develop it back.
Text development exercises improve students' knowledge of foreign
and native language vocabulary, help to develop easiness and flexibility
of vocabulary use in interpretation. Doing text development exercises
students might compete for the number of sentences developed or for a
better story developed from the given core.
Thus, unlike a translator who may always ask help from outside, an
interpreter is entirely self-supporting. In the modern world of globaliza-
tion the significance of translation and interpretation is ever-growing The Andrey G. Falaleyev. Video-taped lectures and personal communication
translation and interpretation quality standards are becoming more with the authors.
stringent. In this context it seems worthwhile to complete our discussion 143
142
 QUESTIONS Ех. 2. Translate into English using text compression (omit redundant words,
convert nominative structures into verbal, use noun clusters, first do in writ-
1. What are the differences in the working environments of a translator ing, then orally).
and interpreter?
2. What are the differences in the working environments of a consecu- а) У миротворчій діяльності міжнародних організацій в останні
tive and simultaneous interpreter? роки відбулися події, які вимагають уважного вивчення і з'ясування.
3. What are the basic interpretation approaches used by consecutive Так, Статут ООН забороняє міжнародне втручання у внутрішні
and simultaneous interpreters? Explain why they keep to a particular справи держав, застосування сили, а на практиці мали місце і
approach? втручання, і застосування сили. З'явилася концепція «гуманітарних
4. What is text How is it used in interpretation? інтервенцій», які деякі експерти розцінили як удар по суверенітету
compression? How is it used in interpretation? держав. Назріла необхідність розібратися в сучасності цих дій, дати
5. What is text їм правову оцінку, визначитися у принципово важливих питаннях:
{§} EXERCISES
чи означають вказані події перекреслення принципів Статуту ООН?
Чи правомірні «гуманітарні інтервенції»?
Ex. 1. Find English equivalents rfthe words and word combinations
c below. Проблема «гуманітарних інтервенцій» виникла в пошуках аде-
відповідати бути у відповідності кватних дій для усунення гуманітарних катастроф; породжених
внутрідержавними конфліктами 90-х років, що супроводжувалися
звітувати давати звіт
масовими порушення прав людини, «етнічними чистками», крово-
розпорядитися давати розпорядження
пролиттям. За даними ООН, було вбито більше 5 млн. осіб, десятки
погоджуватися давати згоду мільйонів стали біженцями і переміщеними особами, що опинилися
рекомендувати давати рекомендацію на межі виживання. Трагедія в Руанді, на терені колишньої Юго-
вирішувати знаходити вирішення славії, в Сомалі порушили перед ООН питання щодо теорії та
доповнювати робити доповнення практики миротворчої діяльності.
перекладати робити переклад Складність полягає в тому, що Статут ООН передбачає не-
рухатися робити кроки втручання у внутрішні справи держав, додержання їх суверенітету,
незастосування сили в міжнародних відносинах. Але чи може
перешкоджати створювати перешкоди
міжнародна спільнота зайняти позицію спостерігача, коли в якійсь
сходити здійснювати сходження країні відбуваються масові вбивства? Чи може суверенітет бути
відкривати робити відкриття прикриттям для свавілля, кровопролиття в якійсь державі?
оголошувати робити оголошення Думається, що на сучасному історичному етапі, в умовах гло-
розцінювати давати оцінку балізації, примату загальнолюдських цінностей в основу політики
ударити завдати удару ООН та інших міжнародних організацій має бути покладено прин-
цип захисту прав людини, гуманітарне право. Принцип суверенітету
не може використовуватися в якості прикриття злочинів
144 145
проти людяності. Суверенітет не може розглядатися сьогодні як
абсолютний, який дозволяє урядам безкарно масово порушувати
права людини. (Бруз B.C.)
b) Перше десятиріччя незалежності стало для української ди-
пломатії періодом випробувань, відлуння яких відчуваємо і сьо-
годні. Ми просувалися від усвідомлення азбучних істин
міжнародного життя до опанування нових правил гри в
міжнародних відносинах доби глобалізації та, інформаційного,
суспільства. При цьому ми керувалися тим, що у зовнішній політиці
важливо, щоб жоден крок не блокував наступні. Важливо, щоб,
зовнішня політика зразка 2001року мала внутрішній зв'язок з
кроками, здійсненими в році 91-му, 94-му чи 98-му.
Послідовність та передбачуваність - мені видається, ці риси
були властиві національній зовнішній політиці, хоча, звичайно,
шлях України на міжнародній арені не був безпроблемним і безпо-
милковим.
Послідовність та передбачуваність є лейтмотивом всіх наших
здобутків. Хотів би зупинитися на деяких з них, які мають, на мою
думку, ключовий характер. За цей короткий проміжок часу нам не
без труднощів вдалося створити власну зовнішню політику, яка
слугує незалежній Україні. Важливим, на моє переконання, було
практичне утвердження України на політичній карті світу та
зовнішнє забезпечення суверенітету і територіальної цілісності на-
шої держави. Якщо пригадуєте, це завдання було Визначене першим
із шести найважливіших завдань вітчизняної зовнішньої політики в
її Основних напрямах, ухвалених Верховною Радою у 1993 році.
З точки зору 2001 року суверенітет і територіальна цілісність
виглядають як природні, самі собою зрозумілі атрибути Української
держави. Проте, так було не завжди. Як міністр закордонних справ,
якому доля дарувала високу честь бути першим главою
зовнішньополітичного відомства України, хотів би нагадати,
що бар'єрів на нашому шляху суверенної країни було більш ніж
достатньо.
Варто згадати знов-таки 1993 рік. Тоді внаслідок рішення
російського парламенту щодо статусу Севастополя Україна опини-
лася перед необхідністю на рівні ООН наголошувати на недоторка-
ності своїх державних кордонів. Липнева заява Голови Ради Безпеки
остудила гарячі голови тих, хто не бажав миритися з тери-
торіальною цілісністю та незалежністю України. Саме здатність
української дипломатії зайняти чітку і сміливу позицію стала тоді
вирішальним фактором, під впливом якого проблема втратила гос-
троту і згасла.
(Зленко A.M.)
Ех. 3. Reduce the text to the core, then develop it back without consulting the
text (do first in writing, then orally; first in one language, then with inter-
pretation).
THE HUNDRED-YARD CREEP The International
Olympic Committee tries to save the world. BY CLAUDIA ROSETT. The
Wall Street Journal, Thursday, July 5, 2001
Mission creep is a phrase that keeps turning up in the news, and
though not poetic, it does neatly sum up a widespread syndrome. Mis-
sion creep is what's going on when an organization overreaches its man-
date in order to seize new turf - usually someone else's, often with messy
results.
When Genghis Khan and his kin, having decided that lording it over
Mongolia was not enough, galloped forth to pillage the known world,
that was mission creep. In our more genteel era, the recent news has been
full of worry that everything from Balkan peacekeeping forces to faith-
based charities to the International Monetary Fund is suffering from
mission creep. And why not? As various institutions jockey to reinvent
themselves in the post-Cold-War, new-economy global era, it pays to
146 147
make a play for bigger, fatter missions, to creep while the creeping is good.
All of which led me to an epiphany the other day while I was reading about the
debate over where to hold the 2008 Olympic Games. There are five cities in the
running, including Osaka, Japan; Istanbul, Turkey; Paris and Toronto. The fifth
candidate, and apparently the one favored to win when the International
Olympic Committee decides next Friday, is Beijing-Assorted pro-Beijing
factions put forth many arguments. They
speculate that the Olympics would help motivate China to clean up its air, teach
its people English, reform its repressive politics, enhance its national pride and
build from scratch 22 of the 37 sports facilities needed - thereby, at least in the
eyes of a few transient athletes plus the IOC, improving its infrastructure.
In the IOC's report summing up the bids, the telling factors in Beijing's
favor include the assertion that the Olympics would «improve the city» and
«leave a unique legacy to China.» The report adds as an afterthought that a
Beijing win would also leave a unique though unspecified legacy «to sport.»
The IOC are deep in mission creep. Sure, sports still matter, at least to the
world audience and the athletes. But with the IOC's president, Juan Antonio
Samaranch, about to step down after 21 years, the real mission here is to leave a
legacy. Thus the Olympics are creeping into such specialized tasks as air-
cleaning, language-teaching, repression-easing, nationalism-reinforcing and - oh
yes - infrastructure-improving.
Even so, what makes Beijing such an ideal candidate for these new
Olympian enterprises?
If the Olympic mission now includes inspiring large-scale air cleanup, then
Beijing, despite all its smog, is hardly the world's worthiest challenge. For that,
a better candidate would have been, say, Norilsk, Russia. This northern Siberian
city is home to one of the largest nickel-mining operations in the world, and for
more than 60 years its smelters have been pouring corrosive fumes into the
arctic winds.
Dispatching the Olympics to Norilsk as a mighty Airwick might have given
not only the locals but certain portions of Scandinavia their first relief since the
days of Stalin. If Norilsk is impractical, or not quite toxic enough, then arranging
for the Olympic events simply to replace the usual traffic at just about any major
roundabout in New Delhi could have gone far to save the lungs of millions.
If the Olympic aim is to boost the teaching of basic English where it's really
needed, also forget Beijing and hold the Olympics in American public schools.
Then there's the goal of furthering political reform. If the Olympic
organizers - despite such miscues as Berlin in 1936 and Moscow in 1980 - have
finally mastered this one, then it is raw irresponsibility to focus solely on
Beijing. Have a heart for nearby Pyongyang, North Korea, where the Olympic
food concessions alone could provide the most exciting window on freedom in
decades.
Though, to be frank, the IOC still doesn't quite seem to have a handle on
this political reform business. After a four-day inspection tour, the committee
appears to have reached the perhaps unique conclusion that China is already a
normal democracy. The IOC states without qualification in its report on Beijing
that «national and local elections will take place in early 2003 and early 2008.»
Yet in order to justify staging the Olympics in Beijing, the IOC also
appears to be banking on many more years of rock-solid dictatorship, noting in
the same report that «there is strong central government control in all sectors.
This could be expected to prevail in respect to an Olympic Games and
associated developments and activities.» Not that the IOC is wholly insensitive
to the plight of China's stifled democrats. Its report does note that for the beach-
volleyball event, «the Commission took the view that the Tiananmen Square site
was inappropriate.»
If the committee's aim is to boost national pride, then, again, why bother
with already nationalist Beijing? The Olympics should head straight to Minsk,
capital of Belarus. Since the 1991 Soviet collapse, Bela-
148 149
rus's self-esteem has been so low that it keeps trying to give itself back to
Moscow.
As for improving infrastructure, what about holding the games in Bangkok?
Clearing a site - any site - amid the midtown gridlock of the Thai capital might
give at least some of the folks caught in traffic for years a chance to finally get
home.
Of course, all this is hypothetical. The 2008 bids are already in. Any
interested parties on the list above will have to wait. But the way the IOC is
going, it's already encroaching on the mission of sundry development banks.
Chief among them is the World Bank, which in recent years has itself been
encroaching on the mission of the World Health Organization, while
simultaneously being encroached upon by the ever-more-aggrandized IMF,
which has had its own problems with being encroached upon by the U.S.
Treasury.
There's just no end to this stuff. Can it be long before the Kyoto crowd
elbows in to demand an emission-free Olympic torch? Maybe Mr. Samaranch's
more enduring legacy could be to give all these folks, himself included, their
own Olympic event. Call it the mission creep.
Lecture 16. MACHINE AND COMPUTER-AIDED
TRANSLATION
This Lecture: • gives a short review of basic machine translation platforms
and methods: *• including direct or icon method;
• transfer-based and pivot-language based engines and
• AI and statistical approaches.
The idea of computer use in translation (hereinafter referred to as machine
translation) appeared almost simultaneously with computers. Already in 1949
only five years after the first powerful computer had been put in operation in the
USA mathematician and philosopher W. Weaver suggested the use of
computers to model the process of translation.
The pioneers of the new research area were mathematicians and
programmers and the first stage of computer translation development was
characteristic of the so-called «encoding-decoding» approach (see Lectures 2
and 3 of this Manual)48
This approach, which still remains one of the basic methods of translation
automation is usually called the direct or icon method.
•► Direct or icon method of machine translation is based on establishing a
direct relationship between the source and target dictionary entries.
150 See more, e. g., in: Bruderer H.E. The Present State of Machine-Assisted
Translation // 3-d European Congress on Information Systems and Networks.
Overcoming Language Barriers. - Luxemburg, 1977; Slocum J. A Survey on Ma-
chine Translation: its History, Current Status and Future Prospects // Computa-
tional Linguistics. - 1985. - V.ll, 1.
151
 The target entries are regarded as regular counterparts (icon copies)
of the source ones. According to the direct translation method the source
and target texts are presumed to be similar both in their form and con-
ceptual content49.
You may validate this assumption yourself having done such word-
for-word translation. You will see mat rather more often than not such a
non-grammatical translation makes no sense at all for the end user and,
therefore, it is to be somehow rearranged and smoothed.
To improve the quality of direct translation the two following meth-
ods are usually applied:
• syntactic filters and
• statistical ranking of translation equivalents to select the most
probable ones for the subject matter discussed in a particular document
being translated.
Syntactic filters take the form of logical frames (see Lecture 17) in
which the slots are filled with syntactic patterns specifying the function of
an ambiguous syntactic term in the representation of the source text.
Usually in machine translation systems based on the direct method quite
a few filters are used to «smooth down» the raw translation50.
According to the classification we suggest in this Manual, the second
basic method of machine translation is the transfer-based method.
•* According to the transfer-based method of translation grammars of
the source and target languages are matched in the process of
translation by a set of rules called transfer.
In a transfer-based system the process of translation comprises the
following processing steps:
Morphological analysis. Word-forms of the source text are analysed
using paradigm sets and identified with the dictionary entries.
Syntactic analysis. At this stage using the information from the dic-
tionary and paradigmatic data syntactic representation of the source text
is formed by the syntactic analyser (called parser). A string of syntactic
classes or a syntactic tree of the source sentence is passed over to the
transfer module.
Transfer. The transfer module receives the syntactic representation
of the source text and, using relevant transfer rules, converts it into an
intermediate representation.
Syntactic synthesis. At this stage a final syntactic representation of
the target text is formed by combining and matching the transferred
structures of the source syntactic representation.
Morphological synthesis. Using the information from the target
dictionary and paradigmatic data the target text (translation) is obtained.
The way the syntactic representation is formed, analysed and trans-
ferred greatly depends on the grammar used. The most common ways are
so-called «templates», applied to the linear string of syntactic classes,
dependency grammar (DG) or immediate constituents (IC) grammar.
Transfer-based systems rather often comprise a semantic compo-
nent. A network of semantic descriptions and relationships is superim-
posed on syntactic structures of the source and target texts. The purpose
of the semantic component is to improve the accuracy of translation 51.
Pivot language-based machine translation is the third basic
method. In a way it is similar to the transfer-based; however, there are
several critical differences.
As opposed to transfer procedures which are applied mostly at the
syntactic level with some corrective semantics, pivot language represen-
tation involves all available linguistic information.
Besides, transfer-based translation is intended for a concrete lan-
guage pair, whereas pivot language-based systems claim to be universal,
i.e. applicable to any language.
,r Кулагина О.С. Исследования по машинному переводу. - M., 1979. 50
Machine Translation: An Introductory Guide / D.Arnold et al. - Oxford, 1994. See more in, e. g.: Кунце Ю. Введение семантических критериев в
152 синтаксические правила // НТИ. - 1986. - 2, 6.
153
 ......■..."■"""■"
Ш* A pivot language is a formal description of morphological, syntactic and
semantic characteristics of a language unit in the form of one-to-one
relationship. Each language unit is related to a specific invariable atom in the
pivot language structure and vice versa, each atom of the pivot language
structure is invariably connected with the units of various languages.
Ideally a pivot language-based machine translation will comprise the
following processing steps:
Morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of the source text using
information of the source language dictionary and paradigms.
Formation of the pivot language representation of a source text by the pivot
language module.
Conversion of the source pivot language representation by the pivot
language module into the target text using relevant semantic, syntactic, lexical,
and morphological data from the target language dictionary and paradigms.
Usually pivot language formalism has the form of a graphic network or its
analytical equivalent. It is, indeed, an extremely complicated system of
morphological, syntactic and semantic entities and relations. We can hardly
show even a part of it in this Manual because of space limitations, and even
more because such a detailed presentation is well beyond the scope of this
introductory course.
As a rule, linguistic science accepts only the three basic methods of
machine translation mentioned above. Some scholars, however, maintain that the
artificial intelligence (Al)-based method should also be included in the
classification despite the fact that it relies on encyclopaedic rather than linguistic
findings52.
52
You may find more about this language and translation modelling
method, e.g., in: Schank R.C. Conceptual Dependency: A Theory of Natural
Language Understanding // Cognitive Psychology. - 1972. - V.3, 4; Wilks Y. Ma-
chine Translation and Artificial Intelligence Paradigm of Language Processing //
Computers in Language Research. - 1983. - V.2; Neue Ansatze in maschineller
Sprachbearbeitung. - Tuebungen, 1986; Попов З.В. Общение с ЗВМ на есте-
ственном язьіке. — М., 1982.
154
Hence, to complete the picture it is worthwhile to give a short description of
this method as well.
The main component of the AI translation model is its so-called
«knowledge base». According to an AI-based translation model the results of
linguistic analyses at all language levels are verified against extral-inguistic
information contained in the knowledge base.
Here we might want to refer back to our previous discussions. As you may
remember, we discussed three factors that help us clarify natural language
ambiguities and make translation possible. These are context, situation, and
background information.
In all three translation modelling methods that we have just discussed,
disambiguation is performed only with the help of context. It is rather simple
lexical and syntactic context in direct translation model, and much more
complicated syntactic and semantic context representations in transfer-based and
pivot language models. None of those models, however, makes use of the other
two disambiguation tools, i.e. situation and background information.
•* In AI-based translation models disambiguation procedures are radically
different and based first and most of all on the analysis of situation and
background information (knowledge base), whereas purely linguistic
context analysis methods serve only as secondary back-up tools.
The concept of a knowledge base is very similar to that of the subject
thesaurus suggested by the communicational theory of translation (see Lectures
3 and 5). Both the knowledge base and subject thesaurus are presumed to
contain a specifically arranged hierarchy of the facts of real world with the
verbal information playing a subordinate role as labels for the facts and
situations.
Another important component of AI-based translation simulation is a
decision-making module, comprising a structural hierarchy of logical
productions with probability estimations.
155
 The present level of sophistication of AI-based translation modelling is
rather ambiguous - on the one hand, results of the development of AI-models
intended for translation as such are rather limited, on the other, however, the
development of AI models intended for natural language interface, especially for
expert systems, is very efficient53.
This discussion of computer-based translation would be incomplete without
mention of statistical methods.
•► In purely statistical methods of translation modelling it is presumed that
with certain probability each word of the target text may be a translation of
each word of the source text
The various statistical models are different as to further probability
estimations. For instance, a model suggested by P. Brown and coworkers
estimates the probabilities of the word order matching in the source and target
texts54. Other models estimate the probabilities of word collocations in source
and target texts, and so on.
At present statistical method of machine translation modelling is gaining
new popularity because of two factors:
1. Virtually unlimited storage capacity and processing capabilities of new
generation computers.
2. Availability of large bilingual text corpora in computer-accessible formats.
See, e.g.: Попов З.В. Зкспертньїе системи. - M., 1988; Инструмента-
рий для проектирования систем планирования решений. - К., 1989; Коз-
ловский С.В. Лингвистический процессор для персональних зкспертньїх
систем // Проблеми автоматического и зкспериментально-фонетического
анализа текстов. - Минск, 1986.
54
A Statistical Approach to Machine Translation / P.Brown et al. // Com-
putational Linguistics. - 1990. - V.16, 2; The Matematics of Statistical Machine
Translation: Papameter Estimation / P.Brown et al. // Computational Linguistics.
- 1994. - V.19, 2.
156
Besides, since we still know very little about how a translation is per-
formed, statistical modelling is another attempt to learn more about
translation.
It should be noted, however, that none of the machine translation methods
appear in real systems in pure form. Very often it is rather difficult to classify
unambiguously whether one or another system is a typical representative of a
particular basic translation simulation method. For this reason it is hardly
worthwhile to analyse here any particular commercial machine translation
package.
To the best of our knowledge all available commercial packages use that or
another alternative of transfer model and the quality level of their products
leaves much to desire. We hope that this Manual helped you to understand why
this is the case.
Thus, completing our discussion of machine translation we must conclude
that unfortunately available machine translation packages are not capable of
providing adequate translation. However, it should be noted that such powerful
tool as computer can still be used for translation and this variety of translation is
called computer-aided translation
Ш* Unlike machine translation, which by definition is wholly automatic,
computer-aided translation is a tool to assist human translation
In the process of computer-aided translation a translator is using a machine
translation system (usually a direct translation variety) for the search of
equivalents both for individual words and small text fragments. At the present
stage of machine translation development computer-aided translation seems the
most appropriate practical alternative.
157
0 QUESTIONS
1. What is direct or icon machine translation method?
2. What is transfer-based machine translation method?
3. What is pivot-language based machine translation method?
4. What are artificial intelligence and statistical machine translation
methods?
5. What is computer-aided translation? How is it used in human trans-
lation?
(D EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Analyse the mistakes of machine translation of the text given below.
Suggest translation rules or information required for correct translation.
THE REAL BUSH: TOUGH GUY OR SQUISHY MODERATE?
WASHINGTON - How President Bush responds to last week's ter-
rorist attacks on America will not only define him for the rest of his term
in office, it will also give us an unfiltered look into his soul.
He does not have to cultivate public support. Polls show that an
overwhelming majority of Americans would back even a decision to go
to war. Congress, furthermore, is eager to give him whatever he wants.
Yet, despite this monolithic support, it's uncertain how the president will
respond. Will he be aggressive, squishy or somewhere in-between?
During his first eight months in office, Bush inevitably took the
moderate path. The conservative Republican base enabled him to win the
White House, but once in the Oval Office, he staffed his administration
with moderate Republicans like Andrew H. Card Jr., Colin L. Powell and
Christine Todd Whitman.
He was no less flexible on his agenda. Bush initially insisted on a
non-negotiable $1.6-trillion tax cut, then negotiated with Democrats and
reduced it to $1.3 trillion. During the presidential campaign, he came out
strongly against embryonic stem-cell research, but when decision time
158
came, he ran to the center, endorsing limited research on existing stem-
cell lines. After setting himself four-square against campaign-finance re-
form last year, he indicated this summer that he might sign it into law if
such legislation ever made it to his desk.
All of which paints a picture of Bush as a man who strikes tough-
looking poses, then carefully uses his political leverage to bring about
moderate compromises. He may have conservative principles, but none
have proved to be unyielding.
True, before Tuesday's lethal attacks on the World Trade Center and
the Pentagon, the president had to govern as a normal politician, always
keeping one eye on his agenda and the other on the ephemeral political
calculus that rules Washington. Today, however, Bush is a war-time
president, and he is perhaps the only one whose actions will be com-
pletely unbound by political considerations. Indeed, it is difficult to con-
jure a scenario in which Americans would fault the president for being
too assertive. He has carte blanche to do whatever his conscience dic-
tates. So, how will he use it?
Last Tuesday, it seemed that Bush might rely on international law to
even the score. In his first address to the nation after the attacks, he
called the resulting death and devastation a «national tragedy,» promis-
ing only that he would «conduct a full-scale investigation to hunt down
and to find those folks who committed this act.» His second address
went no further, though by his third speech he referred to the day's «acts
of terror.» It seemed as if the president would be satisfied to catch the
terrorists responsible and extradite them to The Hague for trial. In a cu-
rious turn of events, the leaders of Germany and France issued state-
ments that were much more pointed. Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder
called the attacks «a declaration of war against the civilized world,» while
President Jacques Chirac said «we must fight terrorism by all means.»
Encouragingly, Bush's tone changed Wednesday, and he seemed
headed toward a stronger course of action than international law. His
«acts of terror» turned into «acts of war.» He said that «The United
States of America will use all our resources to conquer this enemy.» He
159
 came close to assuring the country that a military response would even-
tually come because, presumably, an act of war against the United States
cannot stand unanswered. On Friday, he went further still, vowing to «rid
the world of evil.»
Still, the question of what sort of response Bush will decide on is
very much open. Former President Bill Clinton spent a few days investi-
gating the terrorist bombings of the two U.S. embassies in Africa, then
ordered up an attack of cruise missiles and laser-guided bombs on what
was believed to be Osama bin Laden's compound in Afghanistan and on
Sudan. It was the kind of retaliation that carried as little risk as possible
for U.S. military personnel. Bush could similarly opt for surgical strikes,
but extend them for a period of weeks. He could launch merely a rhe-
torical war on terrorism, like the war on poverty or the war on drugs.
Or, the president could lead us into a real war. He is no longer a
politician. He is the war-time leader of a great nation. He knows that both
the American public, the country's political leadership and most of the
civilized world will stand beside him no matter what he does, be it legal
prosecution, surgical strikes or war. It will take great intestinal fortitude
for the president to take a calm measure of events, declare war on nations
that harbor our terrorist enemies and possibly deploy U.S. troops on
foreign soil.
George W. Bush's words are increasingly tough. He has resolved to
win the «first war of the 21st century.» Will his corresponding deeds fol-
low?
РЕАЛЬНИЙ КУЩ: МІЦНИЙ GUY АБО SQUISHY ПОМІРНИЙ?
ВАШІНГТОН - Як Кущ Президента відповідає витримати ти-
ждень terrorist атаки на America тільки не визначать йому для решти
його терміну у відомстві, це також дасть нам unfiltered погляд в
його душу.
Він не мусить культивувати суспільну підтримку. Голосування
показ що переважна кількість Americans би підтримала навіть рі-
шення поїхати до війни. Конгрес, furthermore, нетерплячим дати
йому щоб ні він хоче. Досі, незважаючи на цю монолітну підтрим-
ку, це невизначений як президент відповісти. Він буде агресивним,
squishy або де-небудь проміжний?
Під час його перших восьми місяців у відомстві, Кущ inevitably
взяв помірний шлях. Консервативна Республіканська база дозволена
йому щоб виграти Білий Будинок, але одного разу у Овалі Ві-
домство, він staffed його адміністрація з помірним Republicans люб-
лять Andrew Н. Карта Jr., Colin L. Powell та Christine Todd Whitman.
Він знаходився ні менш гнучкий на його порядку денному. Кущ
вихідно наполягав на не-negotiable трильоні $1.6 оподатковують
ріжуть, тоді обговорив з Democrats та зменшив це до трильону $1.3.
Під час президентської кампанії, він вийшов сильно проти
embryonic стовбура-клітина дослідження, але коли час рішення
прибув, він побіг до центру, що підтримує обмеженого дослідження
на існуючому стовбурі-клітина лінії. Після постановки себе чо-
тирьох-площі проти кампанїі-фінанси реформа торік, він показав
цей літній що він може підписати це в закон якщо таке законодав-
ство колись зроблене це до його парти.
Весь з котрих фарбує малюнок Куща як людина котра вражає
міцні що -дивляться пози, тоді обережно використовує його полі-
тичний вплив викликати помірні компроміси. Він може мати кон-
сервативні принципи, але ніхто доказали unyielding.
Вірний, перед атаками lethal Вівторка на Світовому Торговому
Центрі та П 'ятикутникові, президент мусить був управляти як но-
рмальним політиком, завжди що держить одне око на його порядку
денному та іншому на ephemeral політичному calculus що управляє
Вашінгтоном. Сьогодні, однак, Кущ війною-час президент, та він
можливо єдиним чі дії будуть повністю unbound шляхом полі-
тичного розгляду. Дійсно, тяжко conjure сценарієм у котрому
Americans би провина президент для існування надто ствердного.
Він carte blanche щоб зробити щоб ні його сумління диктує. Так, як
він буде використати це?
160 161
 Останній вівторок, це здавалося що Кущ може покластися на Або, президент міг привести нас в реальну війну. Він більше не
міжнародне право до навіть рахунку. У його першій адресі до нації політик. Він являє собою війну-час лідер великої нації. Він знає що
після атак, він закликав результуючу смерть та devastation «націо- обидва американська суспільна, країна політичне керівництво та
нальна трагедія,» що обіцяє тільки що він «проведе повне дослі- більшість цивілізованого світу лишиться в силі біля йому ніяка ма-
дження-шкали полювати вниз та щоб знайти ці народи котрі здій- терія який він, це правове переслідування, хірургійний удар або
снив цей акт.» Його друга адреса поїхала ніяка далі, хоч шляхом війна. Це візьме великий intestinal fortitude для президента взяти
його третьої промови він посилався на «акти дня терору.» Йому спокійну міру подій, заявляють війну на націях що гавань наші
здавався так, якби президент був би влаштований щоб спіймати terrorist вороги та можливо розгортаються США військо на інозе-
terrorists варті довіри та видають їм до Гааги для іспиту. У допитли- мному грунті.
вому обігу подій, лідери Німеччини та Франції видані твердження George W. Слова Куща все більше міцні. Він вирішив виграти
що значно більше pointed. Канцлер Gerhard Schroeder закликаний першу війну 21st віку.» Його відповідні справи Будуть прослідкува-
атакує декларацію війни проти цивілізованого світу,» в той час, як
ти?
Президент Jacques Chirac сказав «ми повинні битися терорізм усіма
засобами.»
Encouragingly, Тон Куща змінена середа, та він здавався очоле-
ний до більш сильного курсу дії ніж міжнародне право. Його «акти
терору» повернулися в «акти війни.» Він сказав що «Сполучені
Штати Америки використають всі наші ресурси перемогти цього
ворога.» Він прибув близька що запевняє країна що воєнна відпо-
відь зрештою прибуде тому, що, мабуть, акт війни проти Сполуче-
них Штатів не може стенд unanswered. У П 'ятницю, він поїхав далі
все-таки, vowing «увільнити світ зла.»
Все-таки, питання якого сорту Куща відповіді вирішить на дуже
сильно відкрите. Колишній Президент Рахунок Clinton витрачені
нечисленні дні що вивчають terrorist bombings двох США посольств
у Африці, тоді замовлена атака cruise ракети та лазерні -керовані
бомби на що знаходились повірені щоб знаходитися Osama
контейнер Навантажений складовий у Афганістані та на Sudan. Це
являло собою різновид retaliation що носило як маленький ризик як
можливий для США воєнний персонал. Кущ міг подібно opt для
хірургійного удару, але простягаються їм на період протягом
тижднів. Він міг запустити просто риторичну війну на терорізмі,
люблять війну на бідності або війні на наркотиках.
162 163
Lecture 17. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL 9¥ A frame is understood as a set language structure with changeable
DOCUMENTS: TEXT FRAMES elements
 This Lecture:
underscores differences in translating official and literary texts;
gives a brief outline of an official document framework;
introduces the notions of:
• a frame,
• a slot,
• and a slot filler.
In a way translation of official documents is the opposite of literary
translation in what concerns the freedom of translator's actions and choices.
As you may remember literary translation is more art than craft which is
accounted for by the nature of literary texts. Translation of a literary text is
unique and unprecedented; it cannot be standardised and obeys almost no rules.
Unlike literary texts the texts of official documents are highly standardised:
this applies both to the structure of the whole text (macrostructure) and to the
arrangement of individual paragraphs and sentences (microstructure).
At the macro level an official document usually consists of a preamble,
main text body and a finalising (concluding) part. Depending on the type of
document the composition and content of its individual parts may slightly vary
(see Appendix to this Manual). In modern linguistics standard text structures
intended for information presentation at different language levels are called
frames.55
See more in: Минский М. Фреймм для представлення знаний. - М.,
1975; Нелюбин Л.Л. Перевод и прикладная лингвистика - М., 1983.
164
The changeable elements within a text frame are called slots. Let us take a
preamble to a commercial agreement as an example of a frame.
AGREEMENT
This Agreement is made this_________day of__, 1999, by and be
tween__________________, [a_______corporation with its principal
office at_______________________] or [an individual with an office and
mailing address at ,________________________] («Agent»), and [company
name], a corporation organized and existing under the laws of
____________________, with its principal place of business at
(________________________)■
Here, in the above frame of an agreement the blank spaces represent the
slots to be filled with slot fillers (by the date, company names, addresses etc. in
this example).
But a text frame seldom has the form of a text with blank spaces. Rather
often than not a frame is a standard text with stable and changeable parts, for
example:
7. Intellectual Property Rights.
_______by this Agreement does not grant to Agent any rights in or li
cense to_'s trademarks, trade names or service marks._____________________
reserves all such rights to itself. Agent shall not utilize, without
________'s express, prior and written consent, any_______________ trade or
service marks on trade names, and will promptly report to_________________
І
any apparent unauthorized use by third parties in the Territory of
_______________'s trade or service marks or trade names.
In the above text frame the italisized text fragments are presumed to be
changeable depending on the subject and conditions of the Agree-
165
ment, e. g. «prior and written consent» may be replaced by «oral consent», etc. gress on reform, noting the im- важливість прискореної реалізації
Bearing in mind the standardised and clicheed structure of official portance of accelerated imple- реформ, що посилюватиме здатність
documents one may formulate the main translator's task as follows: mentation of reforms, which will США підтримувати зусилля України у
strengthen the ability of the United покращенні співробітництва з МВФ та
UNITED STATES-UKRAINE СПІЛЬНА ЗАЯВА УКРАЇНА-США States to support Ukraine in іншими міжнародними фінансовими
JOINT STATEMENT U.S. Президент України Л.Кучма та its efforts to improve cooperation інституціями. Президент У.Клінтон
Ш* The task of a translator translating official documents is to find target with the IMF and other international привітав оголошення
language equivalents of the source text frames and use them in translation as financial institutions. President Президентом Л.Кучмою про закриття
standard substitutes, filling the slots with frame fillers in compliance with Clinton welcomed the announce- Чорнобильської атомної електростанції
the document content. ment by President Kuchma to close 15 грудня 2000 року, відзначаючи
President Clinton and Ukrainian Президент СІЛА У.Клінтон в ході the Chornobyl nuclear power важливість цього рішення для
President Kuchma, during their зустрічі в Києві 5 червня 2000 року plant on December 15, 2000, noting зміцнення безпеки усіх європейців,
the importance of this decision to особливо Українського народу та його
Let's take an example to illustrate this principle approach to the translation strengthening the security of all безпосередніх сусідів. Президент
of official documents: Europeans, especially the Ukrainian У.Клінтон оголосив рішення
meeting in Kiev on June 5, 2000, підтвердили свої зобов'язання people and their immediate Сполучених Штатів виділити
reaffirmed their commitment to забезпечувати поступальний розвиток neighbors. President Clinton додатково 78 мільйонів доларів США
advance and deepen the strategic та поглиблювати стратегічне announced the decision of the для Чорнобильського фонду
partnership between the United партнерство між Україною та США у United States to provide another «Укриття». Він зазначив про
States and Ukraine in the 21st XXI столітті. Президент Л.Кучма $78 million to the Chornobyl Shel- зобов'язання Сполучених Штатів
century. President Kuchma наголосив на відданості України ter Fund. He noted the commitment продовжувати співпрацю з Україною,
emphasized Ukraine's commitment демократичним та ринково- of the United States to continue to країнами з «Великої сімки» та
to a democratic and market eco- економічним перетворенням. work with Ukraine, the G-7 and the міжнародною спільнотою, аби
nomic transformation. The Президенти погодились, що ці international community toward забезпечити вирішення завдань, що
Presidents agreed that this перетворення є суттєвою базою для resolving the remaining tasks залишаються, пов'язаних з закриттям
transformation is the essential basis реалізації європейських прагнень associated with the closure of ЧАЕС, зокрема для допомоги у
for fulfilling Ukraine's European України. Президент У.Клінтон високо Chornobyl, in particular to help забезпеченні стабільного
aspirations. President Clinton оцінив керівну роль Президента provide for stable electricity виробництва електроенергії в Україні,
praised the leadership of President Л.Кучми та його нового Уряду у generation in Ukraine supported by чому сприятимуть необхідні реформи в
Kuchma and his new government досягненні швидкого прогресу necessary energy reforms. The енергетичному секторі. Президенти ви-
for early pro- реформ, відзначаючи Presidents expressed their support словились на підтримку успішного
for a successful second pledging проведення Другої конференції
166
conference to be held in July in донорів, що відбудеться у липні в
Berlin to obtain the remaining Берліні з метою збору решти коштів,
необхідних для фонду
167
funds needed for the Shelter
Fund. President Kuchma wel-
comed the announcement of an
additional $2 million from the
United States for nuclear safely
work in Ukraine. The Presidents
welcomed the initiation of the
Ukraine Nuclear Fuel
Qualification Project, a major
technology project to enable
Ukraine to evaluate and certify
the reliability and safety of new
suppliers of fuel for Ukraine's
nuclear energy sector. With an
estimated value of $30 million,
this project will allow Ukraine to
diversify its sources of supply of
nuclear fuel. President Clinton
expressed support for Ukrainian
participation in the emerging
east-west energy corridor from
the Caspian region to world
markets, within the contexts of
Ukraine's energy sector reforms
and the United States' broader
Caspian energy policy. President
Kuchma reaffirmed Ukraine's
European choice and its goal of
achieving associate membership
and eventually full membership
in the European Union,
recognizing the importance of
continued reforms necessary to
achieve that end. The Presidents
emphasized the importance of
Ukraine's distinctive partner-
«Укриття». Президент Л.Кучма
привітав заяву про надання Спо-
лученими Штатами додаткових 2
мільйонів доларів США для про-
ведення робіт з ядерної безпеки в
Україні. Президенти привітали
початок реалізації українського
проекту кваліфікації ядерного па-
лива як масштабного технологіч-
ного проекту, що надасть можли-
вість Україні оцінювати та серти-
фікувати надійність та безпечність
нових постачальників палива для
українського ядерно-енергетичного
сектору. Цей проект, орієнтовною
вартістю 30 мільйонів доларів
США, дозволить Україні дивер-
сифікувати свої джерела поста-
чання ядерного палива. Президент
У.Клінтон висловив підтримку
участі України у створенні
енергетичного коридору «Схід-
Захід» від Каспійського регіону до
світових ринків у контекстах ре-
форм енергетичного сектору
України та ширшої енергетичної
політики США у Каспійському
регіоні. Президент Л.Кучма під-
твердив європейський вибір
України та мету набути статусу
асоційованого, а згодом і повно-
правного члена у Європейському
Союзі, визнаючи важливість про-
довження реформ, необхідних для
досягнення цієї мети. Президенти
наголосили на важливості особли-
вого партнерства України з НАТО
168
ship with NATO and agreed to
work to deepen Ukraine's co-
operation with the Atlantic Alli-
ance. They expressed support
for their military cooperation in
KFOR, where American and
Ukrainian soldiers are working
to bring peace and security to
Kosovo. President Clinton and
President Kuchma praised the
success of U.S.-Ukraine coop-
eration in the area of commer-
cial space launch services, par-
ticularly through the Sea Launch
Consortium. They announced
that the U.S.-Ukraine
Commercial Space Launch
Agreement of 1996 had been
terminated, noting that this bold
step will allow U.S. firms and
their Ukrainian partners to enter
into commercial space launch
ventures unfettered by quantity
restrictions. The Presidents
committed to strengthening
commercial relationships
between their two countries'
aerospace firms because of
Ukraine's progress in restruc-
turing the space sector, its on-
going commitment to market-
based principles embodied in
the Agreement, and to its strong
adherence to our shared non-
proliferation goals. The Presi-
dents affirmed their commit-
ment to increase support for
та домовились працювати на по-
глиблення співробітництва Украї-
ни з Атлантичним Альянсом. Вони
висловили підтримку військовій
співпраці в рамках КФОР, де
американські та українські солдати
несуть мир та безпеку в Косово.
Президент Л.Кучма та Президент
У.Клінтон високо відзначили успіх
українсько-американського
співробітництва в сфері комер-
ційних запусків космічних апара-
тів, зокрема в рамках консорціуму
«Морський старт». Вони оголоси-
ли про припинення дії двосто-
ронньої Угоди щодо торгівлі в
галузі комерційних послуг із кос-
мічних запусків від 1996 року, від-
значаючи, що завдяки цьому смі-
ливому кроку фірми США та їх
українські партнери матимуть
можливість залучатися до спільних
проектів у галузі комерційних
запусків космічних апаратів без
кількісних обмежень. Президенти
зобов'язались зміцнювати комер-
ційні зв'язки між аерокосмічними
підприємствами своїх країн, зва-
жаючи на прогрес України у рест-
руктуризації космічної галузі, її
подальше зобов'язання стосовно
ринкових принципів, визначених в
згаданій Угоді, та її рішучу від-
даність спільним цілям в галузі
нерозповсюдження. Президенти
підтвердили свої зобов'язання
активізувати підтримку розвитку
169
small and medium private en-
terprise development in
Ukraine. President Clinton an-
nounced plans to establish a new
micro-enterprise credit program
in Ukraine, which will draw
upon the successful Fun-dusz
Mikro program in Poland, and
to initiate a five-year $25
million program to support
small and medium enterprise
development. President Kuchma
affirmed that the Ukrainian
Government will ensure as soon
as possible the necessary legal
and regulatory framework for
the new micro-credit program.
The Presidents declared their
continued determination to
support the creation of a
business and investment climate
in Ukraine that will facilitate
expanded trade and investment
opportunities between their two
countries. They welcomed
initial steps toward privatizing
the energy sector in Ukraine and
the entry into force of the U.S.-
Ukraine Treaty on Double
Taxation. The Presidents
pledged to work together to
support steps to advance their
shared goal of WTO accession
for Ukraine as soon as possible.
In this context, they affirmed
their intention to implement
the U.S.-
малого та середнього приватного
підприємництва в Україні. Прези-
дент У.Клінтон оголосив про пла-
ни започаткування нової програми
мікрокредитування в Україні з
використанням успішного досвіду
програми «Фонду Мікро» в
Польщі та про початок п'ятирічної
програми сприяння розвитку
малого та середнього підприєм-
ництва, на яку виділяється 25 мі-
льйонів доларів США. Президент
Л.Кучма підтвердив, що Уряд
України якомога швидше забез-
печить необхідні правові та регу-
лятивні рамки для нової програми
мікрокредитування. Президенти
заявили про свою рішучість й на-
далі підтримувати створення та-
кого ділового та інвестиційного
клімату в Україні, який сприятиме
розширенню торгівлі та інвести-
ційних можливостей між двома
країнами. Вони привітали перші
кроки в напрямку приватизації
енергетичного сектору України та
набуття чинності українсько-
американською Конвенцією про
уникнення подвійного оподатку-
вання. Президенти зобов'язались
діяти разом на підтримку кроків
для наближення до їхньої спільної
мети - якнайшвидшого вступу
України до COT. У цьому кон-
тексті вони підтвердили свій намір
виконувати Українсько-
американський план спільних дій
170
Ukraine Joint Action Plan to
Combat Optical Media Piracy in
Ukraine and welcomed the
Ukrainian Government's sus-
pension of the operations of
pirate production facilities in
Ukraine until the conditions for
ensuring legal production are
created. President Clinton wel-
comed Ukraine's progress to-
ward achieving normal trade
relations with the United States
on a permanent and uncondi-
tional basis. President Clinton
encouraged Ukraine to continue
with reforms that would allow it
to achieve market economy
status. President Kuchma
emphasized the priority
importance for Ukraine to
combat corruption in order to
strengthen a democratic society
and market-oriented economy.
In this regard, the Presidents
welcomed the Program of U.S.-
Ukrainian Cooperation for
Combating Corruption and
Organized Crime. The Presi-
dents recommitted themselves
to strengthening efforts between
the United States and Ukraine to
combat the problem of
trafficking in human beings.
They welcomed the June 21-23
workshop in Kiev, co-sponsored
by the two Governments. As a
new century begins, the
щодо боротьби з нелегальним ви-
робництвом оптичних носіїв ін-
формації в Україні та привітали
призупинення Урядом України
функціонування підприємств, що
випускали нелегальну продукцію в
Україні, до створення умов, які б
забезпечували легальність такого
виробництва. Президент У.Клінтон
привітав прогрес України у
досягненні нормальних торгове-
льних відносин зі Сполученими
Штатами на постійній та беззасте-
режній основі. Президент У.Клін-
тон закликав Україну продовжу-
вати реформи, що дозволить їй
набути статусу країни з ринковою
економікою. Президент Л.Кучма
наголосив на пріоритетному зна-
ченні для України боротьби з ко-
рупцією з метою зміцнення демо-
кратичного суспільства та ринко-
во-орієнтованої економіки. В
цьому зв'язку Президенти приві-
тали Програму українсько-
американського співробітництва у
сфері боротьби з корупцією та
організованою злочинністю. Пре-
зиденти підтвердили свої зобов'я-
зання посилити взаємодію між
Україною та США у боротьбі з
проблемою торгівлі людьми. Вони
привітали проведення у Києві 21-
23 червня відповідного семінару,
який спільно організовується
обома урядами. На порозі нового
століття Президенти підтвердили,
171
 що через стратегічне партнерство
Сполучені Штати підтримувати- О QUESTIONS
муть зусилля України посісти на- 1. Compare the principles of literary translation and those of official
лежне їй місце у неподільній євро- document translation.
атлантичній спільноті вільних та 2. What is peculiar about the text of official documents?
стабільних держав. Одночасно 3. What is a text frame? Define it. What are the frame slots and slot
Україна продовжуватиме втілення fillers? Give examples of text frames with slots.
своїх демократичних та ринкових 4. What is the main approach to the translation of official documents?
перетворень, таким чином роблячи 5. Give examples of grammar patterns and standard terms in the text of
власний внесок в євроатлантичну official documents.
безпеку.
Presidents affirmed that through
[§J EXERCISES
their strategic partnership, the
United States will support Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian observing the frame structure and terms of
Ukraine's efforts to take its the source text.
rightful place among an undi-
vided Euro-Atlantic community POWER OF ATTORNEY
of free and stable states. I, ....................................., the senior partner of
Ukraine will, at the same time ...................................... law firm, ........................................ Street, city
continue to implement its de- of.................. (country) ...............regulated by the Law Society of Eng
mocratic and market transfor- land and Wales, being duly authorized representative and attorneys
mation, thus contributing to of............................Company,....................., city of...............................,
Euro-Atlantic security. by this POWER OF ATTORNEY authorize and appoint
Advocate Firm «...............................» (hereinafter - Advocate firm),
Another important task of a translator translating official documents
registered on... of......., 199....... by the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine,
is to keep to proper matching patterns of lexical and grammatical struc-
registration #............, identification code........, to act on behalf
tures within the frames. To give an example, English forms of Participle I
in the preamble of some international agreements may be rendered in of......................................(together «the Company») on matters related
Ukrainian as «з метою...» to interests of the Company on the territory of Ukraine in all matters
Besides, translators of official documents must pay special attention arising from and/or relating to the............................................................
to translation of standard terms and terminological word combination in
the texts.
More information on grammatical and other aspects of official
document translation are given in the lecture that follows.
172 The Advocate firm is authorized:
1. To conduct any negotiations concerning the purpose of this
Power of Attorney on the territory of Ukraine;

173
 2. To approach with any applications and letters of official requests niary compensations and penalties from third parties on behalf of the
any of official boards, organizations, courts, notary offices, legal entities interest of the Company;
and physical persons in Ukraine; 8. On behalf of the Company to sign relevant documents as to the
3. To lawfully represent Company with regards to any official boards purpose of this Power of Attorney;
and organizations, including, but not limited, court, notary and admini- 9. To do any other activities to his opinion necessary for Company's
stration boards, notary offices, companies, legal entities and physical per- interests on the territory of.........................................................................
sons of Ukraine within the legal scope of herein presented Power of At-
torney; The Advocate firm has the right to define independently advocates
4. To represent Company's interests in courts of all institutions owing and collaborators for execution of above mentioned authorities and grant
all rights given to plaintiff, defendant, to the third person, as well as get above mentioned through issuing a corresponding Power of Attorney to
to know documents of case, to make extracts, to copy; to sue, to sign any advocates and collaborators working at the Advocate firm.
statements of claim and other documents that amend and supplement it,
to sign any documents related, to claim; to bring any claim; to insert any This Power of Attorney is issued on.............2001 and is valid till................
alterations in and amendments to claim; to change claim demands; to
contest a claim; to establish a claim; to abandon a claim; to counterclaim; ..............................Senior Partner
to defend a suit; to take part in court proceedings; to afford proof, to lake
part in investigation of proofs; to present petitions, to present oral and Signature
writing explanations in courts of any institutions; to afford their proofs
and present their considerations in connection with questions which can
arise in court proceedings; to raise objections against petitions and proofs Ex. 2. Translate into English observing the frame structure and terms of the
of participants of a court procedure; to participate in taking a decision; to source text.
amicable agreement; to file an appeal; to make use of all other rights for ДОВІРЕНІСТЬ
Participant under Ukrainian legislation; a use of all other rights for
Participant under the Ukrainian legislation; (населенний пункт)___________________
5. To represent the Company in any and all State Bodies and institu- (число, місяць, рік словами)
tions of Ukraine in connection with execution of the decision of courts of
any institutions; Я, громадянин________
6. To carry out any and all actions on behalf of the Company related (прізвище, ім'я та по батькові)
to execution of the decision of courts including, but not limited to sign-
ing, presenting and receiving all documents in connection with it. що проживає за адресою:______________
7. To carry out any negotiations with any third parties on any pecu- паспорт _ серія _ №______, виданий «___»
niary compensations and penalties concerning the Accident, including,
19___р.
but not limited to determination of sum of any pecuniary compensations
and penalties, definition of dead line of payments of any pecuniary com- __ і ор-
pensations and penalties, conclusion and signing on behalf of the interest гану, що видав паспорт)
of the Company of any contracts or additional agreements in connection
with it; carrying out of any other actions concerning the penalty of pecu-
174
175
 Уповноважую громадянина__________________________________^_
що проживає за адресою:______________________________________
Lecture 18. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL
паспорт _ серія _ №________, виданий «____»_______________19____р. DOCUMENTS: GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS
(назва органу, що видав паспорт)
бути моїм представником у всіх підприємствах, установах, ор- This Lecture:
ганізаціях незалежно від форм власності, в тому числі органах влади та • outlines official substyles;
• shows features common to all the substyles;
управління в питаннях • offers instruction in translation of certain English constructions typical of
official style.

У зв'язку з чим надаю йому такі права:

The style of official documents is represented by the following sub-styles
1. Брати участь у_________________________________________________; or variants:
♦ the language of business documents;
2. Подавати від мого імені листи, заяви, клопотання та інші документи;
♦ the language of legal documents;
3. Підписувати від мого імені листи, заяви, вимоги, клопотання, ♦ the language of diplomacy;
протоколи, скарги та інші документи; ♦ the language of military documents56.
Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim
4. Одержувати інформацію, документи та пояснення від and, accordingly, has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic
, а також підприємств, установ, ор means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions
binding two parties in an undertaking and to reach agreement between two
ганізацій _________________; contracting parties.
6. Здійснювати інші дії, необхідні для виконання представницьких функцій Each of the subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases
and expressions, which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and
для управління належними мені корпоративними правами. expressions of other variants of this style.
Довіреність видана без права передовіри та дійсна___________років, тоб The peculiar features common to all stylistical varieties of official
documents are the following:
то до _____________ ♦ the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contrac
tions. (There are so many of them that there are special addenda in dic
(Підпис) tionaries to decode them);

56
See more in: Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского язьїка: Учеб-
176 ник. - 3-є изд. - М.: Вьісш. школа, 1981. - С.312-318; Карабан В.І. Переклад
англійської наукової і технічної літератури. - Нова Книга, 2001. Mascull В.
Collins Cobuild. Key Words in Business. - Harper Collins, 1996.
177
 ♦ the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning;
♦ absence of emotiveness;
♦ definite compositional pattern and design (see Lecture 17).
It should be also noted that the syntactical pattern of this style is as
important as the vocabulary.
•► Translation of legal, economic, diplomatic and official business
papers requires not only sufficient knowledge of terms, phrases and
expressions, but also depends on the clear comprehension of the
structure of a sentence, some specific grammar and syntactical pat-
terns, which are characteristic of this style.
Coming across an unknown term in the text a translator can consult
a dictionary. Coming across such a phenomenon as the Nominative Ab-
solute Construction, for instance, a translator can find it time-consuming
to search for an equivalent conveying its meaning, unless he or she
already knows the corresponding pattern.
This Manual is intended for students who are already aware of the
basics and peculiarities of the grammar and syntax of the English lan-
guage. That is why it offers below only some instruction in translation of
certain English constructions, which can cause special difficulties while
translating.
INFINITIVE
Depending on the function the Infinitive plays in the sentence it can
be translated in the following ways:
♦ as an adverbial modifier of purpose the Infinitive can express an
independent idea that adds some new information about its subject; the
adverb «only» is omitted in translation, e. g.
The president announced his resignation after the failure of his drive to
push through the merger of the two countries last summer.
Президент повідомив про свою відставку після того, як влітку
минулого року його кампанія за об'єднання двох країн зазнала не-
вдачі.
♦ after adjectives «the last, the only» and ordinal numerals the In
finitive is translated as the predicate of an attributive subordinate clause,
its tense form is determined by the context, e. g.
He was the first high official to be admitted to the inner council of
government, to the cabinet.
Він був першим високопоставленим службовцем, якого було до-
пущено до закритих нарад з питань державного управління і навіть
до засідань кабінету.
♦ «if + noun + be + infinitive» can be translated as «для того
щоб», e. g.
In any event, members of the association should be prepared to put
aside partisan interests if consensus on the abovementioned principles is to
be achieved.
У будь-якому випадку, щоб дійти згоди щодо зазначених
приципів, члени асоціації повинні облишити свої партійні інтереси.
♦ the Complex Object with the Infinitive is translated as an object
subordinate clause, e. g.
Both experiments revealed the rated dimensions to be highly interre-
lated.
Обидва експерименти показали, що розрахункові параметри ду-
же тісно пов 'язані між собою.
♦ the Complex Subject with passive forms of the verbs «think, ex
pect, show, see, find, argue, know, mean, consider, regard, report, be
lieve, hold, suppose, note, presume, claim, admit, interpret, etc.» is
translated as a complex sentence with an object subordinate clause. Care
should be taken about non-perfect forms of the Infinitive (which are
translated in the Present time) and perfect forms (which are translated in
the Past time), e. g.,
Still they can hardly be said to have formulated a true scientific theory.
178 179
 І все ж навряд чи можна стверджувати, що вони сформулювали
дійсно наукову теорію.
The term «model» is held to have important normative significance.
Вважається, що термін «модель» має важливе нормативне зна-
чення.
♦ the Complex Subject with active forms of the verbs «happen,
appear, see, prove, turn out, be likely, be certain, be sure, etc.» is trans-
lated in two possible ways:
♦ the English finite form is transformed into a Ukrainian paren-
thesis and the English Infinitive into a Ukrainian predicate, e. g.,
So, there appear to be two choices.
Отже, виявляється, вибір існує.
♦ the English finite form is transformed into a Ukrainian main
clause {«малоймовірно», «мені здається», etc.) and the English Infini
tive into a Ukrainian predicate in an object subordinate clause, e. g.,
Neither proposal is likely to work.
Малоймовірно, щоб якась із цих пропозицій виявилася слушною.
♦ if the English predicate has an object «by somebody» such
predicate-object clusters are translated as a parenthesis «на думку», «за
даними», «як показав (виявив, встановив, описав)», є. g.,
The results were interpreted by Brown (1989) to be insufficient to draw
any substantial conclusions.
На думку Брауна (1989), цих результатів недостатньо для то-
го, щоб зробити якісь вагомі висновки.
GERUND
Depending on the function, the Gerund plays in the sentence it can
be translated as:
♦ a noun
Banking on a loss of nerve within the board of trustees may turn out to
be misguided.
180
Розрахунок на те, що члени ради опікунів втратять витримку,
може виявитися невірним.
♦ an infinitive, e. g.,
Under the pressure of national campaign, he showed a positive gift for
saying the wrong things in the wrong words at the wrong time.
В умовах напруженої кампанії, що проводиться в країні, він ви-
являв безумовний дар говорити не те, що треба, не так, як треба, і
не тоді, коли треба.
♦ a participle, e. g.,
In Washington there is quiet satisfaction that the French by joining the
float have indirectly acknowledged that the U.S. was right all along.
У Вашингтоні висловлюють задоволення з приводу того, що
Франція, приєднавшись до країн з плаваючим курсом валюти, таким
чином непрямо визнала, що США були повністю праві.
The Perfect Gerund denotes an action which is prior to the action
expressed by the finite form of the verb, e. g.,
After having been colonies for a long time, many Asian and African
countries have now become independent states.
Багато країн Азії та Африки, що протягом тривалого часу бу-
ли колоніями, стали тепер незалежними.
The priority of the action can be expressed not only by a Perfect
Gerund, e. g.,
This African country thanked France for offering (= having offered)
her a helping hand.
Ця африканська країна подякувала Франції за те, що Франція
простягла руку допомоги.
PARTICIPLE
Participle I can be translated as:
♦ an attributive clause, e. g.,
In the carriage there was only an old man reading his paper.
181
 У вагоні був лише один старий чоловік, який читав газету.
♦ an adverbial clause, e. g.,
Heavy artillery and mortar fire broke out again in the city last night,
virtually putting the whole population of the city under a state of siege.
Вчора в місті знову розпочалася інтенсивна артилерійська та
мінометна стрілянина, через що все його населення фактично опи-
нилося в облозі.
♦ a separate sentence, e. g.,
The treasury announced that in August the sterling area had a gold and
dollar deficit of 44 million dollars bringing the gold and dollar reserves
down to the lowest level reached this year.
Міністерство фінансів оголосило, що в серпні стерлінгова зона
мала золотий і доларовий дефіцит у розмірі 44 мільйонів доларів.
Таким чином золотий і доларовий запаси сягнули найнижчого рівня
за цей рік.
As a part of the Complex Object construction Participle I and Parti-
ciple II can be translated as:
♦ an object clause, e. g.,
At the cemetery mourners knocked over tombstones in their frantic ef-
fort to watch the body being lowered into the earth.
На цвинтарі, охоплені несамовитим бажанням побачити, як
домовину опускають у землю, учасники траурної процесії перекидали
надгробки.
The country would like to see its proposals approved by the General As-
sembly.
Країна хотіла б, щоб її пропозиції були схвалені Генеральною
Асамблеєю.
Participle II at the beginning of the sentence can be translated as:
♦ an adverbial clause, e. g.,
Asked if the United States is rendering military aid to the forces oppos-
ing the lawful government in that country the senator gave an evasive reply.
182
На питання про те, чи надають Сполучені Штати військову
допомогу силам, які протистоять законному уряду цієї країни, сена-
тор дав ухильну відповідь.
Some Participles I and II have fixed equivalents: conjunction pro-
vided; preposition given; preposition failing; conjunction granted; prepo-
sitions following; followed by; assuming; considering.
The Nominative Absolute construction with Participles I and II can
be translated in different ways depending on (1) the form of the Partici-
ple; (2) the position of the construction in the sentence:
♦ the Nominative Absolute construction with Participle I is in
postposition and plays the function of an adverbial modifier of attending
circumstances:
The Prime Minister and the African National Council promptly lapsed
into mutual recrimination, each seeking to blame the other for deadlock.
Прем'єр-міністр і Африканська національна рада негайно пе-
рейшли до взаємних обвинувачень, до того ж кожна сторона намага-
лася перекласти на іншу провину за те, що вони потрапили у без-
вихідь.
♦ the Nominative Absolute construction with Participles I and II
is in preposition and plays the function of an adverbial modifier of cause
or time:
That done with, the two statesmen had subsided into long and profit-
able talks about other subjects.
Після того, як з цим питанням було закінчено, обидва державні
діячі поринули у довгу та плідну розмову що стосувалася інших пи-
тань, (adverbial modifier of time).
It being too late for further discussion, the session was adjourned. Засідання
було відкладено, оскільки було занадто пізно, щоб продовжувати
дискусію, (adverbial modifier of cause)
The second element of the Nominative Absolute construction can be
expressed by a noun or an adverb:
The first conference a failure, another meeting at a ministerial level was
decided upon.
183
 У зв'язку з невдачею першої конференції було прийнято рішення Such a principle, strange as it may seem, is championed in one form or
про проведення ще однієї зустрічі на рівні міністрів. another by certain scholars.
The debate over, the meeting was adjourned. Такий принцип, хоч він і може видатися досить дивним,
Дебати скінчилися, і засідання було оголошено закритим. відстоюють деякі вчені.

The second element of the Nominative Absolute construction can be Useful as it is, the book has two general shortcomings.
also expressed by an infinitive. It can be related to the future action: Хоча ця книга й корисна, вона все ж має два суттєвих недоліки.

With the Congress still to be elected, the Republican leadership is al-

ready moving to team up with the Southern Democrats, as it did in the
palmy days of the New Deal.
Хоча вибори до Конгресу ще попереду, керівництво
Республіканської партії вже вживає заходів щодо об'єднання з
демократами з Півдня, як це було під час розквіту Нового курсу.

INVERSION
The order of words in which the subject is placed after the predicate
is called inverted order or inversion. While translating the target sentence
retains the word order of the source sentence in many cases:
Of special interest should be the first article in Chapter 1.
Особливий інтерес має становити перша стаття у главі 1.
Also treated are such matters as theory construction and methodology.
Розглядаються також такі питання, як побудова теорії та
методика дослідження.
Had this material been examined from this viewpoint, the regularities
that he discovers would probably have gone unnoted.
Якби цей матеріал було досліджено з такої точки зору,
закономірності, які він встановлює, залишилися б, можливо,
непоміченими.
Subordinate clauses of concession with an inverted predicate often
serve emphatic purposes and can be translated with the help of Ukrainian
combinations хоч; хоч який би:
184 185
03 QUESTIONS
1. Compare the principles of literary translation and those of official
document translation.
1. What is peculiar about the text of official documents?
2. What is a text frame? Define it. What are frame slots and slot fillers?
Give examples of text frames with slots.
2. What is the main approach to the translation of official documents?
3. Give examples of grammar patterns and standard terms in the text of
official documents.
E] EXERCISES
Ex 1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitive or
infinitive constructions:
1. The United Nations principal function is to maintain peace and
prevent war.
The decisions of the Yalta and Potsdam conferences pointed out the
treat of militarism and aggression to the course of peace and security and
provided a system of measures to eliminate sources of war and aggres-
sion.
2. Other areas of major concern relate to the seabed and ocean floor
and mean to ensure their reservation for peaceful use.
3. Disputes are to be settled by peaceful means.
Member states undertake not to use force or the threat of force in
contravention of the purposes of the UN.
4. States not-members of the UN are required to act in accordance
with these principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of
international peace and security.
5. The General Assembly is expressly authorised to deal with specific
disputes and situations brought before it and to undertake studies and
make recommendations for promoting international co-operation in
political, social, cultural and educational matters for encouraging the
development of international law and for assisting in the realisation of
human rights and fundamental freedoms.
186
Ex 2. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the gerund or
gerundial constructions:
1. Polls keep indicating that a majority of Americans hold strong
doubts about the candidate's ability to handle his job.
2. Each side insists on withholding its part of the bargain until the
other has acted.
3. The situation in the country is a lesson in the dangers of upsetting
the delicate balance of neutralist politics.
4. The impossibility of disregarding established diplomatic rules
does not, however, preclude suspicious host governments from keeping a
watchful eye on diplomatic missions and diplomats suspected of abusing
their privileges and immunities.
5. My objection is to writing books about him before there is any-
thing serious to write, and offering accounts, which are very far from
objective.
6. All this, however, has not prevented the head of the delegation
and his colleagues from keeping up their end of a dialogue, which reflects
a practical approach and a real willingness to consider serious proposals.
7. Amnesty, often granted to student troublemakers last year, is to be
a thing of the past at many colleges. Instead of being forgiven for mis-
conduct, more students are to be suspended or expelled.
8. They are terrified of being drawn into taking over responsibility
for their own security.
9. The same end is not at all served, at least, not in any direct way, by
getting rid of the secretary of defense.
10. No sign exists of the president having concerned himself with the
substance of these two important questions.
Ex 3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the participles or
participial constructions:
1. But most (98%) of the businesses in the United States are «small»
businesses - independendy owned and operated and having fewer than
twenty employees.
2. Whether a business has one employee working at home, 100
working in a retail store, 10,000 working a plant or factory or 100,000
working in branch offices nation-wide, all businesses share the same
definition and are organized for the same purpose: to earn profits.
187
 3. There being no survivors, the exact causes which led to the acci- 17. First, a practical response: appreciation of the theoretical
dent will never be known. underpinnings of a particular domain helps the lawyer formulate an
4. Government legislation leads a company to change its hiring prac- analysis of any problem concerning that domain.
tices; technological advances convince a company to change its manufac- 18. An expensive advertising campaign can attract you to a com-
turing processes; changes in consumer tastes tell a company to alter its pany, its impressive building will make you glad you come, but if the first
marketing strategies. person you deal with is wearing a purple tank top and flared trousers, are
5. The number of working women is rising - and, as a result, the you really going to take them seriously?
number of two salary households and the number of women managers 19. Every week brings fresh outrage at tales of bosses of privatised
are also rising steadily. firms picking up huge pay rises.
6. With the new countries in, the United Nations will for the first 20. This fact cannot be stated too often and too clearly.
time include Britain's allies and associates. 21. All other things being equal, one would assume that the latter so-
7. When sole proprietors borrow money, they do so as individuals, lution is more plausible.
using their own personal assets to finance personal loans. 22. As is generally true of conference volumes, the quality of these
8. A tactical plan is specific, detailed, and current, focusing on pre- papers is uneven.
sent operations. 23. But in no way does it approach the book under review in depth,
9. The ratification debate should take place as quickly as possible, it scope, or insight of coverage.
being understood that the president of the republic should not sign the 24. But there would have to be some other mechanism for dealing
treaty until the «preconditions» are fulfilled. with the optional positions.
10. Once objectives and plans have been established, the organizing 25. He waited, standing in his room and trying to reason himself
function comes into play. into a decent temper.
11. Managers' decisions range from minor and relatively unimpor-
tant to major and potentially life-threatening to the organization.
12. UNEP in co-operation with the Specialised Agencies and other
organisations is trying to check loss of land through erosion, aridity, sa-
linity and encroaching cities.
13. The 18 riparian countries have begun research and monitoring of
the condition of the sea, most have signed the Barcelona Convention
agreeing to control pollution and over-fishing, and they have begun plans
for joint development of that sea.
14. The intellectual attractions of the law regulating literary and ar-
tistic property account only in small part for the rise of copyright law.
15. Sometimes copyright law is taught together with trademark and
patent law in a one-semester optional course dealing generally with intel-
lectual property.
16. The students prepare the texts and the questions before each
class, knowing that the professor may call upon them to explain or criti-
cize a text, or to analyse a question or a hypothetical case.
188 189

APPENDIX
AGREEMENT
TEXT PATTERNS AND ADDITIONAL TRAINING
MATERIAL
This Agreement is made this
______day of____________, 1999,
by and between __________
corporation with its principal
office at____________________]
or [an individual with an office
and mailing address at
___________] («Agent»), and
[company name], a corporation
organized and existing under the
laws of ___________________,
with its principal place of busi
ness at
__________________________
•"
(_ .)•
WHEREAS, ____
in, among other things, the busi
RECITALS
is engaged БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що
ness of international trade, and
in particular, international trade
(collectively,
and
involving __________________
the «Products»);
УГОДА
Цю Угоду укладено
1999 року між
[корпорацією, головна контора
якої знаходиться за. адресою:
_____________________________]
чи [особою, контора якої знаходить
ся за адресою:___________] («Аген
том») і [назва компанії], корпорації,
що заснована і діє відповідно до за
конодавства ____________, голо
вна контора якої знаходиться за ад
ресою:
серед іншого, займається міжна
родною торгівлею, і, зокрема,
міжнародною торгівлею_________
_________ (товарами, у своїй су
купності іменованих «Продукці
єю») і
ЗАГАЛЬНІ ПОЛОЖЕННЯ
WHEREAS, Agent has experi-
ence in matters involving trade in має досвід у справах, що стосу-
the Products and, in particular,
trade involving the Products
with and in_____________(the
«Territory»); and
WHEREAS,_________desires to
purchase and sell Products from
and to entities in the Territory,
and desires to work with Agent
concerning such trade of Prod-
ucts to and from the Territory;
and
WHEREAS, Agent is willing and
able to provide such services to
NOW, THEREFORE, in consid
eration of the mutual promises
and covenants set forth below,
__________and Agent under
stand and agree as follows:
1. Appointment
________hereby appoints Agent
as its non-exclusive service pro-
vider, on the terms and condi-
tions stated in this Agreement,
relating to_________purchase of
Products from and sale of Prod-
ucts to entities located in the
Territory.
БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що Агент
ються торгівлі Продукцією, і, зо-
крема, торгівлі Продукцією з
___________ («Територією») і на
Території; і
БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що________
бажає купувати Продукцію у
осіб, що знаходяться на Терито-
рії, а також продавати їм Проду-
кцію, і бажає співпрацювати з
Агентом у питаннях, що стосу-
ються такої торгівлі Продукцією,
що надходить на Територію і з
неї, і
БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що Агент
бажає і має можливість надавати
такі послуги_______.
ТОМУ, з урахуванням обопіль-
них зобов'язань і домовленостей,
викладених нижче,____________і
Агент досягли взаєморозуміння і
домовилися про нижченаведене:
1. Призначення Агента
Цією Угодою_____________при
значає Агента для надання послуг
на неексклюзивних умовах, за
значених у даній Угоді, щодо
придбання __________ Продукції
у суб'єктів економічної діяльнос-
ті, що знаходяться на Території, і
продажу Продукції таким суб'єк-
там.
190 191
2. Duties and Obligations of
Agent
2.A. Agent shall regularly consult
with ________ on and inform
_______of any Product purchas
ing, selling, marketing, trading
and related matters in the Terri
tory, including but not limited to
providing __________ with timely
and accurate information con-
cerning:
(1). prevailing marketing price and
other sale terms for Products
imported into the Territory;
(2) prevailing market prices and
other purchase terms for Products
exported from the Territory;
(3) the identity of any persons or
entities which are actual or potential
importers of Products into and/or
exporters of Products from the
Territory and potential buyers from
or sellers, to
(4) any other matters which may
be of interest to___________in or
der to ensure that__________is at
all times kept well informed of
market conditions and trade op-
portunities relating to the trade of
Products involving the Territory,
and with such other matters related
to the foregoing as
_______________may reasonably
request.
2. Обов'язки Агента
2.А. Агент регулярно консульту
ється з ___________ з питань при
дбання, продажу, організації збу
ту Продукції, торгівлі нею і з по
дібних питань, а також інформує
щодо згаданих питань про стан
справ на Території, включаючи,
але не обмежуючись, наданням
своєчасної і точної інформації,
що стосується:
(1) існуючих ринкових цін і інших
умов продажу Продукції, ввезеної на
Територію;
(2) існуючих ринкових цін і інших
умов придбання Продукції,
експортованої з даної Території;
(3) визначенням національної
приналежності осіб, що є реаль
ними чи потенційними імпорте
рами і/чи експортерами Продук
ції на даній Території чи потен
ційними покупцями чи продав
цями ;
(4) з усіх інших питань, що мо
жуть становити інтерес для
________, з метою забезпечення
належного рівня його поінфор-
мованості про умови на ринку і
можливості торгівлі Продукцією на
даній Території, а також з усіх інших
питань, що стосуються
вищезгаданого, у випадку, якщо
__________звернеться з подібним
прийнятним проханням.
192
2.В. Agent shall inform___________ 2.Б. Агент інформує ___________ про
of changes in any laws, rules, зміни законодавства, нормативної і
regulations, or practices regarding правової бази Чи практики, що
the import and export of Products стосуються імпорту і експорту
into and from the Territory or Продукції на даній Території, чи з
relating to other issues involving інших питань, що стосуються
trade, finance, politics or business торгівлі, фінансів, політики чи
issues and events in the Territory бізнесу і подій на Території, які
generally affecting the trade in можуть впливати на торгівлю
Products. 2.C. Agent shall, when Продукцією взагалі.
requested 2.В. Агент, на прохання ___________,
by _________, serve as a liaison забезпечує підтримання зв'язку
between _________ and its cus між_______і його клієнтом чи по
tomer or potential customers for тенційними клієнтами, з метою
the receipt, transmission, pres одержання, передачі, надання
entation, and explanation пояснень (де це доречно) повід
(where appropriate) of commu омлень і спілкування між___________
nications between _ and і потенційними чи реальними
potential or actual customers, клієнтами, до початку, під час і після
both prior to, during and follow припинення терміну дії
ing the term of any contacts be будь-якого контракту між__________
tween ____________and such en і такими суб'єктами економічної
tities. діяльності.
2 D. Agent shall solicit offers to sell 2.Г. Агент консультує____________з
to or buy from potential buyers or питань продажу чи придбання у
sellers of Products in the Territory потенційних покупців чи продавців
and forward such на Території і передає такі
offers to ___________ by facsimile пропозиції_________за допомогою
for acceptance or rejection by факсимільного зв'язку для їх
прийняття чи відхилення___________.
2.E. Agent shall assist___________, 2.Д. Агент надає допомогу, у ви-
as it may request, in performing and падку звернення до нього з подібним
fulfilling its obligations under its проханням, у виконанні зобов'язань
contacts to sell to or buy Products за контрактами купі-влі-продажу
from exporters from or importers Продукції експортерів і імпортерів
into the Territory (such exporters на Території (експортерів чи
or importers імпортерів, що
193
with contracts to sell to or buy має контракти на продаж чи
from _____________ hereinafter придбання Продукції _________, що
collectively referred to as тут і далі у своїй сукупності іме-
_______________'s «Customers») нуються «Клієнтами»), включаючи
including any___________________ будь-які зобов'язання щодо
obligation to arrange for and/or організації і спостереження за
monitor the loading and unloading навантаженням і розвантаженням
of vessels, arrange for necessary суден, організовує необхідну
transport to or from ports in the доставку до/з портів Території,
Territory, present to or obtain пред'являє документи Клієнтам і
documents from одержує документи від Клієнтів
__________'s Customers, arrange _______, організовує одержання
for the issuance of performance гарантій виконання контрактів і
bonds and other related services інших, пов'язаних з виконанням
in support of______________'s per контрактів, послуг, з метою надання
formance under its purchase or підтримки у діяльності
sale contracts with its Custom ________за контрактами купівлі-
ers. продажу з Клієнтами.
2.F. Agent shall assist ____________ 2.Е. Агент надає допомогу служ
employees and representatives when бовцям і представникам___________,
they visit the Territory by коли вони прибувають на Тери
helping obtain, at ___________'s торію, і сприяє в одержанні, за
cost, entry visas, hotel rooms, local рахунок_________, в'їзних віз, готе
transport, and with related logistical льних номерів, місцевих транс
matters. портних засобів і у відповідному
матеріально-технічному забезпе
ченні.
3. Compensation 3.A. In 3. Відшкодування
consideration of, and as full З.А. Як винагороду і повний роз
payment for the services рахунок за послуги, надані за ці
provided by Agent under this єю Угодою,_________сплачує Аген
Agreement,__________shall pay to ту гонорар (виберіть один із ва
Agent a fee (choose one): ріантів):
equal to________________U.S. per що дорівнює________доларів США
_______________for all Products _ за__________, за всю Продукцію,
purchased or sold by придбану чи продану ________ у
______________________________ 194
under a Covered Transac
tion___________________
______________________ equal to
_______________ % of the final
invoice price for all Products
purchased or sold by
______________________________
under a Covered Transaction
__________ according to the
rates "set forth in the attached
Schedule A for all Products pur
chase or sold by__un
der a Covered Transaction.
3.B. For the purposes of this
Agreement, a «Covered Transac
tion» shall mean the purchase or
sale of Products under a contact
with a Customer dated during
the term of this Agreement and
which contract is either (1) be
tween __________and a Customer
introduced to__________by Agent
during the term hereof, or (2)
successfully entered into or per-
formed as a direct result of the
effort and services of Agent.
Notwithstanding anything in the
foregoing to the contrary, a
«Covered Transaction» does not
include sales of ________ origin
goods under ________ government
export programs which prohibit the
payment of commissions, fees, or
other similar compensation.
3.C. All payments due to Agent
under this Agreement shall be
payable in _____________________
відповідності з Покритою операцією;
що дорівнює________%,_________від
остаточної фактурної ціни за всю
Продукцію, придбану чи продану
______ у відповідності з Покри
тою операцією
______ згідно зі ставками, зазна
ченими в Додатку А на всю Про
дукцію, придбану чи продану
______ у відповідності з Покри
тою операцією.
З.Б. У цілях цієї Угоди, «Покрита
операція» означає придбання чи
продаж Продукції за контрактом
із Клієнтом, датованим протягом
терміну дії даної Угоди, де конт
ракт складений або (1) між__________
і Клієнтом, представленим
_____________Агентом у вищезга
даний період, чи (2) успішно
укладений і виконаний у резуль
таті безпосередніх зусиль Агента і
наданих ним послуг.
Незважаючи на вищезгадані
умови, де може йтися про проти
лежне, «Покрита операція» не
включає продажу товарів, що
походять із_________відповідно до
експортних програм уряду
_______, за якими заборонено
сплату комісійних, гонорарів чи
інших подібних винагород.
З.В. Усі виплати, що належать до
сплати Агенту відповідно до даної
Угоди, виконуються в
195
(unless otherwise prohibited) and _________ (якщо це не заборо under this Agreement to any від________за цією Угодою жод
will be paid solely by check or нено іншими угодами) і викону third party without the prior ній третій стороні без попере
wire transfer. No payment will be ються винятково чеком чи теле written consent of_____________ дньої письмової згоди ________ і,
made by ^___ in cash or bearer графним переказом. Жодні ви and, unless otherwise agreed by якщо інше не передбачено
instrument. All payments will be плати не будуть здійснюватися __________in writing, Agent and ________ письмово, Агент і його
made solely to Agent and to no готівкою чи документами на its employees shall personally персонал особисто надають по
other person or entity; payments пред'явника. Усі виплати будуть perform the services required by слуги, необхідні______. Крім того,
made by wire transfer will be здійснюватися винятково Агенту, ■ -- Agent further agrees Агент згоден з тим, що він не бу
made to a bank account in а не будь-якій іншій особі чи су that it will not pay or transfer де сплачувати чи переказувати
Agent's name at a bank located in б'єкту економічної діяльності; any portion of the payments re жодну частину коштів, одержа
the country of Agent's principal платежі можуть бути виконані на ceived from _________ to any них від _______ нікому з інозем
place of business. банківський рахунок на ім'я Аге foreign official or other person них посадових чи яких-небудь
нта в країні місцезнаходження in violation of______law. інших осіб у порушення законів
3.D. _________ will make pay головної контори Агента.
ments due to Agent under this З.Г. ______ робить виплати, що 3.F. In the event the Covered З.Е. У випадку, якщо Покрита
Agreement within _________ належать до сплати Агенту у від Transaction is part of a barter операція є бартерною і передба
(___) days: повідності з даною Угодою про arrangement involving the ex- чає обмін товарами, ціна прода
(i) for Products purchased тягом________(____) днів: change of commodities, the sale жу покупки чи (у залежності від
by_________ from Customers, (і) за Продукцію, придбану or purchase price (as the case обставин) з метою визначення
the payment or delivery of other ____________ від Клієнтів, за на may be) for purposes of calculat- розміру гонорару, що належить
consideration by or on behalf of дання інших послуг ing the fee due to Agent under Агенту за цією Угодою, повинна
_________to the Customer, or ____________ this Agreement shall reflect the відбивати реальну ринкову вар
(ii) for Products sold by чи від його імені Клієнтам, чи than existing market value of the тість Продукції, проданої чи
__________ to Customers, the Products sold or purchased as придбаної за взаємною згодою
actual receipt of funds for value (іі) за Продукцію, продану mutually agreed between Agent Агента і_______.
or other full consideration by or ______ Клієнтам, фактичне оде and____________.
on behalf of__________from the ржання коштів за чи еквівалент 4. Term; Termination 4. Терміни і припинення чинності
Customer; за надання інших послуг у пов Угоди 4.А. Дана Угода набуває
provided, however, that prior to ному обсязі ._______ чи від його 4.A. This Agreement will com сили з
making any payment under this імені Клієнтам; mence on ______________, and _______і залишається чинною до
Agreement ________ shall have однак, за умови, що до здійснен shall continue in effect thereafter її припинення (і) у будь-який час
received Agent's invoice for the ня будь-якого платежу відповід until terminated (i) at any time за взаємною письмовою згодою
full amount due. но до даної Угоди ________ одер by the mutual written consent of сторін (іі) будь-якої із сторін із
3.E. Agent shall have no right to жить рахунок-фактуру від Агента the parties or (ii) by either party зазначенням чи без зазначення
assign any portion of its rights to на всю суму, що належить йому. with or without cause, by причини, з наданням іншій сто
receive payments from_________ З.Д. Агент не має жодного права providing sixty (60) days prior роні письмового попередження
передавати яку-небудь частину written notice to the other. про це за_____(_________) днів.
своїх прав на одержання коштів
197
196
4.B. Upon termination of this
Agreement, Agent will have no
further claim or right to for
compensation or other payment of
any kind whatsoever, except for the
payment of fees earned prior to the
termination date in accordance with
Section 3 of this Agreement.
4.C. Notwithstanding anything in
Clause 4.A to the contrary, either
party may terminate this Agreement
with immediate effect upon the
giving of notice in the event the
other violates or breaches any term
or provision of this Agreement. 5.
Independent Contractor The parties
expressly acknowledge and agree
that Agent is an independent
contractor and is not a partner, joint
venturer or
employee of _______________,
Agent does not have, and will not
hold itself out as having, any
authority to bind ____________ to
any contract, debt or other obli-
gation. Agent acknowledges and
agrees that the negotiation of,
agreement to all terms and con-
ditions, and the execution of any
purchase or sale contracts for
Products with Customers shall be
sole responsibility of
____________. Agent shall have
the exclusive right and obligation to
select, hire and supervise all
4.Б. Після припинення дії даної
Угоди Агент не буде мати жодних
претензій чи прав, крім як на виплату
гонорарів, зароблених ним до дати
припинення дії Угоди,
відповідності зі Статтею.З даної
Угоди.
4.В. Незважаючи на положення
Статті 4.А про протилежне, кож
на зі сторін може припинити дію
даної Угоди негайно, повідоми
вши про це, у випадку, якщо ін
ша сторона діє всупереч будь-
яким положенням чи умовам
даної Угоди чи порушує їх.
5. Незалежна сторона в договорі
Сторони особливо застерігають і
погоджуються з тим, що Агент є
незалежною стороною в договорі
і не є партнером, учасником спі
льного підприємства чи службо
вцем ________, Агент не має і не
буде вимагати для себе повнова
жень зв'язувати___________жодним
контрактом, борговими чи ін
шими зобов'язаннями. Агент ви
знає і згоден, що переговори з
приводу всіх умов і положень і
згода на їхнє встановлення, ви
конання яких-небудь контрактів
з Клієнтами на покупку чи про
даж продукції є винятково пре
рогативою __________. Виключним
правом і обов'язком Агента є добір,
прийом на роботу і здійснен-
198
persons hired by it and shall be
solely responsible for the payment
of any and all related compensation,
wages and other liabilities imposed
у upon employers under labor and/or
any applicable social legislation.
Agent shall be solely responsible for
any and all expenses incurred in
providing services to _____________
under this Agreement, including but
not limited to the cost of rent, office
equipment, communications and
travel, except
where___________has specifically
agreed, in writing and in advance, to
cover or reimburse Agent for any
such expenses.
7. Miscellaneous
7.A. This Agreement may not be
amended or supplemented except by
written agreement signed by both
parties hereto.
7.B. This Agreement contains the
entire agreement between the parties
hereto with respect to the contents
hereof and supersedes all prior
agreements and understandings
between the parties, written or oral.
7.C. This Agreement shall be
subject to the laws of the
.______________. Any dispute
ня контролю за найнятими ним
особами, і є єдиною особою, від-
повідальною за виплату будь-яких
належних винагород, заробітної
плати і розрахунків за іншими
зобов'язаннями, що накладаються на
роботодавців згідно з трудовим і/чи
іншим відповідним соціальним
законодавством. Агент одноосібно
відповідає за всі і будь-які витрати,
понесені
ним при наданні послуг__________за
даною Угодою, які включають,
але не обмежуються, вартістю
оренди, офісного устаткування,
комунікацій і поїздок, за винят
ком випадків, про які __________
особливо застеріг, письмово і
завчасно, що він покриває чи
відшкодовує Агенту будь-які з
таких витрат. 7. Різне
7.А. Ця Угода не підлягає змінам чи
доповненням, за винятком тих
випадків, коли такі виконуються
письмо за згодою і підписом обох
сторін.
7.Б. Цю Угоду складено за повною
згодою сторін щодо її змісту, і вона
заміняє собою всі попередні угоди і
домовленості, досягнуті між
сторонами, письмові чи усні.
7.В. Дана Угода регулюється за
конам ________. Будь-який спір,
що виникає між сторонами з 199
arising between the parties under
this Agreement which cannot be
amicably resolved by the parties
shall be subject to non-binding
mediation using the services of a
sole mediator under the media
tion rules of the
___________________or such
other recognized mediation ser
vice or association as the parties
may mutually agree. If the dis
pute cannot be resolved by me
diation then the dispute shall be
referred to binding arbitration in
___________according to the In
ternational Commercial Arbitra
tion Rules and Procedures of the
American Arbitration Associa
tion, with each party appointing
an arbitrator and the two party-
arbitrators appointing a third
arbitrator-chairman. The arbi
tration award shall be final and
binding, and judgment upon the
arbitrators' award may be en
tered in any court of competent
jurisdiction.
7.D. All notices required under this
Agreement shall be given in writing
by telex and registered mail. Notices
shall be deemed effective 1 business
day after being sent, in the case of
telex notices, and, in the case of
registered mail, after being placed in
приводу даної Угоди, що не мо
же бути врегульований сторона
ми у дружній спосіб, підлягає
врегулюванню за допомогою по
середництва, що не є обов'язко
вим, із залученням одного посе
редника відповідно до правил
проведення посередницьких
операцій________________чи іншої
відомої посередницької служби
чи асоціації, за взаємною згодою
сторін. Якщо спір не може бути
врегульований за допомогою по
середника, тоді він передається
на обов'язковий розгляд до
_____________відповідно до Між
народних правил торгового арбі
тражу і регламенту Американсь
кої асоціації арбітражу, причому
кожна зі сторін призначає арбіт
ра, а обидві сторони разом при
значають третього арбітра, що
виступає в ролі голови. Рішення
арбітражу є остаточним і обов'я
зковим для виконання, а поста
нова суду з приводу арбітражно
го рішення може бути винесена у
будь-якій належній судовій ін
станції.
7.Г. Усі повідомлення, що вима-
гаються відповідно до даної Угоди,
складаються у письмовому вигляді і
пересилаються телексом чи у вигляді
рекомендованої кореспонденції.
Повідомлення вважаються дійсними
через один день після відправлення
телексом,
200
the mail, postage pre-paid, and
addressed as follows:
If to Agent:
Attn:
If to
Attn:________________________
7.E. Agent agrees to keep private
and confidential any and all in
formation regarding _____________
and its business activities (and
those of its parent affiliated com
panies) that____________may dis
close to it or that Agent may
otherwise obtain, and further
agrees that it will not disclose
any such information to any
other person or entity or use it
for its own benefit without the
express prior written consent of
__________. This Agreement is
not a license and Agent has no
right to use any of______________'s
trade names, trademarks, service
marks or other intellectual prop
erty except as ___________ may
specifically agree in writing.
201
а у випадку рекомендованої коре-
спонденції - за датою відправлення
на поштовому штемпелі, з пе-
редоплатою поштових зборів, і
надсилаються за адресою: Агенту:
Кому:
Кому:___________________________
7.Д. Агент погоджується не роз
голошувати і зберігати конфіде
нційність будь-якої і всієї інфор
мації, що стосується______________і
ведення справ (і справ його ма
теринської і дочірньої компаній),
з якими_________може ознайоми
ти його, а крім того, Агент пого
джується не розкривати таку ін
формацію нікому з інших фізич
них чи юридичних осіб, або ви
користовувати для власної виго
ди, не одержавши на це попере
дньо письмового підтвердження
явно вираженої згоди__________. Да
на Угода не є ліцензійною і Агент
не має права використовувати
жодні з фірмових назв, торгових
марок, знаків обслуговування й
інших прав інтелектуальної влас
ності, крім випадків, коли______
у письмовому вигляді дає дозвіл на
використання подібного.
7.F.________shall have the right
to engage other persons or enti-
ties during the term of this
Agreement to provide the same
or similar types of services to
__________relating to the trade
of Products involving the Terri-
tory concurrently with the ser-
vices provided by Agent under
this Agreement.
7.G. This Agreement has been
executed in two originals, one
being kept by ____________ and
one by Agent, but each original
constituting one and the same
document.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the
parties by their authorized repre-
sentatives have signed this
Agreement as of the day and year
above written.
AGENT
By:------------------_-------
Title:____________!_____
By:_
Title:
7.E_________має право залучати
інших осіб чи об'єкти економічної
діяльності під час терміну
чинності цієї Угоди для надання
______ послуг подібного виду,
які зв'язані з торгівлею Продук-
цією на даній Території, одноча-
сно з наданням послуг, що нада-
ються Агентом за даною Угодою.
7.Ж. Цю Угоду складено в двох
примірниках, що є оригіналами,
один знаходиться в________, а ін
ший - в Агента, причому обидва
оригінали складають той самий
документ.
НА ПІДТВЕРДЖЕННЯ ЧОГО
сторони через своїх уповноваже-
них представників підписали да-
ну Угоду вищевказаного числа і
року.
АГЕНТ
Посада:
Посада:
202
TREATY ON THE NON-
PROLIFERATION OF
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
The States concluding this
Treaty, hereinafter referred to as
the «Parties to the Treaty»,
Considering the devastation
that would be visited upon all
mankind by a nuclear war and
the consequent need to make
every effort to avert the danger
of such a war and to take meas-
ures to safeguard the security of
peoples,
Believing that the prolifera-
tion of nuclear weapons would
seriously enhance the danger of
nuclear war,
In conformity with resolu-
tions of the United Nations
General Assembly calling for the
conclusion of an agreement on
the prevention of wider dis-
semination of nuclear weapons,
Undertaking to cooperate in
facilitating the application of
International Atomic Energy
Agency safeguards on peaceful
nuclear activities,
Expressing their support for
research, development and other
efforts to further the application,
within the framework of the In-
ternational Atomic Energy
Agency safeguards system, of the
principle of safeguarding effec-
203
ДОГОВІР
ПРО НЕРОЗПОВСЮДЖЕННЯ
ЯДЕРНОЇ ЗБРОЇ
Держави, що укладають цей
Договір, поіменовані нижче
«Учасниками Договору»,
враховуючи спустошливі нас-
лідки, що їх мала б для всього
людства ядерна війна, і необхід-
ність, яка випливає з цього, до-
класти всіх зусиль для запобіган-
ня загрозі виникнення такої війни
і вжити заходів для безпеки
народів,
вважаючи, що розповсюджен-
ня ядерної зброї серйозно поси-
лило б загрозу ядерної війни,
відповідно до резолюцій Гене-
ральної Асамблеї Організації Об'-
єднаних Націй, що закликають
укласти угоду про відвернення
подальшого розповсюдження
ядерної зброї,
зобов'язуючись співробітнича-
ти з метою сприяння застосуван-
ню гарантій Міжнародного агент-
ства з атомної енергії щодо мир-
ного застосування ядерної радіо-
активності,
висловлюючи свою підтримку
зусиллям по дослідженню, вдос-
коналенню та іншим зусиллям,
спрямованим на сприяння засто-
суванню в рамках системи гаран-
тій Міжнародного агентства з
атомної енергії принципу ефек-
tively the flow of source and special
fissionable materials by use of
instruments and other techniques at
certain strategic points,
Affirming the principle that the
benefits of peaceful applications of
nuclear technology, including any
technological byproducts which
may be derived by nuclear-weapon
States from the development of
nuclear explosive devices, should be
available for peaceful purposes to
all Parties of the Treaty, whether
nuclear-weapon or non-nuclear
weapon States,
Convinced that, in furtherance of
this principle, all Parties to the
Treaty are entitled to participate in
the fullest possible exchange of
scientific information for, and to
contribute alone or in cooperation
with other States to, the further
development of the applications of
atomic energy for peaceful pur-
poses,
Declaring their intention to
achieve at the earliest possible date
the cessation of the nuclear arms
race and to undertake effective
measures in the direction of nuclear
disarmament,
Urging the cooperation of all
States in the attainment of this
objective,
ХИБНИХ гарантій щодо руху вихі-
дних і спеціальних розщеплюваних
матеріалів, шляхом використання
приладів та інших технічних засобів
у ключових місцях,
підтверджуючи той принцип, що
блага мирного застосування ядерної
технології, включаючи будь-які
технологічні побічні продукти, які
можуть одержати держави, що
мають ядерну зброю, від розвитку
ядерних вибухових пристроїв,
повинні бути доступні для мирних
цілей усім державам-учасницям
Договору, як тим, що мають, так і
тим, що не мають ядерної зброї,
будучи переконаними, що на
здійснення цього принципу всі
Учасники цього Договору мають
право брати участь у якомога
повнішому обміні науковою ін-
формацією для дальшого розвитку
застосування атомної енергії в
мирних цілях і робити свій внесок у
цей розвиток одноосібно або в
співробітництві з іншими
державами,
заявляючи про свій намір по
можливості швидше досягти
припинення гонки ядерних озброєнь
і вжити ефективних заходів у
напрямі ядерного роззброєння,
настійно закликаючи до спів-
робітництва всі держави у досягненні
цієї мети, 204
Recalling the determination
expressed by the Parties to the 1963
Treaty banning nuclear weapon
tests in the atmosphere, in outer
space and under water in its
Preamble to seek to achieve the
discontinuance of all test explosions
of nuclear weapons for all time and
to continue negotiations to this end,
Desiring to further the easing of
international tension and the
strengthening of trust between
States in order to facilitate the
cessation of the manufacture of
nuclear weapons, the liquidation of
all their existing stockpiles, and the
elimination from national arsenals
of nuclear weapons and the means
of their delivery pursuant to a
Treaty on general and complete
disarmament under strict and
effective international control,
Recalling that, in accordance
with the Charter of the United
Nations, States must refrain in their
international relations from the
threat or use of force against the
territorial integrity or political
independence of any State, or in
any other manner inconsistent with
the Purposes of the United Nations,
and that the establishment and
maintenance of international peace
and security are to be promoted
with
нагадуючи про рішучість, ви-
словлену Учасниками Договору про
заборону випробувань ядерної зброї
в атмосфері, в космічному просторі і
під водою 1963 року в його
преамбулі, прагнути назавжди
досягти припинення всіх
випробувальних вибухів ядерної
зброї та продовжувати переговори з
цією метою,
прагнучи сприяти пом'якшенню
міжнародної напруженості та
зміцненню довіри між державами з
тим, щоб сприяти досягненню
припинення виробництва ядерної
зброї, знищенню всіх існуючих її
запасів і виключенню ядерної зброї
та засобів її доставки з національних
арсеналів у відповідності з
договором про загальне і повне
роззброєння під суворим і
ефективним міжнародним
контролем,
нагадуючи, що відповідно до
Статуту Організації Об'єднаних Націй
держави повинні утримуватися в їхніх
міжнародних відносинах від погрози
силою або її застосування як проти
територіальної недоторканності або
політичної незалежності будь-якої
держави, так і у будь-який інший
спосіб, не сумісний з цілями
Організації Об'єднаних Націй, і
сприяти встановленню і підтриманню
міжнародного миру та безпеки з най-
205
the least diversion for arma-
ments of the worlds human and
economic resources, Have agreed as
follows:
Article I
Each nuclear-weapon State Party
to the Treaty undertakes not to
transfer to any recipient whatsoever
nuclear weapons or other nuclear
explosive devices or control over
such weapons or explosive devices
directly, or indirectly; and not in
any way to assist, encourage, or
induce any non-nuclear weapon
State to manufacture or otherwise
acquire nuclear weapons or other
nuclear explosive devices, or
control over such weapons or
explosive devices.
Article II
Each non-nuclear-weapon State
Party to the Treaty undertakes not to
receive the transfer from any
transferor whatsoever of nuclear
weapons or other nuclear explosive
devices or of control over such
weapons or explosive devices
directly, or indirectly; not to
manufacture or otherwise acquire
nuclear weap-
меншим залученням світових
людських сил і економічних ресурсів
до справи озброєння,
погодилися про нижченаведе-не:
Стаття І
Кожна з держав-учасниць цього
Договору, які мають ядерну зброю,
зобов'язується не передавати будь-
кому ядерну зброю чи інші ядерні
вибухові пристрої, а також контроль
над такою зброєю або вибуховими
пристроями ні прямо, ні
опосередковано, так само як і ніяким
способом не допомагати, не
заохочувати і не спонукати будь-яку
державу, що не має ядерної зброї, до
виробництва або здобуття у будь-
який інший спосіб ядерної зброї чи
інших ядерних вибухових пристроїв,
а також до контролю над такою
зброєю або вибуховими пристроями.
Стаття II
Кожна з держав-учасниць цього
Договору, яка не має ядерної зброї,
зобов'язується не приймати
передавану ким би то не було ядерну
зброю чи вибухові пристрої та не
здійснювати контроль над такими
зброєю чи пристроями, як прямо так
і опосередковано, не виробляти і не
здобувати у будь-який інший спосіб
яде-
ons or other nuclear explosive
devices; and not to seek or receive
any assistance in the manufacture of
nuclear weapons or other nuclear
explosive devices.
Article III
l.-Each non-nuclear-weapon
State Party to the Treaty undertakes
to accept safeguards, as set forth in
an agreement to be negotiated and
concluded with the International
Atomic Energy Agency in
accordance with the Statute of the
International Atomic Energy
Agency and the Agencies
safeguards system, for the exclusive
purpose of verification of the
fulfilment of its obligations assumed
under this Treaty with a view to
preventing diversion of nuclear
energy from peaceful uses to
nuclear weapons or other nuclear
explosive devices.
Procedures for the safeguards
required by this article shall be
followed with respect to source or
special fissionable material whether
it is being produced, processed or
used in any principal nuclear
facility or is outside any such
facility. The safeguards required by
this article shall be applied to all
source or special fissionable
material in all peace-
рну зброю чи інші ядерні вибухові
пристрої, так само як і не добиватися
і не приймати будь-якої допомоги у
виробництві ядерної зброї або інших
ядерних вибухових пристроїв.
Стаття III
(1) Кожна з держав-учасниць
Договору, що не мають ядерної
зброї, зобов'язується прийняти
гарантії, як вони викладені в угоді,
про яку провадитимуться переговори
і яку буде укладено з Міжнародним
агентством з атомної енергії
відповідно до Статуту
Міжнародного агентства з атомної
енергії та системи гарантій
Агентства, виключно з метою
перевірки виконання його
зобов'язань, прийнятих відповідно до
цього Договору, з тим щоб не
допустити переключення ядерної
енергії з мирного застосування на
ядерну зброю або інші ядерні
вибухові пристрої.
Процедури забезпечення гарантій,
що вимагаються цією Статтею,
здійснюються щодо вихідного чи
спеціального розщеплюваного
матеріалу, незалежно від того, чи
виробляється він, обробляється чи
використовується в будь-якій
основній ядерній установці або
знаходиться за межами будь-якої
такої установки. Гарантії, що
вимагаються цією Стат-
207
fill nuclear activities within the
territory of such State, under its
jurisdiction, or carried out under its
control anywhere.
2. Each State Party to the
Treaty undertakes not to pro
vide: (a) source or special fis
sionable material, or (b) equip
ment or material especially de
signed or prepared for the proc
essing, use or production of spe
cial fissionable material, to any
non-nuclear-weapon State for
peaceful purposes, unless the
source or special fissionable ma
terial shall be subject to the safe
guards required by this article.
3. The safeguards required by
this article shall be implemented
in a manner designed to comply
with article IV of this Treaty,
and to avoid hampering the
economic or technological de
velopment of the Parties or in
ternational cooperation in the
field of peaceful nuclear activi
ties, including the international
exchange of nuclear material
and equipment for the process
ing, use or production of nu
clear material for peaceful pur
poses in accordance with the
208
тею, застосовуються до всього
вихідного чи спеціального роз-
щеплюваного матеріалу, в усій
мирній ядерній діяльності в межах
території такої держави, під її
юрисдикцією, чи здійснюваної під її
контролем де б то не було.
(2) Кожна з держав-учасниць
Договору зобов'язується не нада-
вати: а) вихідного чи спеціального
розщеплюваного матеріалу, в)
устаткування чи матеріалу, спеці-
ально призначеного або підготов-
леного для обробки, використання
чи виробництва спеціального
розщеплюваного матеріалу, будь-
якій державі, що не має ядерної
зброї, для мирних цілей, якщо на цей
вихідний чи спеціальний
розщеплюваний матеріал не по-
ширюються гарантії, які вимага-
ються цією Статтею.
(3) Гарантії, що вимагаються
цією Статтею, здійснюються у
відповідності до Статті IV цього
Договору і уникати створення
перешкод для економічного або
технологічного розвитку Учасників
Договору чи міжнародного
співробітництва в галузі мирної
ядерної діяльності, включаючи
міжнародний обмін ядерним ма-
теріалом і устаткуванням для об-
робки, використання або вироб-
ництва ядерного матеріалу в мирних
цілях відповідно до положень цієї
Статті і принципу за-
provisions of this article and the стосування гарантій, викладеним у
principle of safeguarding set forth преамбулі Договору.
in the Preamble of the Treaty.
4. Non-nuclear-weapon States
Party to the Treaty shall conclude (4) Держави-учасниці Договору,
agreements with the International які не мають ядерної зброї,
Atomic Energy Agency to meet the укладають угоди з Міжнародним
requirements of this article either агентством з атомної енергії з метою
individually or together with other виконання вимог цієї Статті або в
States in accordance with the Statute індивідуальному порядку, або
of the International Atomic Energy спільно з іншими державами
Agency. Negotiation of such відповідно до Статуту Міжнародного
agreements shall commence within агентства з атомної енергії.
180 days from the original entry into Переговори про такі угоди
force of this Treaty. For States починаються протягом 180 днів з
depositing their instruments of часу первісного набуття чинності
ratification or accession after the цим Договором. Для держав, які
180-day period, negotiation of such здають на зберігання свої
agreements shall commence not ратифікаційні грамоти або
later than the date of such deposit. документи про приєднання після
Such agreements shall enter into закінчення періоду в 180 днів,
force not later than eighteen months переговори про такі угоди
after the date of initiation of починаються не пізніше дати такої
negotiations. здачі. Такі угоди набувають чинності
не пізніше вісімнадцяти місяців з дня
початку переговорів.
Article IV
1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be
interpreted as affecting the Стаття IV
inalienable right of all the Parties to (1) Ніяке положення цього
the Treaty to develop research, Договору не слід тлумачити як таке,
production and use of nuclear що зачіпає невід'ємне право всіх
energy for peaceful purposes Учасників Договору розвивати
without discrimination дослідження, виробництво та
використання ядерної енергії в
мирних цілях без дискримінації
209
and in conformity with articles I
and II of this Treaty.
2. All the Parties to the Treaty
undertake to fadlitate, and have
the right to participate in, the
fullest possible exchange of
equipment, materials and scien-
tific and technological informa-
tion for the peaceful uses of nu-
clear energy. Parties to the Treaty
in a position to do so shall also
cooperate in contributing alone
or together with other States or
international organizations to the
further development of the appli-
cations of nuclear energy for
peaceful purposes, especially in
the territories of non-nuclear-
weapon States Party to the
Treaty, with due consideration
for the needs of the developing
areas of the world.
Article V
Each party to the Treaty un
dertakes to take appropriate
measures to ensure that, in ac
cordance with this Treaty, under
appropriate international obser
vation and through appropriate
international procedures, poten
tial benefits from any peaceful
applications of nuclear explo
sions will be made available to
non-nuclear-weapon States
Party to the Treaty on a nondis-
criminatory basis and that the
і відповідно до Статей І та II цьо-
го Договору.
(2) Всі Учасники Договору зо-
бов'язуються сприяти якомога
повнішому обмінові устаткуван-
ням, матеріалами, науковою і
технічною інформацією про ви-
користання ядерної енергії в ми-
рних цілях і мають право брати
участь у такому обміні. Учасники
Договору, які спроможні робити
це, також співпрацюють у справі
сприяння окремо або спільно з
іншими державами чи міжнаро-
дними організаціями дальшому
розвиткові застосування ядерної
енергії в мирних цілях, особливо
на територіях держав-учасниць
Договору, що не мають ядерної
зброї, з належним урахуванням
потреб регіонів світу, що розви-
ваються.
Стаття V
Кожний з Учасників цього До-
говору зобов'язується вжити від-
повідних заходів з метою забезпе-
чення того, щоб відповідно до
цього Договору, під відповідним
міжнародним наглядом і шляхом
відповідних міжнародних проце-
дур потенційні блага від будь-
якого мирного застосування яде-
рних вибухів були доступні дер-
жавам-учасницям цього Договору,
які не мають ядерної зброї, на
недискримінаційній основі, і щоб
210
charge to such Parties for the
explosive devices used will be as
low as possible and exclude any
charge for research and devel-
opment.
Non-nuclear-weapon States
Party to the Treaty shall be able
to obtain such benefits, pursuant
to a special international agree-
ment or agreements, through an
appropriate international body
with adequate representation of
non-nuclear-weapon States. Ne-
gotiations on this subject shall
commence as soon as possible
after the Treaty enters into force.
Non-nuclear-weapon States
Party to the Treaty so desiring
may also obtain such benefits
pursuant to bilateral agreements.
Article VI
Each of the Parties to the
Treaty undertakes to pursue ne-
gotiations in good faith on effec-
tive measures relating to cessa-
tion of the nuclear arms race at
an early date and to nuclear
disarmament, and on a Treaty on
general and complete
disarmament under strict and
effective international control.
вартість використовуваних вибу-
хових пристроїв для таких Учас-
ників Договору була такою низь-
кою, як це тільки можливо, і не
включала витрат на їх досліджен-
ня та вдосконалення.
Держави-учасниці цього До-
говору, які не мають ядерної
зброї, зможуть отримувати такі
блага відповідно до спеціальної
міжнародної угоди або угод через
відповідний міжнародний орган,
в якому належно представлені
держави, що не мають ядерної
зброї. Переговори з цього
питання почнуться так швидко,
як це можливо, після набуття
чинності цим Договором.
Держави-учасниці цього До-
говору, які не мають ядерної
зброї, коли вони побажають цьо-
го, можуть також отримувати
такі блага відповідно до двосто-
ронніх угод.
Стаття VI
Кожний Учасник цього Дого-
вору зобов'язується в дусі доброї
волі вести переговори про ефек-
тивні заходи по припиненню го-
нки ядерних озброєнь у найбли-
жчому майбутньому і ядерному
роззброєнню, а також про дого-
вір про загальне і повне роззбро-
єння під суворим і ефективним
міжнародним контролем.
211
 Article VII
Nothing in this Treaty affects the
right of any group of States to
conclude regional treaties in order
to assure the total absence of
nuclear weapons in their respective
territories.
Article VIII
1. Any Party to the Treaty may
propose amendments to this
Treaty. The text of any proposed
amendment shall be submitted to
the Depositary Governments
which shall circulate it to all Par
ties to the Treaty. Thereupon, if
requested to do so by one-third
or more of the Parties to the
Treaty, the Depositary Govern
ments shall convene a confer
ence, to which they shall invite all
the Parties to the Treaty, to con
sider such an amendment.
2. Any amendment to this
Treaty must be approved by a
majority of the votes of all the
Parties to the Treaty, including
the votes of all nuclear-weapon
States Party to the Treaty and all
other Parties which, on the date
the amendment is circulated, are
members of the Board of Gov
ernors of the International
Atomic Energy Agency. The
amendment shall enter into
force for each Party that deposits
its instrument of ratification of
Стаття VII
Ніяке положення цього Договору
не зачіпає права будь-якої групи
держав укладати регіональні
договори з метою забезпечення
повної відсутності ядерної зброї на
їх відповідних територіях.
Стаття VIII
(1) Будь-який Учасник цього
Договору може запропонувати
поправки до цього Договору. Текст
будь-якої запропонованої поправки
подається урядам-депозитаріям,
котрі розсилають його всім
Учасникам Договору. Потім, якщо
цього вимагатиме одна третина або
більше Учасників Договору, уряди-
депозитарії скликають конференцію,
на яку вони запрошують усіх
Учасників Договору для розгляду
такої поправки.
(2) Будь-яка поправка до цього
Договору повинна бути затверджена
більшістю голосів усіх Учасників
Договору, включаючи голоси всіх
держав-учасниць цього Договору, що
мають ядерну зброю, і всіх інших
Учасників Договору, що є членами
Правління Міжнародного агентства з
атомної енергії на дату розсилки
такої поправки. Поправка набуває
чинності для кожного Учасника
Договору, який здає свою грамоту
про ратифікацію попра-
212
the amendment upon the deposit of
such instruments of ratification by a
majority of all the Parties, including
the instruments of ratification of all
nuclear-weapon States Party to the
Treaty and all other Parties which,
on the date the amendment is
circulated, are members of the
Board of Governors of the
International Atomic Energy
Agency. Thereafter, it shall enter
into force for any other Party upon
the deposit of its instrument of
ratification of the amendment.
3. Five years after the entry into
force of this Treaty, a conference of
Parties to the Treaty shall be held in
Geneva, Switzerland, in order to
review the operation of this Treaty
with a view to assuring that the
purposes of the Preamble and the
provisions of the Treaty are being
realized. At intervals of five years
thereafter, a majority of the Parties
to the Treaty may obtain, by sub-
mitting a proposal to this effect to
the Depositary Governments, the
convening of further Conferences
with the same objective of
reviewing the operation of the
Treaty.
Article IX
1. This Treaty shall be open to
вки, після здачі на зберігання таких
ратифікаційних грамот більшістю
всіх Учасників Договору,
включаючи ратифікаційні грамоти
всіх держав-учасниць цього
Договору, що мають ядерну зброю, і
всіх інших Учасників Договору, які є
членами Правління Міжнародного
агентства з атомної енергії, на дату
розсилки цієї поправки. Надалі вона
набуває чинності для будь-якого ін-
шого Учасника Договору після здачі
ним на зберігання своєї грамоти про
ратифікацію поправки.
(3) Через п'ять років після набуття
чинності цим Договором у Женеві
(Швейцарія) скликається
конференція Учасників Договору для
розгляду того, як діє цей Договір,
щоб мати впевненість у тому, що
цілі, викладені в преамбулі, та
положення Договору здійснюються.
Через кожні наступні п'ять років
більшість Учасників Договору може,
шляхом подання пропозиції з цією
метою урядам-депозитаріям, доби-
тися скликання подальших кон-
ференцій з тією ж метою розгляду
того, як діє Договір.
Стаття IX
(1) Цей Договір відкритий для
13

all States for signature. Any State
which does not sign the Treaty
before its entry into force in ac-
cordance with paragraph 3 of
this article may accede to it at
any time.
2. This Treaty shall be subject
to ratification by signatory
States. Instruments of ratifica-
tion and instruments of acces-
sion shall be deposited with the
Governments of the United
States of America, the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland and the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics,
which are hereby designated the
Depositary Governments.
3. This Treaty shall enter into
force after its ratification by the
States, the Governments of which
are designated Depositaries of the
Treaty, and forty other States sig-
natory to this Treaty and the de-
posit of their instruments of rati-
fication. For the purposes of this
Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is
one which has manufactured and
exploded a nuclear weapon or
other nuclear explosive device
prior to January 1, 1967.
4. For States whose instru
ments of ratification or acces
sion are deposited subsequent to
the entry into force of this
Treaty, it shall enter into force
on the date of the deposit of
підписання всіма державами.
Будь-яка держава, яка не підпи-
ше Договір до набуття ним чин-
ності, відповідно до пункту (3)
цієї Статті, може приєднатися до
нього в будь-який час.
(2) Цей Договір підлягає ра-
тифікації державами, які підписа-
ли його. Ратифікаційні грамоти і
документи про приєднання зда-
ються на зберігання урядам Сою-
зу Радянських Соціалістичних
Республік, Сполученого Королів-
ства Великої Британії та Північної
Ірландії і Сполучених Штатів
Америки, котрі цим признача-
ються урядами-депозитаріями.
(3) Цей Договір набуває чин-
ності після його ратифікації
державами, уряди яких призна-
чені депозитаріями Договору, і
сорока іншими державами, що
підписали цей Договір, та здачі
ними на зберігання ратифікацій-
них грамот. Для цілей цього До-
говору державою, що має ядерну
зброю, є держава, яка виробила і
підірвала ядерну зброю або ін-
ший ядерний вибуховий пристрій
до 1 січня 1967 року.
(4) Для держав, ратифікаційні
грамоти або документи про
приєднання яких будуть здані на
зберігання після набуття чиннос-
ті цим Договором, він набуває
чинності в день здачі на збері-
гання їхніх ратифікаційних гра-14
their instruments of ratification MOT або документів про приєд-
or accession. нання.
5. The Depositary Govern (5) Уряди-депозитарії безвідк-
ments shall promptly inform all ладно повідомляють всі держави,
signatory and acceding States of які підписали цей Договір і при-
the date of each signature, the єдналися до нього, про дату ко-
date of deposit of each instru жного підписання, дату здачі на
ment of ratification or of acces зберігання кожної ратифікаційної
sion, the date of the entry into грамоти або документа про
force of this Treaty, and the date приєднання, дату набуття чинно-
of receipt of any requests for сті цим Договором, дату одер-
convening a conference or other жання будь-яких вимог щодо
notices. скликання конференції, а також
про інші повідомлення.
6. This Treaty shall be regis (6) Цей Договір реєструється
tered by the Depositary Gov
урядами-депозитаріями відпові-
ernments pursuant to article 102
дно до Статті 102 Статуту Орга-
of the Charter of the United Na
нізації Об'єднаних Націй.
tions.
Article X Стаття X
1. Each Party shall in exercis-
ing its national sovereignty have
the right to withdraw from the
Treaty if it decides that extraor-
dinary events, related to the sub-
ject matter of this Treaty, have
jeopardized the supreme interests
of its country. It shall give notice
of such withdrawal to all other
Parties to the Treaty and to the
United Nations Security Council
three months in advance. Such
notice shall include a statement
of the extraordinary events it
regards as having jeopardized its
supreme interests.
(1) Кожний Учасник цього До-
говору в порядку здійснення свого
державного суверенітету має право
вийти з Договору, коли він
вирішить, що пов'язані зі
змістом цього Договору
виняткові обставини
поставили під загрозу найвищі
інтереси його країни. Про
такий вихід він повідомляє за
три місяці всіх Учасників
Договору і Раду Безпеки
Організації Об'єднаних Націй.
Таке повідомлення повинно
містити заяву про виняткові
обставини, які він розглядає як
такі, що поставили під загрозу
його найвищі інтереси. 215
 2. Twenty-five years after the
entry into force of the Treaty, a
conference shall be convened to
decide whether the Treaty shall
continue in force indefinitely, or
shall be extended for an addi-
tional fixed period or periods.
This decision shall be taken by a
majority of the Parties to the
Treaty.
Article XI
This Treaty, the English, Rus-
sian, French, Spanish and Chi-
nese texts of which are equally
authentic, shall be deposited in
the archives of the Depositary
Governments. Duly certified
copies of this Treaty shall be
transmitted by the Depositary
Governments to the Govern-
ments of the signatory and ac-
ceding States.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the
undersigned, duly authorized,
have signed this Treaty.
DONE in triplicate, at the cit-
ies of Washington, London and
Moscow, this first day of July
one thousand nine hundred sixty-
eight.
(2) Через двадцять п'ять років
після набуття Договором чинно-
сті скликається конференція для
того, щоб вирішити, чи повинен
Договір далі залишатися чинним
безстроково чи його дія повинна
бути продовжена на додатковий
певний період або періоди часу.
Це рішення приймається більші-
стю Учасників Договору.
Стаття XI
Цей Договір, російський, анг-
лійський, французький, іспансь-
кий і китайський тексти якого є
однаково автентичними, здається
на зберігання до архівів уря-дів-
депозитаріїв. Належним чином
завірені копії цього Договору
надсилаються урядами-
депозитаріями урядам держав, які
підписали Договір та приєд-
налися до нього.
На посвідчення чого нижче-
підписані, належним чином на те
уповноважені, підписали цей
Договір.
Вчинено у трьох примірниках,
у містах Москві, Вашингтоні і
Лондоні липня місяця 1 дня ти-
сяча дев'ятсот шістдесят восьмо-
го року.
Верховна Рада України,
Інститут
законодавства
«Закони України», том 14.
216
TRANSLATE INTO UKRAINIAN
1. Occasionally, I was led to conclude that shorter, clearer statements
of techniques could have been provided.
2. One can hardly object to this as a sort of first approach.
3. Rumour has it that some Labour insurrection was demanding for
Foreign Secretary's head and that he had to return from the Hague to
quell it.
4. Science is a continuing process and at no stage can one say that one's
knowledge is complete and final.
5. She shrugged an indifferent shoulder.
6. Specifically, explaining the data in terms of these principles may
purchase internal homogeneity and consistency in the picture at the
expense of their perhaps wider significances.
7. The Chancellor of the Exchequer shrugged off the unemployment
figures as «swollen».
8. They were snorting out of West Bowlby now. It was the next station,
thank Heaven.
9. This considered, there arises the same question of whether we
should allow for one or more than one solution.
10. This is not to deny, of course, that he is absolutely correct in this
respect.
11. This test is most unreliable; it should never, I think be used as the
sole criterion for a classification, though it can support a classifica-
tion established on other criteria.
217
12. Unless he has massively misrepresented the data, his proposed solutions
appear to be statistically well-grounded.
13. We would like to think that this is one of the more fruitful potential arenas
in which this original concept could be put to work in the future.
14. With these methodological preliminaries out of the way, let us turn now to
specific task of applying new techniques.
15. A conference held at the University of New Hampshire in October
produced this book.
16. «Ready?» said the old gentleman inquiringly, when his guests had been
washed, mended, brushed, and brandied.
17. As is obvious from the proceeding discussion, her arguments against my
approach are not only naive, but are also based on an incorrect
interpretation of the basic fact.
18. But how adequate is this assessment? There seem to be two points
regarding this position that are worth questioning.
19. But of course all this energy and innovation did not spring at one kangaroo-
bound out of a night at the Australian opera.
20. By intensive experiments, it is possible for a researcher to obtain
outstanding results.
21. Grouped under this topic are very diverse questions.
22. If Oakland office hadn't been affected by the quake, it wouldn't have
executed orders through the Sacramento office, which wasn't affected by
the quake.
23. It is in these terms that choice is built into the argument: choice exists in a
range of alternatives in any interaction.
218
24. It is unfortunate that an English translation of the monograph could
not have been published instead of an uncorrected reprint of the
original.
25. It was not until he has read for several days that he came upon a
story that quickened his pulse.
26. It was not, in fact, until the death after a month in office of President
William Henry Harrison in that the constitutional system was tested,
and its ambiguities exposed.
27. My main complaint is with the editors, who should have done more
to link the authors' contributions to questions and issues that lie at
the centre of the debate.
28.Nevertheless, it will be useful to begin this survey with those proc
esses that are in fact associated with the elimination of dislocations.
These are of two distinct types.
29. Results strongly suggest that these observations do not match com
monly held perceptions.
30. The account I have offered of this phenomenon is in some ways rather
remote from traditional discussions.
31. The auditors' report confirmed a stream of mysterious payments to
Switzerland, many after the Indian contract had been entered into.
32. The author offered explanations of his methods; but they are brief and one
is left to figure out his conceptual methodology.
33. The new American Express Optima card will complement, rather than
replace, the existing green, gold and platinum cards.
34. The point that has just been made is often presented as if it were a
damaging point of criticism against my theory.
219
35. The text appears to have been prepared by non-native speakers of SHEVCHENKO'S POETRY IN ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS
English, which results in some linguistic oddities.

36. The Times yesterday warned editorially that the government was MY TESTAMENT
going to resign.

37. The value of his research is certainly not to be underestimated. When I am dead, bury me
In my beloved Ukraine,
38. There is the greatest future for the Britain people once they take their My tomb upon a grave mound high
destinies into their own hands. Amid the spreading plain,
So that the fields, the boundless steppes,
39. This is bound to get me a bad name as a sportsman, but let me say at The Dnieper's plunging shore
once that I have nothing against the killing of animals. My eyes could see, my ears could hear
The mighty river roar.
40. This needs to be viewed as an inherent quality. When from Ukraine the Dnieper bears
Into the deep blue sea
41. Translating from one language to another has been accomplished by The blood of foes... then will I leave
computer. These hills and fertile fields -
I'll leave them all and fly away
42. Unless they can push these corporate welfare plans through, the lib- To the abode of God,
erals will be stuck for the foreseeable future with the priorities im- And then I'll pray.... But till that day
posed on them by the Reagan administration. I nothing know of God.
Oh bury me, then rise ye up
43. Various formalizations of the vicious circle principle as well as the And break your heavy chains
point at which the continuum is impredictive are discussed. And water with the tyrants' blood
The freedom you have gained.
44. We are confident peace can be maintained once the determination is And in the great new family,
there. The family of the free,
With softly spoken, kindly word
45. Working under hard conditions were all the early students of this Remember also me.
new field.
Pereyaslav,
December 25, 1845

Translated by John Weir

Toronto, 1961
220
221
Day dawns, then comes the twilight grey,
True justice, strength, and liberty!
The limit of the live-long day; For weary
Gain knowledge, brothers! Think and read,
people sleep seems best And all God's
And to your neighbours' gifts pay heed, -
creatures go to rest. I, only, grieve like
Yet do not thus neglect your own:
one accursed, Through all the hours both
For he who is forgetful shown
last and first, Sad at the crossroads, day
Of his own mother, graceless elf,
and night, With no one there to see my
Is punished by our God Himself.
plight; No one can see me, no one knows
Strangers will turn from such as he
me; All men are deaf, no ears disclose me;
And grudge him hospitality -
Men stand and trade their mutual chains
Nay, his own children grow estranged;
And barter truth for filthy gains,
Though one so evil may have ranged
Committing shame against the Lord By
The whole wide earth, he shall not find
harnessing for black reward People in
A home to give him peace of mind.
yokes and sowing evil In fields
Sadly I weep when I recall
commissioned by the Devil... And what
The unforgotten deeds of all
will sprout? You soon will see What kind
Our ancestors: their toilsome deeds!
of harvest there will be! Come to your
Could I forget their pangs and needs,
senses, ruthless ones, О stupid children,
I, as my price, would than suppress
Folly's sons! And bring that peaceful
Half of my own life's happiness...
paradise, Your own Ukraine, before your
Such is our glory, sad and plain,
eyes; Then let your heart, in love sincere,
The glory of our own Ukraine!
Embrace her mighty ruin here! Break
I would advise you so to read
then your chains, in love unite, Nor seek
That you may see, in very deed,
in foreign lands the sight Of things not
No dream but all the wrongs of old
even found above, Still less in lands that
That burial mounds might here unfold
strangers love... Then in your own house
Before your eyes in martyred hosts,
you will see
That you might ask those grisly ghosts:
Who were the tortured ones, in fact,
And why, and when, were they so racked?...
222
223
 Then o my brothers, as a start, Come,
clasp your brothers to your heart, -So let
your mother smile with joy And dry her
tears without annoy. Blest be your
children in these lands By touch of your
toil-hardened hands, And, duly washed,
kissed let them be With lips that speak of
liberty! Then all the shame of days of old,
Forgotten, shall no more be told; Then
shall our day of hope arrive, Ukrainian
glory shall revive, No twilight but the
dawn shall render And break forth into
novel splendour.... Brother, embrace!
Your hopes possess, I beg you in all
eagerness!
Viunishcha, December 14, 1845
Translated by C. H. Andrusyshen & W. Kirkconnell
Translated by Clarence A. Manning
Columbia University New York, 1944
IT MAKES NO DIFFERENCE TO ME
It makes no difference to me, If I
shall live or not in Ukraine Or
whether any one shall think Of me
'mid foreign snow and rain. It makes
no difference to me. In slavery I
grew 'mid strangers, Unwept by any
kin of mine; In slavery I now will
die And vanish without any sign. I
shall not leave the slightest trace
Upon our glorious Ukraine, Our
land, but not as ours known. No
father will remind his son Or say to
him, «Repeat one prayer, One prayer
for him; for our Ukraine They
tortured him in their foul lair.» It
makes no difference to me, If that
son says a prayer or not. It makes
great difference to me That evil folk
and wicked men Attack our Ukraine,
once so free, And rob and plunder it
at will. That makes great difference
to me.
St. Petersburg
Citadel Prison
May, 1847
224 225
 I WAS THIRTEEN
I was thirteen. I herded lambs
Beyond the village on the lea.
The magic of the sun, perhaps,
Or what was it affected me?
I felt with joy all overcome,
As though with God....
The time for lunch had long passed by,
And still among the weeds I lay
And prayed to God.... I know not why
It was so pleasant then to pray
For me, an orphan peasant boy,
Or why such bliss so filled me there?
The sky seemed bright, the village fair,
The very lambs seemed to rejoice!
The sun's rays warmed but did not sear!
But not for long the sun stayed kind,
Not long in bliss I prayed....
It turned into a ball of fire
And set the world ablaze.
As though just wakened up, I gaze:
The hamlet's drab and poor,
And God's blue heavens -even they
Are glorious no more.
I look upon the lambs I tend -
Those lambs are not my own!
I eye the hut wherein I dwell -
I do not have a home!
God gave me nothing, naught at all....
I bowed my head and wept
Such bitter tears.... And then a lass57
Who had been sorting hemp
Not far from there, down by the path,
Heard my lament and came
Across the field to comfort me;
She spoke a soothing phrase
And gendy dried my weeping eyes
And kissed my tear-wet face....
It was as though the sun had smiled,
As though all things on earth were mine,
My own.... the orchards, fields and groves!...
And, laughing merrily the while,
The master's lambs to drink we drove.
Oh, how disgusting!... Yet, when I
Recall those days, my heart is sore
That there my brief life's span the Lord
Did not grant me to live and die.
There, plowing, I'd have passed away,
With ignorance my life-long lot,
I'd not an outcast be today,
I'd not be cursing Man and God!...
Orsk Fortress,
1847
Translated by John Weir
Toronto, 1961
 57
Oksana Kovalenko to whom Shevchenko dedicated the Poem to Oksana,
May 1847 while in prison in the St. Petersburg Citadel.
226 227
 SHEVCHENKO'S LAST POEM
Should we not then cease, my friend,
My poor dear neighbour, make an end
Of versifying useless rhymes?
Prepare our waggons for the time
When we that longest road must wend?
Into the other world, my friend,
To God, we'll hasten to our rest...
We have grown weary, utter-tired,
A little wisdom we've acquired,
It should suffice! To sleep is best,
Let us now go home to rest...
A home of gladness, you may know!
No, let us not depart, nor go —
It is early still,
We shall yet take walks together,
Sit, and gaze our fill,
Gaze upon the world, my fortune,
See how wide it spreads,
Wide and joyful, it is both
Bright, and of great depth!
We shall yet take walks my star,
On a hill climb high,
And take our rest together.....And
Your sister-stars, meanwhile, The
ageless ones, will start to shine,
Through the heavens glide... Let us
linger then, my sister,
Thou, my holy bride,
And with lips unsullied we shall
Make our prayer to God,
And then set out quietly
On that longest road,
Over Lethe's plumbless depths,
Waters dark and swarthy,
Grant me then thy blessing, friend,
With thy holy glory.
While this and that and all such wear on,
Straight let us go, as the crow flies,
To Aesculapeus for advice,
If he can outwit old Charon
And spinning Fate... And then, as long as
The old sage would change his purpose,
We would create, reclining there,
An epic, soaring everywhere
Above the earth, hexameters
We'd twine, and up the attic stairs
Take them for mice to gnaw. Then we
Would sing prose, yet with harmony
And not haphazard.
Holy friend,
Companion to my journey's end,
Before the fire has ceased to glow,
Let us to Charon, rather, go!
Over Lethe's plumbless depths,
Waters dark and swarthy,
Let us sail, let us bear
228 229
 With us holy glory,
Ageless, young for evermore...
Or -friend, let it be!
I will do without the glory,
Ifthey grant it me,
There on the banks of Phlegethon,
Or beside the Styx, in heaven,
As if by the broad Dnipro, there
In a grove, a grove primaeval,
A little house I'll build, and make
An orchard all around it growing,
And you'll fly to me in the shades,
There, like a beauty, I'll enthrone you;
Dnipro and Ukraina we
Shall recollect, gay villages
In woodlands, gravehills in the steppes,
And we shall sing right merrily.
February 14-15, 1861 St.
Petersburg
Translated by Vera Rich
London, 1961
Translated by John Weir
Toronto
A REFLECTION
The river empties to the sea,
But out it never flows;
The Cossack lad his fortune seeks,
But never fortune knows.
The Cossack lad has left his home,
He's left his kith and kind;
The blue sea's waters splash and foam,
Sad thoughts disturb his mind:
«Why, heedless, did you go away?
For what did you forsake
Your father old, your mother grey,
Your sweetheart, to their fate?
In foreign lands live foreign folks,
Their ways are not your way:
There will be none to share your woes
Or pass the time of day.»
Across the sea, the Cossack rests —
The choppy sea's distraught.
He thought with fortune to be blessed —
Misfortune is his lot.
In vee-formation, 'cross the waves
The cranes are off for home.
The Cossack weeps - his beaten paths
With weeds are overgrown...
St. Petersburg, 1838
230 231
 MYTHOUGHTS
My thorny thoughts, my thorny thoughts,
You bring me only woe!
Why do you on the paper stand
So sadly row on row?...
Why did the winds not scatter you
Like dust across the steppes?
Why did ill-luck not cradle you
To sleep upon its breast?...
My thoughts, my melancholy thoughts,
My children, tender shoots!
I nursed you, brought you up - and now
What shall I do with you?...
Go to Ukraine, my homeless waifs!
Your way make to Ukraine
Along back roads like vagabonds,
But I'm doomed here to stay.
There you will find a heart that's true
And words of welcome kind,
There honesty, unvarnished truth
And, maybe, fame you'll find...
So welcome them, my Motherland,
Ukraine, into your home!
Accept my guileless, simple brood
And take them for your own!
St. Petersburg, 1839.
Translated by John Weir
RUDYARD KIPLING РЕДЬЯРД КІПЛІНҐ
IF ЯКЩО
If you can keep your head when all Як вистоїш, коли всі проти тебе-
about you Упали духом і тебе кленуть, і Як
Are losing theirs and blaming it on всупереч усім ти віриш в себе, А
you, з їх невіри також візьмеш суть;
If you can trust yourself when all
men doubt you,
But make allowance for their
doubting too;
If you can wait and not be tired by Якщо чекати зможеш ти не-
waiting, втомно,
Or being lied about, don't deal in Оббріханий - мовчати і пройти
lies, Під поглядом ненависті, притому
Or being hated, don't give way to Не грати цноти ані доброти;
hating,
And yet don't look too good, nor
talk too wise;
Як зможеш мріять -в
If you can dream - and not make мрійництво не впасти, І
dreams your master; думать - не творити думки
If you can think - and not make культ,
thoughts your aim; Якщо Тріумф, зарівно як Не-
If you can meet with Triumph and щастя, Сприймеш як дим і вітер
Disaster на віку;
And treat those two imposters just
the same;
Якщо стерпиш, як з правди твого
If you can bear to hear the truth слова
you've spoken Пройдисвіт ставить пастку на
Twisted by knaves to make a trap простих,
for fools, Якщо впаде все, чим ти жив, і
Or watch the things you gave your знову Зумієш все почати - і
life to, broken, звести;
And stoop and build 'em up with
worn-out tools;
232 233

If you can make one heap of all
your winnings
And risk it on one turn of pitch and
toss,
And lose, and start again at your
beginnings
And never breathe a word about
your loss;
If you can force your heart and
nerve and sinew
To serve your turn long after they
are gone,
And so hold on when there is noth-
ing in you
Except the Will which says to them:
«Hold on!»
If you can talk with crowds and
keep your virtue,
Or walk with kings - nor lose the
common touch,
If neither foes nor loving friends
can hurt you,
If all men count with you, but none
too much;
If you can fill the unforgiving min-
ute
With sixty seconds' worth of dis-
tance run,
Yours is the Earth and everything
that's in it,
And - which is more - you'll be a
Man, my son!
23
4
Якщо ти зможеш в пориві од-
ному
Поставить все на карту - і про-
грать,
А потім - все спочатку, і нікому
Про втрати й слова навіть не
сказать;
Якщо ти змусиш Серце, Нерви,
Жили
Служити ще, коли уже в тобі
Усе згоріло, вигасло - лишилась
Одна лиш Воля - встоять в бо-
ротьбі;
Як зможеш гідно річ вести з юр-
бою
І з Королем не втратиш просто-
ти,
Якщо усі рахуються з тобою -На
відстані, яку відміриш ти;
Якщо ущерть наповниш біг хви-
лини
Снагою дум, енергією дій, Тоді
весь світ тобі належить, сину, І
більше: ти - Людина, сину мій.
Переклад Євгена Сверстюка
ЛІНА КОСТЕНКО
Затінок, сутінок, день золотий.
Плачуть і моляться білі тро-
янди.
Може це я, або хто, або ти ось
там сидить у куточку веранди.
Може, він плаче, а може, він
жде-
кроки почулись чи скрипнула
хвіртка.
Може, він встане, чолом при-
паде,
там, на веранді, чолом до
одвірка.
Де ж ви, ті люди, що в хаті
жили?
Світку мій білий, яке тут роз-
долля!
Смуток нащадків - як танець
бджоли,
танець бджоли до безсмертно-
го поля. Може, це вже через
тисячу літ
я і не я вже, розбуджена в ге-
нах,
тут на землі я шукаю хоч слід
роду мого у плачах та леген-
дах!
Голос криниці, чого ж ти за-
мовк?
Руки шовковиць, чого ж ви
заклякли? Вікна забиті, і
висить замок -
LINAKOSTENKO
A shady spot, twilight, a golden day.
White roses cry and pray.
Perhaps it's me, or someone, or you
over there sitting in a corner of the
veranda.
Perhaps he's crying, or waiting -
he heard footsteps, or the wicket gate
squeaked.
Perhaps he'll get up, hang his head,
there, on the veranda, pressed to the
door.
Where are you, people, who used to
live in this house?
My wide world, what flat lands lie
here all around!
The sadness of posterity - like the
dance of a bee,
the dance of the bee to the immortal
field.
Perhaps after a thousand years -
I will not be me, but awakened in
genes,
here on the earth I will seek out the
trace
of my lineage at least in laments and
legends!
Voice of the well, why have you gone
silent?
Arms of mulberry trees, why have you
grown stiff with cold?
Windows nailed shut, and the lock
hanging -
a rusty ring above the claw of the
knob.
235
ржава сережка над кігтиком
клямки.
Білий причілок оббила сльота.
Хто там квилить у цій хаті но-
чами?
Може, живе там сама самота,
соває пустку у піч рогачами.
Може, це біль наш, а може, вина,
може, бальзам на занедбані душі-
спогад криниці і спогад вікна,
спогад стежини і дикої груші...
Rainy weather beats the white side of
the building.
Who wails there in this house in the
nights?
Perhaps loneliness lives there alone,
stuffing the empty house in the oven
with tongs.
Perhaps this is our pain, perhaps our
guilt,
perhaps a balsam for neglected souls -
memory of a well and memory of a
window,
memory of a path and a wild pear...
Translated by Michael M. Naydan
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE..............................................................................................................5
Lecture 1. LANGUAGE AND EXTRALINGUISTIC WORLD..............................7
Lecture 2. LANGUAGE SYSTEM: PARADIGMS AND SYNTAGMAS............14
Lecture 3. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION....................21
Lecture 4. TRANSLATION DEFINITION.........................................................30
Lecture 5. BASIC TRANSLATION THEORIES.................................................40
Lecture 6. TRANSLATION RANKING..............................................................49
Lecture 7. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE AND EQUIVALENTS...............58
Lecture 8. TRANSLATION AND STYLE...........................................................68
Lecture 9. TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION.....................................78
Lecture 10. BASIC TRANSLATION DEVICES..................................................90
Lecture 11. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF
EQUIVALENTS.......................................................................................101
Lecture 12. TRANSLATION VARIETIES........................................................Ill
Lecture 13. LITERARY TRANSLATION..........................................................119
Lecture 14. TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH.................................................127
Lecture 15. INTERPRETATION: BASIC SKILLS AND TRAINING
METHODS...............................................................................................137
Lecture 16. MACHINE AND COMPUTER-AIDED TRANSLATION...........151
Lecture 17. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS: TEXT
FRAMES...................................................................................................164
Lecture 18. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS:
GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS....................................................................177
APPENDIX. TEXT PATTERNS AND ADDITIONAL TRAINING
MATERIAL..............................................................................................190
236 237
 Навчальне видання

Г.Е.Мірам, В.В.Дайнеко, Л.А.Тарануха,

М.В.Грищенко, О.М.Гон

ОСНОВИ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ
Курс лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу для
факультетів та інститутів міжнародних відносин
Мірам Г.Е. та ін.
М63 Основи перекладу: Курс лекцій; Навчальний посібник - К.: Ельга,
Ніка-Центр, 2002. - 240 с. ISBN 966-521-160-9
Редактор англійського тексту Н. Брешко Навчальний посібник «Основи перекладу» є першою частиною ку-
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Оригінал-макет О.В.Гашенко
рокого гуманітарного профіля, зокрема, міжнародних відносин, між-
народного права, міжнародної інформації, міжнародних економічних
відносин.
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ББК 81я73
Підписано до друку 4.03.2002. Формат 60x84/16.
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Тираж 2000 прим. Зам. №2-15.

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Свідоцтво №23495978 від 27.04.95
e-mail:elga@svitonline.com ISBN 966-521-160-9

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