Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center
Subject: Forensic Ballistics
Review Notes in
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
I. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
The term ballistics evolved from two
ancient words: ‘ballista’ and ‘ballein’. Ballista
was the description of a huge catapult (an
ancient military weapon) used by the Romans
to hurl large stones at a particular distance to
kill animals or to fight their enemies. Ballistics
basically means an activity that involves
throwing.
In a technical sense, ballistics is the
science of the motion of projectiles from the
moment of firing until impact at the target. It
covers the scientific study of the propulsion
(driving force), flight, and impact (destructive
action) of projectiles.
A. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
1. Internal ballistics, also called initial
ballistics deals with the motion of a
projectile while it is still inside the gun. It
is the study focused on what happens
inside the gun during firing.
2. Transitional ballistics, also known as
intermediate ballistics, is the study of a
projectile's behavior from the time it
leaves the muzzle until the pressure
behind the projectile is equalized.
Therefore, it lies between internal
ballistics and external ballistics.
3. External ballistics deals with the motion
of the projectile from the time it escapes
from the gun muzzle until it reaches the
target. It is the study of what happens
during the bullet's flight.
4. Terminal ballistics deals with the effect of
the projectile on the target. It is the study
of what happens when the projectile
strikes the target.
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Another significant area of ballistics is
wound ballistics. Closely associated with
terminal ballistics, wound ballistics is however
primarily concerned with the nature and
medical implications of physical injury and
shock caused by bullets and explosively driven
fragments.
Forensic ballistics is the more important
area of this science in relation to police works.
It is the application of ballistics principles to
legal matters. Forensic ballistics embodies the
principles of internal, transitional, external, and
terminal ballistics.
B. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
1. PROJECTILE - an object that can be
fired or launched, such as bullet, artillery
shell, or rocket; could be a metallic or
non-metallic object propelled from a
firearm
2. FIREARM - basically termed as a gun; a
portable weapon such as pistol or rifle
that discharges ammunition; technically,
it is a weapon consisting essentially of a
metal tube that fires a projectile by using
the force of an explosive propellant; a
firearm is an instrument used for the
propulsion of projectiles by means of the
expansive force of gases coming from
burning gunpowder
Legally speaking, firearms or
arms include rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotguns, pistols, revolvers, and other
deadly weapons from which bullets,
balls, shots, shells, or other missiles
maybe discharged by means of
gunpowder or other explosives. This
term also includes air rifles except those
of small caliber and of limited range that
are used as toys. The barrel of any
firearm is considered a complete firearm
for all purposes under the law.

3. AMMUNITION - general term applied to
metallic cartridges and shot shells used
in firearms; any unfired assembly of
primer, powder and ball which might be
used in a firearm
Legally speaking, ammunition
refers to any loaded shell for rifles,
muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers,
and pistols, from which a bullet, ball,
shot, shell, or other missile may be fired
by means of gunpowder or other
explosive. The term also includes
ammunition for air rifles, except those
that are loaded in toy rifles that have
small caliber and limited range.
4. PROPELLANT - an explosive charge
that projects a bullet from a gun; the
gunpowder loaded in a cartridge or
shotgun shell which, when ignited by the
primer flash, is converted to gas under
high pressure and launches a projectile
through the barrel and on to the target
5. RIFLING - spiral lands and grooves
found at the bore of the gun barrel
C. INTERNAL BALLISTICS
Since internal ballisticians are interested on
what is happening inside the gun during
firing, their analysis is directed on the
following phenomena:
1. How the firing pin hits the primer
2. Ignition of the priming mixture
3. Combustion of the
gunpowder/propellant
4. Expansion of heated gases
5. Development of pressure
generation of energy
6. Recoil
7. Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
8. Rotation of the bullet in the barrel
9. Engraving of the bullet’s surface
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
D. EXTERNAL BALLISTICS
Trajectory, velocity and range of
projectiles are the more important ballistics
phenomena studied by exterior ballisticians.
More significant factors that affect these
external ballistics phenomena are as follows:
1. Interior ballistics data such as: shape
of projectile, caliber of the projectile,
projectile weight, and rotation of bullet
2. Initial velocity (IV) which also called
muzzle velocity
3. Air resistance also called drag
4. Drift
5. Projectile stability
6. Gravitational pull
TRAJECTORY refers to the curved path
of projectile from the moment it leaves the gun
muzzle until it hits the target. Galileo claimed
that trajectory of projectile is like a parabola
however this is true only in a vacuum.
DRIFT significantly affects the normal
trajectory of projectiles. It refers to the lateral
deviation of the bullet’s trajectory from the
vertical plane through the axis of the bore
caused by the rotation of the projectile.
RANGE simply refers to the linear
distance between the gun muzzle and the
target. In exterior ballistics, the two types of
range discussed are:
1. Accurate range - also called maximum
effective range; the distance within which
the shooter has control of his shots such
that he can place his bullets at the desired
specific spots.
–
2. Maximum range - also called absolute
maximum range; the farthest distance that
a projectile can be propelled from a firearm
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AIR RESISTANCE (drag) is the force
that opposes the forward motion of projectiles.
E. TERMINAL BALLISTICS
Terminal ballisticians are involved in
studying these phenomena:
1. Terminal penetration - the depth of
bullet penetration on the target
2. Terminal energy - the striking
power/force of the projectile when its
strikes the target.
3. Terminal velocity - the speed of the
projectile when it strikes the target
4. Terminal accuracy - the size of the
bullet group on the target
When a projectile hits its target, terminal
ballistics phenomenon that occurs may be
one or a combination of the following:
1. Indentation
2. Penetration
3. Perforation
4. Ricochet
5. Fragmentation
6. Detonation and other related blast
phenomena
7. Combustion and incendiary effects
II. FIREARMS
A. HISTORY
The first firearms that were developed
were small arms in the form of miniature
artillery weapons and were at first called hand
cannons. These are classified as follows.
1. FIRELOCK - a simple, smooth-bore
tube of iron, closed at the breech end
except for an opening called a
touchhole. It was set into a rounded
piece of wood for holding under the arm
2. MATCHLOCK - essentially the same as
the firelock, except that the slow match
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
was clamped in the top of a device
called serpentine - an S-shaped piece
of metal pivoted in the center
3. WHEEL-LOCK - has improved firing
mechanism compared to firelock and
matchlock; the firing mechanism
consisted of a spring-driven wheel
4. FLINTLOCK - the final development of
the flint-ignition firearm. It resembled
the snaphance, except that the striker
plate was L-shaped. The bottom limb
of the L was used as a cover for the
priming pan, to protect the powder from
moisture until the upper limb was struck
by the flint of the hammer.
In 1807, the Scottish clergyman
named Alexander John Forsyth invented
the percussion-ignition system that led to
the development of the first effective
breech-loading firearms. Breech-loading
firearms are those loaded through the rear
of the barrel rather than through the
muzzle. The first 19th-century breech-
loading guns used cartridge containing only
black powder and a ball. Such weapons
was usually equipped with a nipple holding
a percussion cap that was fired by the
impact of the hammer (or striker) when
released by the trigger.
During the early 20th century,
before World War I, rifles were invented
that used the forces of recoil or the
pressure of the propellant gases to operate
the reloading mechanism. Some of these
improved weapons fed with continuous
belts of cartridges were called machine
guns. The first known true machinegun
was the Maxim gun developed by an
American inventor named Hiram Stevens
Maxim.
The earlier versions of automatic
rifles are called semiautomatic because
they reload and re-cock automatically after
each shot, and require release and another
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pull of the trigger to fire each succeeding
shot. One of the more popular
semiautomatic rifles that were used during
the 2nd World War was the caliber 30 M1
Garand rifle developed by John C. Garand.
This rifle was officially adopted by the US
military in January 9, 1936 as the first
automatic rifle to be the standard infantry
arm of a major army.
It was during the 2nd World War that
military troops such as artillerymen,
engineers, and signalmen were armed with
the M1 Carbine. The first known carbine
was developed by David Williams a.k.a
Carbine. M1 Carbine was considerably
lighter and has shorter range compared to
rifle thus it is more suited to occasional use
for defense.
In 1957, the M14 rifle was adopted
by the US Army to replace the M1 carbine.
The M16 rifle, which permits full- or semi-
automatic fire, was introduced in 1966,
during the Vietnam War.
B. CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
According to the caliber of projectiles
propelled, the two main types of firearms
are artillery and small arms.
1. Artillery - firearms that propel
projectiles with diameter of more
than one inch; large-caliber guns
such as mortars, bazookas and
howitzers, including cannons.
2. Small arms - portable weapons that
developed from artillery and
cannons; this group usually
includes rifles, carbines, muskets,
shotguns, revolvers, pistols, and
submachine guns
Another way to classify firearms is
according to gun barrel internal
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
construction. Basing on interior
construction of the barrel, the two general
types of firearms are:
1. Smooth-bore firearms (or simply
smoothbores)
2. Rifled-bore guns (or simply rifled
guns/firearms)
Smoothbores are those that do not have
rifling inside their barrels. The interior
surface of their bore is smooth from end to
end. On the other hand, rifled guns are
those that have spiral lands and grooves at
the bore (interior surface of their barrel).
Almost all modern pistols, revolvers and
rifles have rifling while most muskets and
shotguns do not have.
Small arms maybe classified according to
barrel length. Small arms could either have
long or short barrels. Long-barreled
weapons are designed for long-range
shooting while short-barreled guns are
accurate only at relatively short ranges. All
shoulder firearms and high-caliber
machineguns fall under long-barreled
weapons. On the other hand, pistols,
revolvers and submachine guns are
classified as short-barreled weapons.
Small arms can be categorized also
according to general use and design.
Based on this, small arms can be classified
as handguns, shoulder firearms, machine
guns, and sub-machine guns.
Another basis in classifying small arms is
the mechanical construction of the loading
and firing mechanism. The types of
firearms according to mechanical
construction are as follows:
1. Single-shot firearms: These are
guns designed to fire only one shot
for every loading.
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2. Bolt-action type: Firearms of this
type are usually classified also as
single-shot types. Reloading is
done by manual manipulation of the
bolt.
3. Repeating firearms: These are
weapons that are capable of firing
several shots in one loading since
they are equipped with semi-
automatic firing mechanism.
4. Automatic-loading type: These are
rapid-fire weapons since they are
equipped with full-automatic firing
mechanism. After the first shot, the
chamber is automatically fed with
new cartridge.
5. Slide-action type: Firearms of this
type are capable of feeding the
chamber by the backward-forward
manipulation of the gun’s fore-end.
6. Lever-type: The loading takes
place by applying lever action gun’s
stock. This group of firearms is also
called break-type.
From the very start, handguns were
designed as compact weapons for self-
defense. There are two general groups of
handguns:
1. revolvers
2. pistols
Pistols refer to small portable firearm that
can be held, aimed, and fired with one
hand. They have a short barrel (not longer
than one foot) with a lock-and-load firing
mechanism at the breech area.
One way to classify revolver is according to
mechanical firing action. Based on this,
revolvers can be classified as:
1. Single-action type - revolvers that
need manual cocking of the
hammer before squeezing the
trigger
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
2. Double-action type – the type that
does not need manual cocking;
pressing the trigger both cocks and
releases the hammer causing a
more rapid manner of firing
Shoulder firearms are those normally fired
at shoulder level using both hands. This
group of firearms includes the following:
1. Muskets
2. Rifles
3. Carbines
4. Shotguns
C. PARTS OF FIREARMS
The 4 basic mechanisms of firearm:
1. BARREL MECHANISM: This firearm
mechanism is primarily composed
of a metallic tube that initiates the
path of the bullet. It includes the
front sign, flash suppressor and
other attachments. The interior
surface of the barrel may be smooth
or rifled. Revolvers, pistols, rifles,
machine guns and submachine
guns have rifled barrels while
common shotguns have smooth-
bore barrels.
2. CHAMBER: This is a widened hole at
the breech end of the barrel. The
chamber serves to contain the
cartridge while it is properly
positioned for firing.
3. BREECH MECHANISM: This
mechanism closes the rear end of
the barrel, holding the cartridge in
the chamber. All modern small
arms have some way by which the
breech can be opened for loading
and locked for safety. Most small
arms usually have a metal cylinder
called bolt that is locked when the
gun is fired. This is drawn back to
eject the empty cartridge case and
to reload.
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4. FIRING MECHANISM: In most
firearms, the firing mechanism
consists mainly of the firing spin,
hammer, sear, and trigger. For
hammerless firearms, a spring
drives the firing pin through the
breech bolt against the primer of the
cartridge. The firing pin is cocked
(drawn back) against a hook called
the sear. When the trigger is
pulled, the sear releases the firing
pin, which in turn strikes the primer.
Some machineguns have firing
mechanism activated by a small
amount of electricity.
Functions of the standard parts of common
firearms:
 Part Description/Purpose
Action - the main operating mechanism
of a firearm that loads, fires,
and ejects the cartridge
Barrel - gives direction to the bullet; the
part of the gun that initiates the
path of the bullet
Breech - the part of the barrel at the
opposite end of the muzzle
Breech- - also known as the bolt, it is the
block steel block that closes the
breech against the force of the
charge during firing; the face of
this block which comes in
contact with the base of the
cartridge is the breech-face
Butt - the part of the stock which is
held against the shoulder to
stabilize the gun during firing
(for rifles and shotguns)
Chambe - the part of the bore into which a
r cartridge is placed; the
enlarged space at the breech of
the barrel where the cartridge is
fed
Choke - the constriction in smoothbore
barrels designed to cause the
shot to leave the bore in a more
dense pattern and retain this
pattern for longer range
Cylinder - the part of the revolver that
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
serves as the magazine as well
as chamber for cartridges
Ejector - the mechanism that throws the
empty shell (cartridge case)
from the firearm
Extractor - the mechanism that pulls the
empty shell from the chamber
Forearm - also called for-end; the part of
the stock under the barrel held
by one hand of the shooter to
maintain proper balance of the
gun while firing
Frame - also called receiver, the part of
the gun that houses the internal
parts; the body of a firearm to
which the barrel, stock, pistol
grip, sights, etc. are fixed and
within which lies the firing and
breech mechanism
Grip - the smaller part of the stock
behind the trigger guard (for
rifles and shotguns); the part of
the gun firmly held the shooter
thus stabilizing the aim while
squeezing the trigger;
Hammer - the part of the firing mechanism
in revolvers and some pistol
that is released by the sear or
the main spring once the trigger
is pressed; it strikes the firing
pin causing the pin to move
forward and hit the primer
Magazin - a device for storing cartridges in
e a repeating firearm for loading
into the chamber
Main - the spring in a pistol or revolver
spring which propels the hammer
Muzzle - the end of the front end of the
barrel where the bullet or pellet
exits
Front - the fixed sight on top of the
sight barrel near the muzzle used to
aim the gun at the target
Rear - the sight found at the top of the
sight breech area; this sight can be
moved to change where the
bullet will hit
Recoil - the spring in automatic or self-
spring loading weapons which returns
the bolt or breech block after
recoil; sometimes known as the
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return spring
Trigger - the part of the gun that initiates
the action when the shooter is
ready to fire his weapon
Trigger - the safety device designed to
Guard protect the trigger from
accidental bumping or pressing
that may result to accidental
firing
Safety - the gun mechanism that
prevents the firearm from firing;
it may be a button, moveable
pin, lever, thumb hammer or
sliding plate
Note: A hard blow or dropping
the firearm could still cause it to
fire. Always have your safety
on until ready to shoot.
Sear - the part of the firing
mechanism, linked to the
trigger, which engages with the
hammer or striker against
spring pressure and, when
pulled clear by trigger action,
allows firing
Stock - the wooden, plastic, or metal
frame that holds the barrel and
action; used to get and keep
the aim of the shooter; it helps
in absorbing the recoil when
firing
Striker - alternative term for the firing pin
when that firing pin is axially
mounted and spring propelled
inside the bolt
III. AMMUNITION
Technically, the term cartridge is used
to describe a complete unfired unit consisting
of bullet, cartridge case, propellant (gun
powder), and primer. Ammunition for large
caliber guns (such as artillery) is called shell,
ammunition for rifles and handguns is usually
called cartridge.
Parts of Standard Ammunition for Small
Arms:
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
1. Bullet - also called slug; the projectile
propelled from a firearm by means of
the expansive force of gases coming
from burning gunpowder
2. Cartridge Case - also called shell; is the
tubular metallic container for the
gunpowder
3. Propellant - the powder charge
intended to be burned thus generating
an energy that will launch the bullet
4. Primer - also called percussion;
composed of the metal cup and priming
mixture which is highly sensitive
The other specific parts of a cased center-
fire cartridge are as follows:
1. Head stamp
2. Primer cup
3. Priming mixture
4. Anvil
5. Flash hole – vent
6. Rim
7. Extractor groove – true only to pistol
and rifle cartridges
8. Brass case
9. Shoulder – true only to rifle cartridges
10. Neck – true only to rifle cartridges
11. Crimp
12. Cannelure – lubricant grooves
13. Metal jacket
14. Lead core
15. Nose / tip
General Types of Ammunition:
1. Dummy - a carefully made replica of a
cartridge, usually made of steel and
discreetly dimensioned to be used by
weapons instructors, inspectors and
repairmen when checking if weapons
are functional
2. Drill ammo - completely inert and
without an explosive propellant; used in
military training to practice loading and
manipulation of firearms
3. Blank ammo - a cartridge without a
bullet; may contain gunpowder and
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priming mixture thus designed to
produce gunshot to indicate firing; used
for theatrical performance and military
training
4. Live ammo - the real ammunition since
it is composed of a complete unit of
unfired cartridge
Classification of cartridges according to
location of primer:
1. Pin-fire cartridge
2. Rim-fire cartridge
3. Center-fire cartridge - This is the type of
cartridge mostly used today. The
primer cup is centrally placed at the
base of the cartridge. The priming
mixture is exploded by the impact of the
firing on the primer cup which is
supported by the anvil.
Some books mention two other early types
of cartridges under this category: the tit-fire
cartridge and tail-fire cartridge. Just like
needle-fire cartridge, these are no longer
manufactured today.
Classification of Cartridges according to
Rim:
1. Rimmed cartridge
2. Semi-rimmed cartridge
3. Rimless cartridge
4. Rebated cartridge
5. Belted cartridge
Classification of Cartridges according to
Power:
1. Low-power cartridge - fires a
projectile with a muzzle velocity of
less than 1,850 fps
2. High-power cartridge - fires a
projectile with a muzzle velocity bet’n
1,925 & 2,500 fps
3. High-intensity cartridge - has muzzle
velocity of more than 2,500 fps
CARTRIDGE CASE for small arms
ammunition is also called shell and casing.
The cartridge case of center-fire ammunition
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
has three important functions, which are as
follows:
1. to hold the bullet, gunpowder and
primer thus assembling them as one
unit;
2. to serve as waterproof container for
the gunpowder; and
3. to act as ‘gas seal’ at the breech end
of the barrel during firing.
Standard cartridges of center-fire
ammunitions have a shell that is usually
made of brass - 70% copper and 30% zinc.
Some other special cartridges are coated
with of plastic varnish, zinc, copper or
tungsten. Some are made of plastic and
hard paper, such as the tubes for shotgun
shell.
Types of Cartridge Case according to
Shape:
1. Straight case - true to pistol and
revolver ammunition; the casing of all
rimmed-cartridges for revolvers and
all center-fire pistol ammo that are
now manufactured
2. Bottleneck case - always true to rifle
ammunition; the casing of most
modern center-fire rifle ammo; the
type of shell that provides the
greatest power capacity
commensurate with over-all case
length
3. Tapered case - an obsolete type; very
rare but presently being used in
magnum jet cartridge of caliber .22
firearms
PRIMER of center-fire cartridges refers to a
small metallic ignition cup at the center of
the cartridge base. The primer is designed
in such manner that once the priming
mixture is compressed, it undergoes rapid
combustion thus producing flame or sparks
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to ignite the propellant loaded in the
cartridge case. Parts of the primer are:
1. Primer cup - the container of the
priming mixture; composed of brass
and copper or any other gilding
metal
2. Anvil - a thin but rigid metal strip
where the priming mixture is
crushed once the firing pin strikes
the primer cup
3. Primer pocket - the space at the
center bottom of the shell where the
primer cup, priming mixture and
anvil occupy
4. Disc - small piece of paper or disc
of tin foil which is pressed over the
priming mixture
5. Priming mixture - the chemical
component of the primer
Types of Primer:
1. Berdan type - the European type
invented by Hiram Berdan; the
anvil, which is actually a part of the
cartridge case, is sticking out from
the center of two or three flash
holes
2. Boxer primer - the American type
which is also called separate anvil
type.
The GUNPOWDER is a chemical
substance of varied compositions, sizes,
shapes, and colors that function as
propellant. Although it burns rapidly upon
ignition, it is classified as low-explosive
mixture. There are two main types of
gunpowder: the black powder and the so-
called smokeless powder. Almost all
modern guns use smokeless powder.
Gunpowder serves as the source of energy
to propel a projectile. Once it is burned in a
confined place, it produces large volume of
heated gasses that expand thus generating
energy capable of pushing through the gun
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
barrel and launched it to fly towards a
target.
Most historians agree that it was the
Chinese alchemists who first developed the
black powder sometime in the 9th century
during the Han Dynasty. The formula for
black powder first appeared in the writings
of the 13th-century English monk Roger
Bacon.
Berthold Schwarz, a German monk of the
early 14th century whose real name is
Constantin Anklitzen, may have been the
first person to employ gunpowder for
propelling a projectile.
Black powder can be prepared following
this optimum proportion:
1. 11.85% sulfur: This is main fuel
component of the gun powder.
2. 74.64% saltpeter: Scientifically
known as KNO3 (potassium nitrate),
saltpeter provides oxygen to the
reaction.
3. 13.51% carbon
In 1886, Paul Vieille in France developed
the first smokeless gunpowder called
Poudre B. In 1887, Alfred Nobel also
developed smokeless gunpowder which he
called ‘ballistite’. Nobel’s gun powder is
composed of 40% nitroglycerine and 60%
nitrocellulose, a powder easier to handle
and more powerful than Poudre B.
The term smokeless powder is a misnomer
for this propellant is neither a powder nor
smokeless. Most smokeless powder used
as propellant appears as flakes. When
they are burned, they produce smoke but
not as many compared to huge cloud of
white smoke produced by black powder.
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The 4 Main Classes of Propellants:
1. Single-based propellant: This is
composed of pure nitroglycerin
gelatinized with nitrocellulose.
2. Double-based propellant: This type is
composed of nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerin mixed with any or all of the
following minor ingredients: centralite,
vaseline phathalate esters, and
inorganic salts. This type appears as
gray-green to black in color and the
grains are similar in size and shape to
single-based propellant.
3. Triple-based propellant: This is
composed of three principal
ingredients, which are nitrocellulose,
nitroglycerine, and nitroguanidine. This
type of propellant was developed in
attempting to compromise the low-
power sing-based propellant and high-
power but excessive heat of double
base powders. Triple-based propellant
contains small percentage of
nitroglycerin but sufficient to provide
added power
4. HIT (high-ignition temperature)
Propellant: The main ingredient of this
class of propellant is the RDX
(cyclonite) group of high explosives
The BULLET is a metallic or non-metallic
cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by
means of the expansive force of gasses coming
from burning gunpowder.
One of the more important developments in the
history of the rifle bullet occurred in 1883, when
a Swiss military major named Eduard
Alexander Rubin invented the small-caliber
rifle, one of whose essential features was the
employment of an elongated compound bullet,
with a lead core in a copper jacket.
IV. FIREARM CHARACTERISTICS
A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
Firearm class characteristics refer to intentional
or design characteristics that are common to a
particular group or family of firearms. These
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
are characteristics that can be determined even
before the firearm is manufactured.
The following are class characteristics of firearms
that can be determined in fired bullets:
1. Bore diameter
2. Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the
firearm
Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm
consist of the following items.
1. Number of lands and grooves: The lands
are the elevated portions in the bore
surface while the grooves are the canals or
depressed areas. The number of lands
present in the bore is always equal to the
number of grooves. The number may
range from 2 to 22 but usually 4 to 6.
2. Width of lands and grooves: In all kinds of
rifling patterns, the grooves are always
wider than the lands.
3. Depth of grooves: This depth is equal to
the height of the lands just after the gun is
manufactured but it becomes shallower as
the firearm is used. It is measured in
thousands of an inch or in millimeters.
4. Direction of twist: Rifling either twist to the
right or to the left. The direction initiates
the bearing of the gyroscopic action of the
projectile that passes through the bore.
5. Pitch of rifling: This is also called degree of
rifling twist. It simply refers to the distance
(measured either in inches or centimeters)
traveled by the lands and grooves to
complete a single rotation (360 degrees).
Small arms can be identified according to rifling
class characteristics, otherwise called rifling pattern.
There are seven basic types of rifling pattern for
small arms. Their class characteristics are as
follows:
1. Steyr type - 4RG=L (or 4GLRHT)
meaning there are 4 lands and grooves
with equal width that twist to the right
direction
2. Carbine type - 4RG2X, which means
there are 4 lands and grooves that twist
to the right but the grooves are twice
wider than the lands
3. Smith & Wesson type - 5RG=L (five
lands and grooves with equal width that
twist to the right direction)
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center
4. Browning type - 6RG2X (six lands and
grooves, right hand twist, grooves twice
wider than lands)
5. Colt type - 6LG2X (6 lands and grooves
twist to the left direction and that
grooves are twice wider than the lands)
6. Winchester type - 6RG3X (six lands
and grooves twist to the right, groove
width is three times wider than the land)
7. Webley type - 7RG3X (seven lands and
grooves with right twist, grooves are
three times wider than the lands)
B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
FIREARMS
Firearm individual characteristics refer to
those characteristics of firearms that can be
determined only after a gun is
manufactured. For firearm examiners,
individual characteristics are marks
produced by the random imperfections or
irregularities of tool surfaces. These
random imperfections or irregularities are
unique in every firearm.
Specifically, sources of individual
characteristics of firearms are the following:
1. Wear and tear of the tools used in
manufacturing the firearm
2. Corrosion or oxidation effect on the
metallic surface of firearm components
3. Wear and tear due to normal use
4. Damage due to improper operation and
handling/caring
C. MAKING THE GUN BARREL
Gun barrels are made of solid steel. There
are 2 classes of steel currently used in
making gun barrels: chrome molybdenum
steel and stainless steel. Chrome
molybdenum steel is mostly used in hunting
rifles and military firearms.
Firearm examiners must be sufficiently
acquainted with the principal steps in
making the gun barrel. Knowledge on this
matter enables them to explain the source
of cause of marks found on bullets.
Manufacturing the gun barrel involves four
stages, which are as follows:
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Subject: Forensic Ballistics
1. DRILLING: This is the process of
making a hole from one end to another
end through the center of a steel rod.
The result of this stage is a rough hole
with almost uniform diameter from end
to end of the barrel.
2. REAMING: This stage involves the
process of cleaning or uniformly
scrapping the interior surface of the
barrel to achieve the desired bore
diameter. The reaming instrument
removes the metal from the entire
surface because its diameter is slightly
larger than the driller.
3. RIFLING: This stage is the process
necessary for making the helical
grooves inside the barrel. This stage
produces a barrel with lands and
grooves at the interior surface. There
are four types of rifling technique being
used today:
4. LAPPING: This is the process of
polishing the inner surface of the gun
barrel. It simply involves rubbing the
bore surface using a polishing
compound to remove machining marks
and any tight spots in the rifling thus
making the bore’s surface
dimensionally uniform from end to end.
No matter how long polish the interior
surface of the gun barrel is polished, minute
imperfections cannot be removed. These
macroscopic, and sometimes microscopic,
imperfections are surface irregularities that
impart distinctive scratches on the bullet’s
bearing surface. Such marks, usually
called by experts as striations, are the
mechanical fingerprints of the gun which
are found in fired bullets. These striations
in the form of linear scratches are used as
basis in identifying the specific weapon
where a particular bullet has been fired.
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Source: Lecture notes of Mr. Chester D. King-eo