Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center
Subject: Forensic Photography
REVIEW NOTES IN
FOR
ENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
I. HISTORICAL EVENTS
 ARISTOTLE - Famous Greek philosopher who
invented the first pinhole camera that was known
later as camera obscura literally translated as
‘darkened box’
 ISAAC NEWTON - English philosopher,
mathematician and physicist who discovered and
proved that the strongest light is white light; he
defended his theory by allowing a white light to
pass through a prism thus refracting and
diffracting the light into its component parts
 1839 - Birth year of photography; the year when
the science of photography became a public
knowledge.
 JOSEPH NICEPHORE NIEPCE - produced
heliograpic drawings (contact-print image of
engravings or other line copy on glass, paper or
metal coated with a bitumen varnish that hardens
when exposed)
 LOUIS JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE -
Parisian painter and theater designer, who
continued the efforts of Niepce to perfect a
photographic process; in 1839, he was
successful enough to have his invention
purchased by the French government and made
public.
 DAGUERREOTYPE - description of the first
photographs that were scientifically produced
immediately after the birth of photography
 WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT – made the first
demonstration on a photographic technique to
the Royal Society of London; the English scientist
who pointed out the basis of modern photography
 JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL - coined the word
photography (then introduced the terms negative
and positive in the following year) and pointed out
that images can be made permanent by
dissolving away unexposed silver compounds
with a solution of hyposulfite of soda (hypo or
sodium thiosulfate), which he had discovered in
1819
 WILLIAM ABNEY – discovered the use of
hydroquinone as a developing agent in 1880
 EDWIN LAND - introduced in 1947 the polaroid
process (1-step photography) with a self-
processing black-and-white film that yields a
positive print by the diffusion transfer reversal
method
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1
II. BASIC CONCEPTS
A. Definitions
As an art, it simply means the art of taking
pictures. As a science, it is the study concerning
the production of images by the combined action
of:
1. light on sensitive surfaces (films and
photographic papers);
2. a mechanical device (camera); and
3. chemicals during processing (film
development and printing).
Photography is the technology geared towards
the reproduction of images by using the action of
light on a sensitive surface (photographic film)
with the help of an image-forming device
(camera) and the chemical process (developing
and printing) involved therein.
Photography is a process or method of using light
to produce identical image of an object that can
be preserved permanently by employing:
1. camera to regulate, absorb, and filter
(RAF) light; and
2. film (any sensitized material) to record
the light.
The term photography was derived from two
Greek words: phos (light) and graphien (to draw).
Literally, photography means "to draw with light".
In photography, the light ‘writes’ when it strikes
tiny crystals of light-sensitive chemical
compounds (i.e. silver halide) in the film emulsion
thereby causing very subtle change in the
crystals. Thus, photography is the production of
visible images by using the action of light upon a
sensitive surface.
Police Photography is the study of the general
techniques of photographing the crime scene,
physical evidences, and other circumstances that
can be used for law enforcement purposes. It is
a field that focuses on the practical application of
photography in police work (law enforcement
operations).
Forensic Photography is that field covering the
legal application of photography in criminal
jurisprudence and criminal investigation. It is that
branch of forensic science, , dealing with the:
1. Study of the fundamental but pragmatic
principles of photography;
2. Application of photography in law
enforcement; and

3. Preparation of photographic evidences
needed by prosecutors and courts of law.
B. Main significance of photography in police
work
Photograph of the crime scene is a factual record
of an incident because it captures place, time and
event in a single photograph or in a series of
shots. A photograph is capable of ‘catching and
preserving’ the:
1. ‘place’
2. ‘time’
3. ‘event’ of a crime.
Photographs allow police investigators to
understand the elements of a crime under
investigation; clarifying and revealing what is not
immediately seen and understood during the
initial investigation of the crime scene.
Photograph provides a permanent record of the
facts discovered at the crime scene. They record
facts for future references; they provide
necessary information needed in crime scene
reconstruction and logical analysis of the crime.
C. Fields of Photography Significant in Police
Work
 Photomicrography - involves the process of
photographing minute objects when
magnified by means of the microscope and
enlarged 10 times (10x) or larger
 Photomacrography - involves the process of
photographing objects that are directly
enlarged at the negatives and magnified up
to 9X only
 Infra-red Photography - the technique of
photographing or recording unseen objects
by means of infra-red light and infra-red film;
example is the practice of photographing
charred or burnt materials & overwritten texts
 Ultraviolet Photography - the technique of
photographing unseen objects by the use of
ultra-violet light and filters; example is the
process of photographing overwritten text
and marked money
 X-ray Photography - X-ray photography
involves the process of photographing or
recording internal structure of the human
body
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 2
Subject: Forensic Photography
III. LIGHT (PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS)
 Light is the radiant energy that makes things
visible. There are many kinds of radiant
energy, including infrared rays, radio waves,
ultraviolet rays, and X rays. We can see only
a tiny part of all the different kinds of radiant
energy, which is called visible light or simply
light.
 Electromagnetic spectrum - the whole range
of radiant energy that includes radio waves,
microwaves, infrared light, visible light,
ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays.
visible light, which makes up only a tiny
fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum, is
the only electromagnetic radiation that
humans can perceive with their eyes.
 Visible spectrum - a small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum where the visible
light is found; the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that affects the
human sense of sight. visible light includes
all those radiation having a wavelength
ranging from 400 mu to 700 mu.
 Wavelength - the distance between two
peaks in a light wave; used in measuring the
intensity of light; common unit of
measurement of light intensity is in terms of
millimicrons (mu)
 Frequency - the number of complete waves
per unit of time; used in measuring the speed
of light; unit of measuring the speed of light
maybe mu per second (mu/sec)
 186, 000 miles/sec. – approximate normal
speed of light when travelling through a
vacuum and through the air
Invisible radiation with wavelength shorter than 400
mu:
1. Ultraviolet rays
2. X-rays
3. Gamma rays
4. Cosmic rays
Invisible radiation with wavelength longer than 700
mu:
1. Infrared rays
2. Radio waves
3. Hertzian waves
4. Long electrical oscillations
Invisible radiation conveniently used in police
photography:
1. Ultraviolet rays
2. Infrared rays
3. X rays
4. Gamma rays
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 3
Subject: Forensic Photography

Colors of light found in the visible spectrum: The RAT Law:

Approximate Wavelength When incident light hits a medium, 3 things may

1. Primary colors of light (in mu.) happen. The light maybe reflected, absorbed &
a. Red (longest wavelength) – 700 transmitted.
b. Blue – 450
c. Green – 550 Reflection - a condition that occurs whenever an
object changes the direction of a light wave but does
2. Complementary colors of light not allow the wave to pass through it.
a. Magenta (shortest wavelength) 400
b. Cyan 500 Refraction - the bending of light rays when passing
c. Yellow 590 obliquely from one medium to another

Color Mixing Principles Diffraction - the phenomenon that occurs when light
1. Color addition rays deviate from a straight course when partially cut
R+B+G =W off by a medium or passing near the edges of an
R+B =M opening; a  phenomenon occurring when  waves of
M+Y =W light diverge/separate as they pass the edge of
R+G =Y opaque material or through a small hole.
M+C =W
B+G =C
Y+C =W IV. CAMERA

2. Color subtraction The camera refers to a light tight (proof) box with
W-R =C a means of forming the image (lens or pinhole), with
W-C =R a means of holding sensitized material at one end
M-R =B (film-holder), and with a means of controlling the
C-G =B amount of light needed to affect the film at the other
W-B =Y end (shutter). It is a box designed to keep out all light
W-Y =B except the light allowed by the photographer.
M-B =R
Y-G =R All cameras use the same basic principles to
W-G =M form an image. Light reflects from the scene being
W-M =G photographed and strikes the lens of the camera. The
C-B =G light passes through the lens and forms an inverted
Y-R =G (upside down) image on the film at the back of the
camera. The image can be sharpened by adjusting
The principles of color mixing can be easily the distance between the lens and the film. Many
understood and memorized using the color wheel. cameras have a focusing mechanism by which the
photographer moves the lens a short distance to
Mediums of Light sharpen the image. Other cameras automatically
adjust this distance by means of a focusing
Mediums of lights are objects that influence the mechanism that is sensitive to light, infrared rays, or
intensity of light as they may reflect, absorb, or sound waves.
transmit light; mediums of light maybe classified as:
A shutter opens allowing the light to enter the
1. Transparent objects - mediums that merely camera. The shutter may be behind the lens,
slow down the speed of light but allow it to pass between 2 lenses, or directly in front of the film. The
freely in other respects speed of the shutter's opening and closing
2. Translucent objects - mediums that allow light determines how long the film is exposed to light. By
to pass through it in such a way that the outline of opening and closing rapidly, the shutter can ‘freeze’
the source of light is not clearly visible an image in motion.
3. Opaque objects - mediums that divert or absorb
light, but do not allow light to pass through

-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden


Main Parts of the Modern Camera:
1. Body – a light-tight box; light-proof chamber in
which film is held and exposed
2. Lens – function is to focus rays of light reflected
by (or diverging from) the subject unto the
3. Diaphragm – a circular aperture behind the lens,
operates in conjunction with the shutter to admit
light into the light-tight chamber
4. Shutter – the barrier of the light rays that enters
and affects the film inside the light tight box;
basic function of the shutter is to control when
and how long light falls on  the film
5. Filmholder – function of this part is to hold firmly
the light-sensitive material at the correct plane
during the exposure interval
6. Viewfinder or viewing  system – used to
determine what will be  included or covered in the
picture; shows the entire scene coverage that
can be recorded in the film inside the camera
The Sub-components of the Camera:
1. Focusing mechanism/control – the mechanism
that estimates the appropriate object's
distance from the camera to form a sharp or clear
image on the photograph.
a. Focusing  ring  -  the outer ring of the lens
which  is  rotated  or adjusted  to obtain a
clear and sharp  photograph;  enables  the
photographer to adjust focal range
b. Distance scale - the focus index or range of
sharp focus; a set of number which
determines the appropriate depth-of-field
2. Film  transport mechanism - the mechanism that
is manipulated to move new, unexposed film into
position for the next picture
3. Shutter speed control
a. Shutter speed dial (SSD) - used to control
the opening and closing of the shutter; a dial
which sets the length of time in which the
light is allowed to enter the camera; default
shutter speed for cameras without SSD are:
125 - (or 1/125 of a second) - without flash;
60 - (or 1/60 of a second) - with flash
b. Shutter release button - the ‘click’ of the
camera which releases the shutter
4. Diaphragm control
a. Lens aperture or diaphragm - the ‘window’
and sometimes called the eyes of the
camera; used to control how much light
reaches the film;
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 4
Subject: Forensic Photography
b. F-stop ring – also called diaphragm ring
or aperture ring
c. F-stops or F-numbers - the number
indicating the size of lens opening
located at the inner ring of the focusing
mechanism.
The lower the f-stop, the bigger the opening.  The
biggest lens opening in most cameras F-1.2. The
proper combination of shutter speed and size of
opening (f-stop) is the key in taking pictures under
various light conditions.  This combination is however
affected by the speed of the film being used.
5. Film speed control – also called ISO dial or ASA
dial
6. Flash terminal
7. Timer (self timer)
V. THE CAMERA LENS
The basic function of the lens is to collect
light rays from a subject in front of the camera and
project them as images unto the film at the back of
the camera. The 2 general types of lenses (classified
based on their composition and ability to refract and
focus an image):
1. Simple lens - has two precisely regular opposite
surfaces; either both surfaces are curved, or one
is curved and one is plane generally produce
aberrated (imperfect) images
2. Compound lens – composed of two or more
simple lenses fitted together to correct the
imperfect image
Types of Simple Lens (classification of lenses
according to their surfaces):
1. Convex lens - also called converging lens and
positive lens; with at least one surface that
curves outwards; thicker in the middle than at the
edges; gathers lays of light and refract them to
meet in a certain point; subtypes are:
a. simple convex - convexo-convex or biconvex
b. plano-convex
c. convexo-concave or converging meniscus
3. Concave lens - also called diverging lens and
negative lens; with at least one surface that
curves inward; lens that is thicker at the edges
than at the center; spreads out light rays that
have been refracted through it; subtypes are:
a. simple concave - concavo-concave or
biconcave
b. plano-concave

c. concavo-convex or diverging meniscus
Definition of Key Terms:
 FOCUS - the point at which light rays
converge; the point where a set of light rays
meet after passing through a lens or other
optical arrangement, or after reflection from a
mirror; the point from which rays appear to
diverge; the place where a visual image is
clearly formed, as in the eye or a camera
 FOCAL POINT - the point of principal focus;
the point where two or more rays that passed
thru the lens converge.
o Inside the camera, focal points are
found at the FOCAL PLANE. This
plane is the space occupied by the
film that is ready for exposure and is
also called film plane.
 FOCUSING – the process of changing the
distance between the center of lens to the
focal plane; the technique of adjusting the
focal length to get the sharp image of the
object or scene to be photographed
 FOCAL LENGTH - the distance between the
lens and the focal plane; this is used in
controlling the magnification (the size of the
image formed by the lens)
 LENS SPEED - the largest opening of the
diaphragm that the light can pass through;
determines the maximum intensity of the light
entering the light tight box
 ABERRATION - the failure of light rays to
focus properly after they pass through a lens
or reflect from a mirror; also used to describe
the lens defect of cameras
Groups of Lenses according to Focal Length
and View Angle:
1. Normal lens - for normal distance
photography; with focal length equal to
the diagonal of the image area; has a
picture/view angle of 45o which
corresponds to the view angle of the
human eye
2. Wide angle lens - or short-focus lens; lens
producing smaller images but wider
angles; has a shorter focal length than
the normal lens thus covers a picture
angle of 60o to 90o
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 5
Subject: Forensic Photography
Fish eye lens is a special type with extreme
wide angle. Fish-eye lenses usually cover
angles between 140O and 210O and are
used for unusual wide-angle effects where
the distortion becomes a deliberate
pictorial element. They also have certain
scientific applications, for instance, to cover
a horizon-to-horizon view of the sky in
recording cloud formations.
3. Telephoto Lens – or long focus lens; for long
distance photography; has a longer focal length
and provides a close-up image of a distant
object; produces flat composition; far objects
appear enlarged while near objects do not
appear proportionally large
In contrast to the wide angle lens, the
telephoto lens covers a smaller field of view and
a shallower depth of field. Because of shallow
depth of field, there will be lack of sharpness of
the out-of-focus areas in the photograph to be
produced.
Note: The longer the focal length, the larger the
image, and the smaller/narrower the view angle
(field-of-view)
Types of camera lens based on lens speed:
1. Fast lens - lens with high lens speed; used
during night time or in a dark room
2. Slow lens - lens with low lens speed; used
during daytime or where the room is very bright
Other Special types of camera lens:
1. Zoom lens - a special type of camera lens with
variable focal length (focal length can be
changed); allows quick adjustment to give a
wider or narrower field of vision
2. Macro lens - a lens used for close-up
photography particularly in taking pictures of
minute objects; using a macro lens, the subject
being photographed will appear bigger than its
actual size. Macro lens is most helpful in
fingerprint work, in recording evidences such
as pollen grains, hair, fibers and the like.
6 major types of lens aberration:
1. Spherical aberration
2. Astigmatism
3. Coma
4. Chromatic aberration
5. Curvature of field
6. distortion

VII. SENSITIZED MATERIALS
Sensitized material refers to the films and
photographic paper that are composed of emulsion
containing silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin
and coated on a transparent or reflective support.
Types of film according to use:
1. black and white film –for black and white
photography
2. color film – films that have names ending in color
3. chrome film – for color transparency, films that
are exposed by slides, mounted in cardboard for
slide projectors
4. x-ray film – film that are sensitive to x-radiation’s
Types of film based on spectral sensitivity
(responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different
wavelength of the light rays):
1. Monochromatic film – film that is sensitive to a
single color of light (for black and white).
a. Blue sensitive film – a film specially treated
that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of
light.
b. UV sensitive film – sensitive to ultra violet
rays only
2. Panchromatic film – sensitive to all light found
in the visible spectrum
3. Orthochromatic film –sensitive to UV rays, blue
and green colors but not red.
Red portions are recorded as dark tomes, white
and green and blue are parts appear as light
tones when printed. This type of film is popular in
the marker as the Kodalith film.
4. Infrared Film – special type that is sensitive to
infrared and ultra violet radiation’s, it is also
sensitive to all colors found in the visible
spectrum
Classification of Panchromatic Films:
1. Process panchromatic film – permit short
exposures under average under average
lighting condition and has the advantage of the
grain structure
2. Grain panchromatic film
3. High speed panchromatic – designed originally
for photographing objects under adverse
lighting condition.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 6
Subject: Forensic Photography
FILM SPEED (or emulsion speed) - the sensitivity of
the film to light, the extent to which the emulsion is
sensitive to light
Two (2) classical film speed ratings that became
popular:
1. ASA Rating – expressed in arithmetical value
system; the speed in numbers is directly
proportional to the sensitivity of the material
2. DIN Rating –expressed in logarithmic value
system
ISO Rating – the combination of ASA and DIN
rating; the higher the ISO number, the more the
film sensitive to light
Types of Photographic Papers:
A. Based on emulsion used:
1. Chloride based paper – used for contact
printing, the size of the positive print is the
same as the size of the negative used
2. Silver bromide paper - used for projection
printing or enlarging process wherein the
negative image is used for projection or
enlarging
3. Silver chlorobromide paper – used both for
projection and contact printing
4. Variable contrast paper – combines the
contrast ranges in one paper, it uses a
special chlorobromide emulsion that
produces varying contrast responses upon
exposure to different colored lights
B. According to physical characteristics:
1. Based on weight
a. Light Weight – used when the thickness
of the paper is not a consideration and
high degree of flexibility is necessary.
Intended for purposes, which involves
folding
b. Single Weight - paper used for small
print or print which needs to be mounted
on solid and fine details are necessary
in the production. Used only for
ordinary photographic purposes
c. Double weight – generally used for large
prints because they stand up under
rough treatment
2. Based on surface texture
a. Glossy paper – are preferred where fine
details and brilliant images are required.
b. Semi-mate paper – are with decided
textures which obscure fine details.

c. Rough papers – used for large prints or
where breadth rather that detail is
necessary.
3. Based on color
a. White – preferred for cold-tone effect
b. Cream – preferred for pictorial effect,
portraits, landscape or when warmth
effect is desired
c. Buff papers – preferred for tone prints
Grades of Printing Papers:
1. Velox # 0 – used for printing from extremely
low contrast negatives, the low contrast in
the paper sensitizing counteracts the high
contrast in the negative to give a new print.
2. Velox # 1 – for high contrast negative
3. Velox # 2 – for normal contrast used with
normal negatives
4. Velox # 3 – for negatives that have weak
contrast
5. Velox # 4 – provides sufficient contrast to
compensate for very thin or weak negatives;
useful in printing requiring high contrast
6. Velox # 5 – for flat negatives that are almost
unprintable
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
1. Aberration – Lens defects in which light rays are
scattered, thereby degrading the image. There
are different forms of aberration, such as
chromatic and spherical aberrations, coma,
astigmatism and field curvature.
2. Achromatic lens – A lens constructed of different
types of glass, to reduce chromatic aberration.
The simplest combination is of two elements, one
of flints glass the other of crown glass.
3. Acutance – The objective measurement of how
tell an edge is recorded in a photographic image.
4. Additive Process – the pass of combining lights
of different colors. A set of three primary images.
5. Aerial Perspective – The impression of depth in a
scene that is conveyed by haze.
6. Anastigmant – A compound lens, using different
elements to reduce optical aberrations.
7. Angle of View – The widest angle of those light
rays a accepted by lens that from an acceptably
sharp image at the film plane. This angle is
widest when the lens is focused at infinity.
8. Angstrom – Unit used to measure light
wavelengths.
9. Aperture – In most lenses, the aperture is an
adjustable circular hole centered on the lens axis.
It is apart of the lens system that admits light.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 7
Subject: Forensic Photography
10. Artificial Light – light that comes to existence with
the intervention of man.
11. ASA – Arithmetically progressive rating of the
senci – sensitivity of a film to light (American
Standards Association), ASA 200 film, for
example, is twice as fast as Asa 100.
12. Astigmatism – A lens aberration in which light
rays that pass obliquely through a lens are
focused, not as a point by as a line. Astigmatism
is normally found in simple lenses.
13. Automatic Exposure Control – Camera system
where the photo – electric cell that measure the
lighting reaching film plain is linked to the shutter
or lenses aperture to adjust the exposure
automatically.
14. Backlighting – Lighting form behind the subjects
directed the camera position.
15. Barrel Distortion – A lens aberration in which the
shape of the image is distorted. The
magnification decreases radially outwards, so
that a square objects appears barrel shaped, with
the straight edges bowed towards.
16. Bass Relief – A method of producing images that
appears to stand out slightly in relief. It is
produced by sand switching a positive and
negative of the same images slightly out of
register, and the printing the combination.
17. Base – the support material for a emulsion,
normally plastic or paper.
18. Between-the-lens-shutter – A leaf shutter located
inside a compound lens, as close as possible to
the aperture diaphragm.
19. Bounce Flash – Diffusion of the light from a flash
unit, by directing it towards reflective surfaces,
such as a ceiling or wall. This scatters the light
rays, giving a softer illumination.
20. Bright-field illumination – The basic lightning
technique for photomicrography, directing light to
thin sections of the subject. In effect a form of
back lighting.
21. Brightness – The subjective of luminance.
22. Bracketing – A method of compensating for
uncertainties in exposure, by making a series of
exposure a single subject, each varying by
progressive amount from the estimated correct
aperture / speed setting.
23. Cable Release – A device use in pressing the
shutter release button of the camera that avoid
incidental movement of the camera during
exposure period.
24. Camera Shake – Unintentional movement of the
camera during exposure, causing unsharpness in
the image.
25. CdS Cell – Cadmium sulfide cell used commonly
in through-the-lens light meters. Its proportionate
resistance to the quantity of light received is the
basis of exposure measurement.

26. Chromatic Aberration – A lens aberration in
which light of different wavelengths (and
therefore colors) is focused at different distances
behind the lens. It can be corrected by
combining different types of glass.
27. Circle of Confusion – A disc from image of a point
in the object. The allowable circle of confusion is
usually 1/1,000 of the focal length of the lens in
inches.
28. Circle of Confusion – The disc of light formed by
an imaginary lens. When small enough, it
appears to the eye as a point, and at this size the
image appears sharp.
29. Coating – A thin deposited surface on a lens,
used to reduce flare.
30. Color Compensation Filter – Filter used to alter
color of light. Available ion primary and
complementary colors at different strengths.
31. Color Contrast – Subjects impression of the
difference in intensity between two close or
adjacent colors.
32. Color Conversion Filter – Colored filter that alters
the color temperature of light.
33. Color Couple – A chemical compound that
combines with the oxidizing elements of a
developer to form a color dye. It is an integral
part of the most part color film processing.
34. Color Temperature – The temperature to which
an insert substance would have to be heated in
order for it to glow at a particular color. The scale
of color temperature significant for photography
ranges form a reddish colors of approximately
2000K through standards “white” at 5500K, to a
bluish color above 6000K.
35. Coma – A lens aberration in which off-axis light
rays focus at different distances when they pass
through different area of the lens. The result is
blurring at the edges of the picture.
36. Complementary Colors – A pair of colors that,
when combined together in equal proportions
produce white light (by means of addictive
process).
37. Compound Lens – Lens constructed of more than
one element, which enables various optical
corrections to be made.
38. Condenser – Simple lens system that
concentrates light into a beam.
39. Contact Sheets – A print of all frames of roll of
film arranged in strips, same size, from which
negatives can be selected for enlargement.
40. Contrast – Difference in brightness between
adjacent areas of tone. In photographic
emulsion, it is also the rate increase in density
measured against exposure.
41. Converging Lens – Lens which concentrates light
rays towards a common point. Also known as a
convex lens.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 8
Subject: Forensic Photography
42. Dark–field Illumination – Lighting technique used
in photomicrography, where the subjects is lit
from all sides by a cone of light directed from
beneath the subjects.
43. Depth of Focus – the maximum permissible
distance within which the film maybe placed
without the exceeding. The circle of confusion in
order to produce the image.
44. Definition – The subjective effect of graininess
and sharpness combined.
45. Density – In photographic emulsion, the ability of
a developed silver deposit to block transmitted
light.
46. Depth of Field – The distance through which the
subjects may extend and still form an acceptably
sharp image, in front of and beyond the plane of
critical focus. Depth of field can be increased by
stopping the lens down to a smaller aperture.
47. Depth of Focus – the distance through the film
plane can be moved and still record and
acceptably sharp image.
48. Diaphragm Opening – control the amount of light
that passes thru the lens expose.
49. Diaphragm – An adjustable opening that controls
the amount of light passing throughout a lens.
50. Diffraction – The distance of light waves that
occurs when they strike the edge of the opaque
surface.
51. Diffuser – materials that scatter transmitted light.
52. Din – Logarithmical progressive rating of the
sensitivity of a film to light (Dutsche Industrie
Norm).
53. Diopter – Measurement of the refractive ability of
a lens. It is the reciprocal of the focal length, in
metres; a convex lens is measures in positive
diopter, a concave lens in negatives diopters.
54. Diverging lens – lens which causes light rays to
spread outwards from the optical axis.
55. Dye Cloud – Zone of color in a developed silver
grain, which itself has been bleached out during
the development.
56. Dye Transfer Process – Color printing process
that uses color separation negatives which in turn
produce matrices that can absorb and transfer
colored dyes to paper.
57. Electromagnetic Spectrum – the range of
frequencies of electromagnetic from radio wave
to gamma rays, including visible radiations
(lights).
58. Electrons – elementary particles with a negative
charge, normally in orbit around nucleus.
59. Electronic flash – Artificial light source produced
by passing charges across two electrodes in a
gas.
60. Emulsion – Light-sensitive substances composed
of halides suspended in gelatin, used for
photographic film and paper.

61. Exposure – In photography, the amount of light
reaching an emulsion, being the product of
intensity and time.
62. Exposure Latitude – for film the increase in
exposure that can be made from the minimum
necessary to record shadow detail, while
presenting detail.
63. Extension – A fixed or adjustable tube placed
between the lens and camera body used to
increase the magnification of the image.
64. F-stop – The notation for relative aperture which
is ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the
aperture. The light gathering power of lenses is
usually described by the wider f-stop they are
capable of and lens aperture ring are normally
calibrated in a standard series:
f1, f2, f8. f4. f11. f16. f22. f32, and so on,
each of these stops differ in its adjacent stop by a
factor of 2.
65. Field Curvature – In this lens aberration, the
plane of sharpest focus is a curved surface rather
than the flat surface at the film plane.
66. Film – a type of light sensitized material that
procedures negative after development.
67. Filter – a homogeneous medium which transmits
of absorbs different wave length of
electromagnetic energy.
68. Film Speed rating – The sensitivity of a film to
light, measure on a standard scale, normally
either ASA of DIN.
69. Filter – Transparent material fitted to a lens alters
the characteristics of light passing through it,
most commonly in color.
70. Fish-Eye-Lens – A very wide – angle lens
characterized by extreme barrel distortion.
71. Flare – Non-image-forming light caused by
scattering and reflection, that degrades the
quality of images. Coating is used to reduce it.
72. Flash – See electronic flash.
73. Flash Guide Number – Notation used to
determine the aperture setting when using
electronic flash. It is proportionate to the output
of the flash unit.
74. Flash Synchronization – Camera system that
ensure that the peak light output from flash unit
coincides with the time that shutters fully open.
75. Flash Length – the distance measure from the
center of the lens to the film plane when tea lens
is focus at distance objects.
76. Fluorescent Lighting – Vapor discharge lighting in
which the inside of the lamp's jacket is coated
with phosphors. These add a continuous
spectrum to the single emission spectra. The
color recorded on film is difficult to predict,
depending on the type and age of lamp, but is
generally greenish.
77. Focal Length – The distance between the center
of a lens (the principle point) and its focal point.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 9
Subject: Forensic Photography
78. Focal Plane Shutter – Shutter located close to
the focal plane, using tow blinds that form an
adjustable gap which moves across the film area.
The size of the gap determines the exposure.
79. Focal Points – The point on either side of a lens
where light rays entering parallel to the axis
converges.
80. Focus – The point at which light rays are
converged by lens.
81. The estimation or calculation of object distance
from the camera and formed a sharp images.
82. Fresnel Screen – A viewing screen that
incorporates a Fresnel lens. This has a stepped
convex surface that performs the same function
as a condenser lens, distributing image
brightness over the entire area of the screen, but
is much thinner.
83. Gamma – Measure of the steepness of an
emulsion's characteristics curve being the
tangent of the angle made by extending the
straight lint position of the curve, downwards until
it meets the horizontals axis.
84. Gelatin – Substance used to hold halide particles
in suspension, in order to construct an emulsion.
This is deposited on a backing.
85. Grade – Clarification of photographic printing
paper by a contrast. Grades 0 to 4 are the most
common, although they are not comparable
across makes.
86. Graininess – The subjective impression when
viewing photography of granularity under normal
viewing conditions. The eye cannot resolve
individuals’ grains, only over lapping clumps of
grains.
87. Granularity – the measurements of the size and
distribution of grains in an emulsion.
88. Ground Glass Screen – Sheet of glass finely
ground to a translucent finish on one side, used
to make image focusing easier when viewing.
89. Gyro Stabilizer – Electrically-powered camera
support that incorporates a heavy gyroscope to
cushion the camera from vibrations. Particularly
useful when shooting from helicopters, cars and
other vehicles.
90. Hardeners – Chemical agent, commonly chrome
or potassium alum that combines with the gelatin
of a film to make resistant to scratching.
91. Hyper focal distance – The minimum distance at
which a lens records a subject sharply when
focused at infinity.
92. Hypo – Alternative name for fixer, sodium
thiosulfate.
93. Hypo-Eliminator – Chemical used to clean fixer
an emulsion to shorten washing time.
94. Hyper Focal Distance – the nearest distance at
which the lens is focus at a particular f-number to
given maximum depth of field.

95. Incident Light Reading – Exposure measurement
of the light sources that illuminates the subjects
(or refracted light reading). It is therefore
independent of the subject's own characteristics.
96. Infra-Red-Radiation – Electromagnetic radiations
from 730 nanometers to 1mm, longer in
wavelengths that light is proportional to the
square of the distance from the source to the
surface.
97. Ion – An atom or group of atoms with positive
charge, because of too few electrons (positive) of
too many (negatives).
98. Joule – Unit of electronic flash output, equal to
one war-second. The power of different units can
be compared with this measurement.
99. Kelvin – The standard unit of thermodynamic
temperature, calculated by adding 273 to
degrees centigrade.
100. Latent Image – The invisible image formed
by exposing an emulsion to light. Development
renders it visible.
101. Lens – A transparent device for converging
or diverging rays light by refraction. Convex
lenses are thicker at the center that at the edges;
concave lenses are thicker at the edges at the
center.
102. Lens Axis – A line through the center of
curvature of lenses.
103. Lens Flare – Non-images forming reflected
that degrades the quality of the image.
104. Lens Shade – Lens attachment that shades
the element from non-images forming light that
can cause flare.
105. Light – is an electromagnetic energy that
excites the retina of light passing thru it to form
an image.
106. Line film – Very high contrast film, which can
developed so that the image contains only full
density black, with a focal length.
107. Lon-focus lens – Lens with focal length
longer than the diagonal of the film format. For
3.5mm film, anything longer that about 50mm is
therefore at least twice the standard focal length.
108. Luminance – The quality of light emitted by
or reflected from a surface.
109. Masking – Blocking specific areas of an
emulsion from light. For example, a weak
positive image, when combined with the negative
can be used to mask the highlights so as to
produce a less contrasting print.
110. Matrix – Sheet of film used in the dye transfer
process that carries a relief image in gelatin.
This is temporarily dyed when printing.
111. Means Noon Sunlight – An arbitrary but
generally accepted color temperature of which
most daylight color film are balanced
5400.Kelvin, being the average color temperature
of direct midday in Washington DC.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 10
Subject: Forensic Photography
112. Mercury Vapor Lamp – Form of lighting
sometimes encountered in available light
photography. It has discontinues spectrum and
reproduces as blue-green on color photography.
113. Mired Value – A measurement of color
temperature that facilitates the calculation of
difference between light sources. It is the
reciprocal of the Kelvin measurement (1 million
per Kelvin).
114. Mirror lens – Compound lens that form a
image reflection from curved mirrors rather that
refraction through lenses. By folding the light
paths, its length is much shorter than that of
traditional lenses of the same focal length.
115. Monopod – Single leg of a tripod, as a light
weight camera for handled shooting.
116. Nanometer – 1 x 10 meter
117. Natural Light – Light that comes to existence
with the intervention of man.
118. Negative – Photographic image reversed
tones (and reversed colors if color film), used to
make a positive image, normally a print
projection.
119. Neutral lens – Lens with a focal length equal
to the diagonal of the film format. It produces an
image which appears to have man.
120. Open Flash – Method of illumination a
subjects with a flash unit, by leaving the camera
shutter open, and triggering the flash discharge
manually.
121. Optical Axis – Line passing through the
center of a lens system. A light ray following this
line would not be bent.
122. Orthochromatic Film – Film that is sensitive
to green and blue light, but reacts weakly to red
light.
123. Panchromatic Film – Film that is sensitive to
all the colors of the visible spectrum.
124. Panning – A smooth rotation of the camera
so as to keep a moving subjects continuously in
frame.
125. Parallax – The apparent movement of two
objects relative to each other when viewed from
different positions.
126. Parallax – displacement of image point when
viewed at two different points or angles.
127. Pentaprism – Five-side prism, which rectiles
the image left-to-right and top to bottom.
128. Photo-Electric Cell – Light sensitive cell used
to measure exposure. Some produce electricity
when exposed to light; other to light by offering
an electrical resistance.
129. Photographic Paper – Paper which is
sensitive to light and produces positive print after
development of image point when viewed at two
different points or angles.
130. Photography – is driver from the Greek word
which means light and draw respectively. It is

also defined as the art or science which deals
with the reproduction of images thought the
action of light on sensitized materials.
131. Police photography – is the science that
deals with the study of the principle of
photography, its application to police work and
the preparation of photographic evidence.
132. Photoflood – Over-rated tungsten lamp used
in photography, with a color temperature of 3400.
133. Photomacrography – Photography at great
magnifications using the imaging systems of a
microscope.
134. Photon – a quantum of light and other
electromagnetic radiation treated as an
elementary particle.
135. Pincushion distortion – A lens aberration in
which the shape of the image is distorted. The
magnification increases radically outwards, and a
square objects appears in the shape of a
pincushion, with the corner's stretched.
136. Polarization – Restriction of the direction of
vibration of light. Normal light vibrates at right
angles to its direction of travel in every plane; a
plane-polarizing filter (the most common in
photography) restricts this vibration to one plane
only. There are several applications, the most
usual being to eliminate reflection from water and
non-metallic surfaces.
137. Posterization – Darkroom technique that
converts an image into areas of flat single stones,
using tone separations.
138. Primary Colors – A set of any three colors
that, when mixed together can be used to male
any other color, and when mixed together in
equal proportions produce either white (by the
addictive process) or black (by the subtractive
process). Red, green and blue are one set of
primary colors; cyan, magenta and yellow are
another.
139. Printing-in – Photographic printing
technique of selectively increasing exposure over
certain areas of the image.
140. Prism – Transparent substance shaped so as
to refract light in a controlled manner.
141. Process Lens – Flat-field lens designed to
give high resolution of the image on a flat plane.
This is achieved at the expense of depth of field,
which is always shallow.
142. Programmed Shutter – Electronically
operated shutter with variable speeds that is
linked to the camera's TTL meter. When a
particular aperture setting is selected the shutter
speed is automatically adjusted to give a
standard exposure.
143. Range finder – Arrangement of mirror, lens
and prism that measures distance by means of a
binocular system. Used on direct viewfinder
cameras for accurate focusing.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 11
Subject: Forensic Photography
144. Reciprocity Failure (reciprocity effect) – At
very short and very long exposure , the
reciprocity law ceases to hold true, and an extra
exposure is needed. With color film, the three
dye layers suffer differently, causing a color cast.
Reciprocity failure differs from emulsion to
emulsion.
145. Reciprocity Law-Exposure-Intensity X Time
– In other words, the amount for exposure that
the film receive in a camera is a product of the
size of the lens aperture (intensity) and shutter
speed (time).
146. Reducer – Chemical used to remove silver
from a developed image, so reducing density.
Useful for over-developed negatives.
147. Reflected Light Reading – Exposure
measurement of the light reflected from the
subject (of incident light reading). Through the
lens meters use this method, and it is well-suited
to subjects of average reflectance.
148. Reflector – Surface used to reflect light.
Usually the light at the same time.
149. Refraction – The bending of light rays as they
pass from one transparent medium to another
when the two media have different light-
transmitting properties.
150. Raperture – The focal length of lens divided
by the diameter of the entrance pupil, normally
recorded as f-stops, e.g. 50M lens with a
maximum aperture opening 25mm in diameter
has relative aperture of f4 (100mm/25mm).
151. Resolution – The ability of a lens to
distinguish between closely-spaces objects, also
known as resolving power.
152. Reticulation – Crazed effect on a film
emulsion caused by subjecting the softened
gelatin to extremes of temperature change.
153. Reversal Film – Photographic emulsion
which, when developed, gives a positive image
(commonly called transparency). So called of
one stage in the development when the film
briefly re-exposed, either chemically or to light
thus reversing the image which would otherwise
be negative.
154. Rifle Stock – Camera support that enables a
camera normally with a ling lens, to be hand-held
more securely, in the same manner as a rifle.
155. Sabatier Effect – Partial reversal of tone (and
color when applied to a color emulsion) due to
brief exposure to light during development of an
emulsion.
156. Safelight – Light source in a darkroom with a
color and intensity that does not affect the light
sensitive materials for which it is designed.
157. Sensitized Material – Materials which is
affected once Scoop-Smoothly curving
background, used principally to eliminate the
horizon line.

158. Selenium Cell – Photo-electric cell which
generates its own electricity in proportion to the light
falling on it.
159. Sensitivity – The ability of an emulsion to respond
to light.
160. Sensitometry – The scientific study of light
sensitive materials and the way they behave.
161. Separation Negative – Black-and-White
negative exposed through a strong colored filter to
record an image of a selected part of the spectrum,
normally one-third. Used i dye transfer printing, and
also in non-photographic printing.
162. Shading – Photographic printing techniques where
light is held back from selected parts of the image.
163. Sharpness – The subjective impression when
viewing a photograph of acutance.
164. Short-Focus Lens – Lens with a focal length
shorter than the diagonal of the film format. For the
35mm format; short lenses generally range shorter
than 35mm.
165. Shutter – Camera mechanism that control the
period of time that image-focusing light is allowed to
fall on the film.
166. Single Lens Reflex - Camera design that allows
the image focused on the film plane to be previewed.
A hinged mirror that diverts the light path is the basis
of the system.
167. Slave Unit – Device that respond to the light
emission unit, to active additional flash unit. Snoot
generally fitting a light source, used to throw a circle on
the subject.
168. Soft Focus Filter – A glass with an irregular or
etched surface that reduces image sharpness and
increase flare, in a controlled fashion. Normally used
for flattering effect in portraiture and beauty shots.
169. Solarization – Reversal of tones in an image
produced by greatly overexposing the emulsion. A
similar appearance can be created by making use of
the Sabatier effect.
170. Spherical Aberration – In this aberration, light rays
from subject on the lens axis passing through off-
center areas of the lens focus at different distance
from light rays that pass directly through the center of
the lens. The result is blurring in the center of the
picture.
171. Split-Field Filter – Bi-focal filter, the top half of
which consist of plain glass, the lower half being a
plus-diopter lens that allows a close foreground to be
focused at the same time as the background.
172. Spot Meter – Hand-held exposure meter of
great accuracy, measuring reflected light over a small,
precise angle of view.
173. Stop Bath – Chemical that neutralized the action
of the developer on an emulsion effectively stopping
development.
174. Subtractive Process – The process of combining
colored pigment, dyes, or filter, all of which absorb
light. Combining all three primary colors in this way
produces black (an absence of light) exposed to light.
175. Shutter Speed – The duration between the
opening and closing of the shutter.
-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden
Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 12
Subject: Forensic Photography
176. Test Strip – Test of various exposures made with
an enlarger.
177. Through-The-Lens (TTL) Meter – Exposure
meter built in to the camera, normally located close to
the instant-return mirror of a single reflex or to the
pentaprism.
178. Tone – Uniform density in an image.
179. Tone Separation – The isolation of areas of tone
in an image, normally by the combination of varying
densities of line positives and negatives.
180. Toner – Chemicals that add an overall color to a
processed black-and-white, by means of bleaching
and dyeing.
181. Transparency – Positive image on a transparent
film base, designed to be viewed by transmitted light.
182. Tri-Chromatic – Method of reusing or
reproducing specific colors by the variable combination
of only three equally distributed wave-lengths, such as
blue, green, red or yellow, magenta, cyan.
183. Tri-Pack Film – Color film constructed with three
layers of emulsion, each sensitive to a different color.
When exposed equally, the three colors give white.
184. Tungsten-Halogen Lamp – Tungsten lamp of
improved efficiently, in which the filament is enclosed
in halogen gas, which causes the vaporized parts of
the filament to be re-deposited on the filament rather
than on the envelope.
185. Tungsten Lighting – Artificial lighting cause by
heating a filament of tungsten to a temperature where
it emits light.
186. Tripod – three legged device that support the
camera during exposure.
187. Ultraviolet Radiation – Electromagnetic radiation
from 13 to 397 nanometers, short in wavelength than
light. Most films, unlike the human eye, are sensitive
to ultraviolet radiation.
188. Vapor Discharge Lighting – Artificial lighting
produces by passing an electric current through gas at
low pressure in a glass envelope.
189. Variable Contrast Paper – Printing paper with a
single emulsion which can be used in different degree
of contrast by means of selected filters.
190. Viewfinder – Simple optical system used for
viewing the subject.
191. Wave Length – the distance between two
successive crests. curved mirrors rather than
refraction through lenses. By folding the light paths, its
length is much shorter than that of traditional lenses of
the same focal length.
192. Wavelength of Light – The distance between
peals in a wave of light. This distance among other
things determines the color
193. Wetting Agent – Chemical that weakens the
surface tension of water, and so reduces the risk of
dying marks of film.
194. Wide-Angle Lens – lens with an angle lens of
view than that considered subjectively normal by the
human eye (i,e more than about 50). Wide angles of
view are characteristic of lenses with short focal
lengths.
195. Zone System – A method of evaluating exposure,
with implication for the photographic approach,
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 13
Subject: Forensic Photography

developed by Ansel Adams, Minor White and other.

Light measurement is converted to exposure setting by
dividing the tonal range into specific numbered zones.
196. Zoom Lens – Lens with continuously variable
length over a certain range at any given focus and
aperture. It is generated by differential of the lens
elements.

-criminator_budz// jonathan r. budaden