Catholic University

Name CHRISTOPHER PAZMIÑO Level _______________ Professor MA John Moscoso

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field: a field which exerts a force on particles that
possess the property of electric charge, and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of those
particles. The magnetic field is produced by the motion of electric charges, i.e. electric current. The
magnetic field causes the magnetic force associated with magnets.

While preparing for an evening lecture on 21 April 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted developed an
experiment which provided evidence that surprised him. As he was setting up his materials, he noticed a
compass needle deflected from magnetic north when the electric current from the battery he was using
was switched on and off. This deflection convinced him that magnetic fields radiate from all sides of a
wire carrying an electric current, just as light and heat do, and that it confirmed a direct relationship
between electricity and magnetism. At the time of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any satisfactory
explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical
framework. However, three months later he began more intensive investigations. Soon thereafter he
published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a
wire. The CGS unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of
electromagnetism.

His findings resulted in intensive research throughout the scientific community in electrodynamics. They
influenced French physicist André-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical form to
represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's discovery also represented
a major step toward a unified concept of energy. Ørsted was not the first person to examine the
relation between electricity and magnetism. In 1802 Gian Domenico Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar,
deflected a magnetic needle by electrostatic charges. He interpreted his observations as The Relation
between electricity and magnetism. Actually, no galvanic current existed in the setup and hence no
electromagnetism was present. An account of the discovery was published in 1802 in an Italian
newspaper, but it was largely overlooked by the contemporary scientific community.

A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction, the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers).
Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. Because of this interdependence of the
electric and magnetic fields, it makes sense to consider them as a single coherent entity—the
electromagnetic field.
This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk Maxwell, and
partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside, is one of the triumphs of 19th century physics. It had far-
reaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light. As it turns out, what is
thought of as "light" is actually a propagating oscillatory disturbance in the electromagnetic field, i.e., an
electromagnetic wave. Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the different forms of
electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate
frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies. The theoretical implications of electromagnetism
led to the development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905.

The electromagnetic force

The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called the
electromagnetic force, is one of the four fundamental forces. The other fundamental forces are the strong
nuclear force (which holds atomic nuclei together), the weak nuclear force (which causes certain forms of
radioactive decay), and the gravitational force. All other forces are ultimately derived from these
fundamental forces. As it turns out, the electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all
the phenomena encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Roughly speaking, all the forces
involved in interactions between atoms can be traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the
electrically charged protons and electrons inside the atoms. This includes the forces we experience in
"pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material objects, which come from the intermolecular forces between
the individual molecules in our bodies and those in the objects. It also includes all forms of chemical
phenomena, which arise from interactions between electron orbitals.

Classical electrodynamics
The scientist William Gilbert proposed, in his De Magnete (1600), that electricity and magnetism, while
both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct effects. Mariners had noticed
that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb a compass needle, but the link between lightning and
electricity was not confirmed until Benjamin Franklin's proposed experiments in 1752. One of the first to
discover and publish a link between man-made electric current and magnetism was Romagnosi, who in
1802 noticed that connecting a wire across a Voltaic pile deflected a nearby compass needle. However,
the effect did not become widely known until 1820, when Ørsted performed a similar experiment.
Ørsted's work influenced Ampère to produce a theory of electromagnetism that set the subject on a
mathematical foundation. An accurate theory of electromagnetism, known as classical
electromagnetism, was developed by various physicists over the course of the 19th century, culminating
in the work of James Clerk Maxwell, who unified the preceding developments into a single theory and
discovered the electromagnetic nature of light. In classical electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field
obeys a set of equations known as Maxwell's equations, and the electromagnetic force is given by the
Lorentz force law.

One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with classical
mechanics, but it is compatible with special relativity. According to Maxwell's equations, the speed of
light is a universal constant, dependent only on the electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability of
the vacuum. This violates Galilean invariance, a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics. One
way to reconcile the two theories is to assume the existence of a luminiferous aether through which the
light propagates. However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether. In
1905, Albert Einstein solved the problem with the introduction of special relativity, which replaces
classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics that is compatible with classical electromagnetism.

In addition, relativity theory shows that in moving frames of reference a magnetic field transforms to a
field with a nonzero electric component and vice versa; thus firmly showing that they are two sides of the
same coin, and thus the term "electromagnetism".

I.Read the paragragh above and answer the questions.

1.What is Electromagnetism’s definition? Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field: a field
which exerts a force on particles that possess the property of electric charge, and is in turn affected by the
presence and motion of those particles.

2.How is the magnetic field produced? The magnetic field causes the magnetic force associated with magnets.

3.What did Hans Christian Ørsted develop in 1820? As he was setting up his materials, he noticed a compass
needle deflected from magnetic north when the electric current from the battery he was using was switched on
and off.

4.What did André-Marie Ampère discover? André-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical form
to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors.

5.What does a changing magnetic field produce? What does a changing electric field generate? A changing
magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, the basis of
operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers).

6.Which are the four fundamental forces? The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged
particles, called the electromagnetic force, is one of the four fundamental forces. The other fundamental forces
are the strong nuclear force (which holds atomic nuclei together), the weak nuclear force (which causes certain
forms of radioactive decay), and the gravitational force.

7.Why is the electromagnetic force very important? As it turns out, the electromagnetic force is the one
responsible for practically all the phenomena encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity

8.What does the electromagnetic field obey in classical electromagnetism? In classical electromagnetism, the
electromagnetic field obeys a set of equations known as Maxwell's equations, and the electromagnetic force is
given by the Lorentz force law

9.What is the speed of light According to Maxwell's equations? According to Maxwell's equations, the speed of
light is a universal constant, dependent only on the electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability of the
vacuum.

10.What does relativity theory show? relativity theory shows that in moving frames of reference a magnetic field
transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and vice versa; thus firmly showing that they are two
sides of the same coin, and thus the term "electromagnetism".
 The photoelectric effect
In another paper published in that same year, Albert Einstein undermined the very foundations of
classical electromagnetism. His theory of the photoelectric effect (for which he won the Nobel prize for
physics) posited that light could exist in discrete particle-like quantities, which later came to be known as
photons. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect extended the insights that appeared in the solution
of the ultraviolet catastrophe presented by Max Planck in 1900. In his work, Planck showed that hot
objects emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete packets, which leads to a finite total energy emitted as
black body radiation. Both of these results were in direct contradiction with the classical view of light as
a continuous wave. Planck's and Einstein's theories were progenitors of quantum mechanics, which,
when formulated in 1925, necessitated the invention of a quantum theory of electromagnetism. This
theory, completed in the 1940s, is known as quantum electrodynamics (or "QED"), and is one of the
most accurate theories known to physics.

Definition
The term electrodynamics is sometimes used to refer to the combination of electromagnetism with
mechanics, and deals with the effects of the electromagnetic field on the dynamic behavior of electrically
charged particles.

Units
Electromagnetic units are part of a system of electrical units based primarily upon the magnetic
properties of electric currents, the fundamental cgs unit being the abampere. The units are:

 ampere (current)
 coulomb (charge)
 farad (capacitance)
 henry (inductance)
 ohm (resistance)
 volt (electric potential)
 watt (power)

In the electromagnetic cgs system, electrical current is a fundamental quantity defined via Ampère's law
and takes the permeability as a dimensionless quantity (relative permeability) whose value in a vacuum is
unity. As a consequence, the square of the speed of light appears explicitly in some of the equations
interrelating quantities in this system.

SI electromagnetism units
 Symbol Name of Quantity Derived Units Unit Base Units

Magnitude of current ampere (SI base unit)A = W/V = C/s

Electric charge, Quantity of electricity coulomb

Potential difference or Electromotive force J/C = kg·m2·s−3·A−1

R, Z, XResistance, Impedance, Reactance ohm V/A = kg·m2·s−3·A−2

Resistivity ohm metre kg·m3·s−3·A−2

Ω·m

Power, Electrical watt V·A = kg·m2·s−3

Capacitance farad C/V = kg−1·m−2·A2·s4

Elastance reciprocal farad V/C = kg·m2·A−2·s−4

Permittivity farad per metre F/m −1·m−3·A2·s4

Electric susceptibility (dimensionless)

G, Y, B
Conductance, Admittance, Susceptance siemens = kg−1·m−2·s3·A2

Conductivity siemens per metre S/m −1·m−3·s3·A2

Magnetic flux density, Magnetic inductiontesla Wb/m2 = kg·s−2·A−1 = N·A−1·m−1

Magnetic flux weber V·s = kg·m2·s−2·A−1

 Magnetic field strength,Magnetic field intensity A·m−1
ampere per metre A/m

Reluctance A/Wb−1·m−2·s2·A2
ampere-turn per weber

Inductance henry Wb/A = V·s/A = kg·m2·s−2·A−2

Permeability henry per metre kg·m·s−2·A−2

H/m

Magnetic susceptibility (dimensionless)

Π and Electric
Π* and Magnetic hertzian vector potentials

II.Read the paragragh above and choose TRUE or FALSE. If it is FALSE, EXPLAIN?

1.Albert Einstein undermined the very foundations of classical energy F

Albert Einstein undermined the very foundations of classical electromagnetism
2.Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect extended the insights T
3.Planck didn’t show that hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation F
Planck show that hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation
4.Planck's and Einstein's theories were progenitors of quantum mechanics T
5.The term electrodynamics is used to the combination of electromagnetism with mechanics T
6.Electromagnetic units are part of a system of mechanical units T
7.Farad is the unit of capacitance T
8.Ampere is the unit of resistance F
Ampere is the unit of current
9.Watt is the unit of power T
10.Electrical current is a fundamental quantity defined via Ohm’s law T

III.Choose the correct definition.

Resistor Electromagnetism Mixer Inductor Resistor-inductor circuit

LC circuit Transformer Impedance Magnetic flux Capacitance

CAPACITANCE .is a measure of the amount of electric charge stored (or separated) for a given electric
potential. The most common form of charge storage device is a two-plate capacitor. If the charges on the
plates are +Q and −Q, and V gives the voltage difference between the plates, then the capacitance is given
by The SI unit of capacitance is the farad; 1 farad = 1 coulomb per volt.

INDUCTOR is a passive electrical device employed in electrical circuits for its property of inductance.
An inductor can take many forms.

TRANSFORMER is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled wires. A changing current in the first circuit (the primary) creates a changing
magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the
secondary). By adding a load to the secondary circuit, one can make current flow in the transformer, thus
transferring energy from one circuit to the other.

ELECTROMAGNETISM is the physics of the electromagnetic field: a field which exerts a force on
particles that possess the property of electric charge, and is in turn affected by the presence and motion
of those particles.

IMPEDANCE describes a measure of opposition to a sinusoidal alternating current (AC). Electrical

impedance extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits, describing not only the relative amplitudes of
the voltage and current, but also the relative phases. In general impedance is a complex quantity and the
term complex impedance may be used interchangeably; the polar form conveniently captures both
magnitude and phase characteristics, where the magnitude gives the change in voltage amplitude for a
given current amplitude, while the argument gives the phase difference between voltage and current.

MAGNETIC FLUX represented by the Greek letter Φ (phi), is a measure of quantity of magnetism,
taking into account the strength and the extent of a magnetic field. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the
weber (in derived units: volt-seconds), and the unit of magnetic field is the weber per square meter, or
tesla.

RESISTOR is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that resists an electric current by

producing a voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with Ohm's law: The electrical resistance is
equal to the voltage drop across the resistor divided by the current through the resistor. Resistors are
used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits.

RL CIRCUIT is one of the simplest analogue infinite impulse response electronic filters. It consists of a
resistor and an inductor, either in series or in parallel, driven by a voltage source.

LC CIRCUIT consists of an inductor, represented by the letter L, and a capacitor, represented by the
letter C. When connected together, an electrical current can alternate between them at an angular
frequency of
 where L is the inductance in henries, and C is the capacitance in farads. The angular frequency has units
of radians per second.

MIXER is a nonlinear circuit or device that accepts as its input two different frequencies and presents at
its output a mixture of signals at several frequencies in telecommunication:

1. the sum of the frequencies of the input signals

2. the difference between the frequencies of the input signals
3. both original input frequencies — these are often considered parasitic and are filtered out.

IV.SELF TEST
 
Q1. A device that increases or decreases the voltage of alternating current
A. magnet
B. magnetic pole
C. transformer
D. magnetic force
Q2. The attraction or repulsion created by spinning electric charges
A. electric generator
B. magnetic force
C. solenoid
D. electromagnet
 
Q3. Any material that attracts iron or materials containing iron
A. electric generator
B. solenoid
C. magnet
D. magnetic force
Q4. One of two points, such as the ends of a magnet, that have opposing magnetic qualities
A. magnetic pole
B. magnetic force
C. transformer
D. electric generator
Q5. A device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
A. electromagnet
B. electromagnetic induction
C. electric motor
D. electromagnetism
Q6. The process of creating a current in a circuit by changing a magnetic field
A. electric generator
B. electric motor
C. electromagnetic induction
D. magnet
Q7. The interaction between electricity and magnetism
A. magnetic force
B. electromagnetism
C. electromagnet
D. magnetic pole
Q8. A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
A. electric generator
B. electric motor
C. electromagnetic induction
D. electric generator
Q9. A coil of wire with an electric current in it is called a(n)
A. transformer.
B. electric generator.
C. electric motor.
D. solenoid.

Q10. Whether a material is magnetic or not depends on which of the following?

A. the material’s density
B. the material’s mass
C. the material’s atoms
D. the material’s weight

Q11. What can demagnetize a magnet?

A. high altitudes
B. high temperatures
C. low altitudes 
D. low temperatures
Q12. As electrons move, they make
A. electromagnetism.
B. auroras.
C. ferromagnetism.
D. magnetic fields.
Q13. What is created when a wire moves between the poles of a magnet?
A. a ferromagnet
B. a solenoid
C. an electromagnet
D. an electric current
Q14. A compass needle responds to a magnetic field, because the compass needle is a
A. generator.
B. motor.    
C. magnet.
D. transformer.
Q15. What is created when a magnet moves through a coil of wire?
A. an electromagnet
B. a ferromagnet
C. a solenoid
D. an electric current
Q16. What uses an electromagnet to measure electric current?
A. armature
B. commutator
C. galvanometer
D. solenoid
Q17. A coil of wire that has a soft iron core and that acts as a magnet when an electric current
is in the coil is called a(n)
A. temporary magnet.
B. permanent magnet.
C. electromagnet
D. ferromagnet.
Q18. Increasing the electric current in the wire is one way to
A. strengthen a solenoid’s magnetic field.
B. make an electromagnet become a solenoid.
C. make a solenoid become an electromagnet.
D. weaken a solenoid’s magnetic field.
Q19. Which of the following are two effects of Earth’s magnetic field?
A. compass points to geographic north, auroras seen at both poles  
B. compass points to magnetic north, auroras seen at both poles
C. compass points to geographic south, auroras seen at the equator
D. compass points to geographic north, auroras seen at the equator
Q20. Increasing the number of loops per meter in the coils of a solenoid is one way to
A. increase the wire’s electric current
B. strengthen the solenoid’s magnetic field.
C. decrease the wire’s electric current.
D. weaken the solenoid’s magnetic field.

Q21. What can you make visible by sprinkling iron filings around a magnet?
A. the areas called domains
B. the magnetic forces
C. the north and south poles
D. the magnetic field lines
Q22. Which of the following are two kinds of magnets?
A. atoms, domains
B. magnetic fields, magnetic poles
C. ferromagnets, electromagnets
D. magnesia magnets, magnetite magnets
Q23. How does a galvanometer make use of the relationship between electric current and
magnetic fields?
A. Galvanometers generate electric current.
B. Galvanometers change AC to DC.
C. Galvanometers use magnets to detect current.
D. Galvanometers use magnets to convert current into other forms of energy.
Q24. What did Faraday’s experiments with magnets and electromagnetic induction
demonstrate?
A. Magnetic fields are made when the electric field changes.
B. Strong electric current makes electromagnets.
C. Electric current is made when the magnetic field changes.
D. Strong electromagnets make electric current.

1.An electric circuit is illustrated below.

 R2 + R3 = Req
6 + 6 = 12 
Rp = 1/R1 + 1/Req
Rp = 1/4+ 1/12
Rp = 3
Rt = 3 + 6 = 9

2.An electric circuit is illustrated below. What is the value of resistor R3?

I1 = I2 + I3 because I1 is the total current in this case.

2 = 1.5 + I3
I3 = 0.5 A
 
If V2 = 90 V, then V3 = 90 V because voltage is constant in parallel.
 
R3 = V3/I3 = 90/0.5 = 180 