M. M.

ALI
Page No.:1/11

TIME VARYING FIELDS

Introduction

In this chapter we will find that a time varying electric field can be produced by a time
varying magnetic field and vice versa. In fact, if there exists a time varying electric
(magnetic) field in a region, there also exists a time varying magnetic (electric) field in
that region. We will refer to an electric field due to time varying magnetic field as an
induced electric field. The line integral of such an induced electric field is called the
induced emf.

3.1 Motional electromotive force

Let us consider a conductor moving with a uniform velocity
u in the magnetic field B as shown in the adjacent figure.
The magnetic force acting on each of the free electrons in
the conductor is F = −eu × B = −euBa y , where –e is the
charge of an electron. Under the influence of this force the
electrons within the conductor will move from right to left.
Such a migration of electrons will result in a net negative
charge at the left end of the conductor and a net positive
charge at the right end.
The workdone by an external source to move the electron a distance dl is dWm= -F•dl=
e(u×B)•dl =eE•dl (The electric field is defined as the force on a positive unit charge and
hence E=u×B). Therefore the voltage difference between two ends of the conducting bar,
named as induced voltage, is given by
dWm
em = ∫ = ∫ E • dl = ∫ (u × B) • dl . (61a)
e
As this induced voltage em is due to the motion of conducting bar in the magnetic field, it
is called the motional electromotive force.
Let us now consider the case where a conductor is sliding freely over a pair of stationary
conductors as shown below. The electric circuit is closed by connecting a resistance
between the far ends of the two stationary conductors.

a
For the considered problem em = ∫ (u × B) • dl = ∫ uBdy = uB(a − b) = −uBL (61b)
b
which indicates that the terminal b is at higher potential than a. As in calculating voltage
we have to move a unit positive charge against E, the integration is carried out from b to
a.
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The voltage em induced in the bar results in a current I in the circuit which is known as
induced current. This current produces a magnetic flux that will oppose the original
magnetic flux B and satisfies Len’s law.

3.2 Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law of electromagnetic

induction
As the sliding conductor in the above figure moves a distance dx in the x-direction in
time dt, the increase in cross-sectional area made by the circuit is given by ds=Ldx. Now
the change in magnetic flux passing through the plane ds = − Ldxa z is
dφ dx
dφ = B • ds = BLdx ⇒ = BL = BLu
dt dt
Therefore from (61b) we obtain equation of the induced voltage as
dφ
ei = − . (62)
dt
Equation (62) is a mathematical definition of Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic
induction. It states that the induced emf around a closed path is equal to the negative rate
of change of the magnetic flux with respect to time passing through the area enclosed by
the path.
In (62) ei= ∫ E • dl and φ = ∫ B • dS
S

dB
∴ ∫ E • dl = − ∫ • dS (63a)
S
dt
Using Stokes’s theorem the above equation can be written as
dB
∇×E = − (63b)
dt
It becomes ∇×E=0 for time invariant or dc field. We identify eqs. (63a) and (63b) as
Maxwell’s equations in integral and differential or point forms, respectively.
The induced emf in a stationary circuit caused by a time-varying magnetic field can also
be calculated from (62) as
dφ d
e i = et = − = − ∫ B • ds (64)
dt dt s
where et is termed as transformer emf.
In case of moving circuit in a time varying magnetic field, the induced emf is therefore
given by
d
ei = − ∫ B • ds + ∫ ( v × B) • dl . (65)
dt s L

d
∴ ∫ E • dl = − ∫ B • ds + ∫ (u × B) • dl
dt s L

Now the application of Stoke’s theorem yields

∫s (∇ × E) • ds = − dt ∫s B • ds + ∫s [∇ × (u × B)] • ds
d

d
∴∇ × E = − B + ∇ × (u × B)
dt
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Page No.:3/11

This equation is the most general form of Maxwell’s equation (Faraday’s law) in the
point form.

3.3 Displacement current and Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s

Circuital law

The ampere's circuital law for static field is no longer useful in time varying fields as is
shown below:
Taking the divergence of the ampere's circuital law give by eq (49) and using the
continuity equation (32) we have
dρ dρ v
∇ • (∇ × H ) = ∇ • J = − v ⇒ =0
dt dt
That is, equation (49) leads to steady state conditions in which charge density is not time
varying function. Therefore, for time dependent fields eq (49) needs some modifications.
Maxwell suggested that the definition of total current density of ampere's circuital law is
incomplete and advised to add something to J. If it is assumed to be J′, eq (49) becomes
∇ × H = J + J′
dρ v
⇒ ∇ • (∇ × H ) = ∇ • ( J + J ′) ⇒ 0 = ∇ • ( J + J ′) ⇒ ∇ • J ′ = −∇ • J =
dt
d (∇ • D ) dD
⇒ ∇ • J′ = ⇒ J′ =
dt dt
'
Since J arises due to the variation of electric displacement (electric flux density) D with
time, it is termed as displacement current density. It is as effective as J. The modified
Ampere's circuital law (Maxwell’s equation), therefore, for time varying field takes the
following form
dD
∇×H = J + (66a)
dt
Applying Stoke’s (66a) can be given in integral form as
dD dD
∫L H • dl = ∫s (J + dt ) • ds = I + ∫s dt • ds (66b)
The important conclusion that can be drawn from eq (65) is that, since displacement
current is related to the electric field, it is not possible in case of time varying fields to
deal separately with electric and magnetic fields but, instead, the two fields are
interlinked giving rise to electromagnetic fields. It is to be noted that, in a good conductor
J' is negligible compared to J at frequency lower than light frequencies (1015 Hz).

Example 3.1 A copper strip of length L pivoted at one end is rotating freely with an
angular velocity ω in a uniform magnetic field, as shown in the following figure. What is
the induced emf between the two ends of the strip?

Solution : The velocity at any radius ρ is u=ρω aφ.

Therefore, the induced electric field E=u×B= ρωB aρ.
Using (65) we obtain
0
d
eiab = − ∫ B • ds + ∫ (u × B) • dl = ∫ ρωBa ρ • dρa ρ
dt s L L

1
= − ωBL2
2
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The result shows that the b end is at higher potential than the pivoted end.
Example 3.2 A copper strip of length 2L pivoted at the midpoint is rotating with an
angular velocity ω in a uniform magnetic field as shown in the following figure.
Determine the induced emf between the two ends.
Solution:
The problem is similar to that in the previous example
except that we have to consider two arms of equal
length L pivoted at the centre. Therefore two tips are
1
at equal voltage of ωBL2 volts with respect to the
2
midpoint. Therefore the potential difference i.e., the
induced emf between the ends is zero.

Example 3.3 A copper conductor is placed in such a way that the magnetic field is
perpendicularly outward to the surface contains the conductor as shown in the following
figure. Determine induced emf e12.
Solution:
B= B0 sin ωt az

1 y
e12 B b
2 x

a z
Using (65) we obtain
a b
d d
e12 = − ∫ B • ds + ∫ (u × B) • dl = − ∫ ∫ B0 sin ωta z • dxdya z = −ωB0 ab cos ωt
dt s L
dt 0 0
The polarity of the terminals will be such that, the current due to this voltage will set up a
magnetic field which will oppose the original field.
Example 3.4 A circular conducting loop of radius 40 cm lies in the x-y plane and has a
resistance of 20 Ω. If the magnetic flux density in the region is given as B=0.2 cos 500t
ax +0.75 sin 400t ay+1.2 cos 314t az Tesla. Determine the effective value of the induced
current in the loop.
Solution: The differential surface area of the loop is ds=ρdρdφ az. Therefore from (65)
d d
ei = − ∫ B • ds + ∫ (u × B) • dl = − ∫ B • ds
dt s L
dt s
d
Now B = −100 sin 500ta x + 300 cos 400ta y − 376.8 sin 314ta z
dt
0.42π
d
∴ ei = − ∫ B • ds = 376.8 ∫ ∫ sin 314tρdρdφ = 189.4 sin 314t
dt s 0 0

and i = 9.47 sin 314t

Therefore the required result is 6.7 Amps.
Example 3.5 The magnetic field in free space is given by H=H0sinθ ay A/m, where θ=
ωt-βz, and β is a constant. Determine the displacement current and E.
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Solution: As the conduction current J in free space is zero, we obtain from Maxwell’s
equation that
ax ay az
dD dD d d d d d
∇×H = ⇒ = = − H 0 sin θa x + H 0 sin θa z
dt dt dx dy dz dz dx
0 H 0 sin θ 0
= βH 0 cos θa x A/m 2
1 D 1
Again D = ∫ β H 0 cos θdta x = βH 0 sin θa x ⇒ E = = βH 0 sin θa x V/m
ω ε0 ωε 0

3.4 Maxwell’s equations in time domain

By studying the physical properties of electric (E-field) and magnetic (B-field) fields we
have been able to describe these properties by four, relatively simple, equations known
as Maxwell’s equations.
These four fundamental equations of electromagnetism can be expressed in both an
integral and differential form as tabulated below:

Sl No. Point/Differential form Integral form Equation No.

∇•D=ρv
1)
∫ D • ds = ∫ ρ v dv
s v
(67)

∇•B=0
2)
∫ B • ds = 0
s
(68)

3) dB dB (69)
∇×E = −
dt ∫ E • dl = −∫ dt
L s
• ds

4) dD dD (70)
∇×H = J +
dt ∫ H • dl = ∫ (J +
L s
dt
) • ds

Equation (67) results from Coulomb’s and Gauss’s laws and states that free charges act as
sources or sinks of D. It suggests that the total electric flux density or total electric
displacement through the surface enclosing a volume v is equal to the total charge within
the volume.
Equation (68) arises from the application of Gauss’s law to magnetic fields and the non-
existence of magnetic monopoles. There are no sources or sinks of B. This equation
suggests that the net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.
Equation (69) describes Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and states that an
electromotance is produced in a circuit when the magnetic flux through the circuit
changes. It suggests that the electromagnetic force around a closed path is equal to the
time derivative of the magnetic flux density through any surface bounded by the path.
Equation (70) describes Ampere’s circuital law (which is derived from the Biot-Savart
law) and states that the magnetomotive force around a closed path is equal to the
conduction current J=σE plus the time derivative of the electric flux density through any
surface bounded by the path.
In vacuum/free space ρv=0, J=0, ε=ε0 and µ=µ0. Therefore, in vacuum the Maxwell's
equations take the following forms:
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Sl No. Point/Differential form Integral form Equation No.

∇•D=0
1)
∫ D • ds = 0
s

∇•B=0
2)
∫ B • ds = 0
s

3) dB dH dH
∇×E = −
dt
= −µ0
dt ∫ E • dl = −µ ∫
L
0
s
dt
• ds

4) dD dE dE
∇×H =
dt
= ε0
dt ∫ H • dl = ∫ ε
L s
0
dt
• ds

3.5 Maxwell’s equations in frequency domain

Assuming the fields are varying harmonically with time as ejωt, the maxwell’s equations
are given by

Sl No. Point/Differential form Integral form Equation No.

∇•D=ρv
1)
∫ D • ds = ∫ ρ v dv
s v
(71)

∇•B=0
2)
∫ B • ds = 0
s
(72)

∇ × E = − jωB
3)
∫ E • dl = − jω ∫ B • ds
L s
(73)

∇ × H = (σ + jωε )E
4)
∫ H • dl = (σ + jωε )∫ E • ds
L s
(74)

3.6 Maxwell’s equations in phasor forms

In case the field quantities are sinusoidally time varying, the electric field E can be
expressed as
E(x, y, z, t)=Ex(x, y, z, t) ax+ Ey(x, y, z, t) ay+ Ez(x, y, z, t) az
where Ex=Exm cos(ωt+θx), Ey=Eym cos(ωt+θy), Ez=Ezm cos(ωt+θz). Here the magnitudes
Exm, Eym, Ezm and the phase angles θx, θy, θz are independent of time but may depend on
spatial coordinates, e.g., Exm(x, y, z), θx(x, y, z). Now Ex can be expressed as
Ex= Exm cos(ωt+θx)=Re[Exm ej(ωt+θx)]= Re[Exm ejωt ejθx] and similarly Ey and Ez. Therefore
Ex, Ey and Ez can be expressed in phasor form as follows: Êx= Exm ejθx= Exm ∠θx, Êy=
Eym ejθy= Eym ∠θy, Êz= Ezm ejθz= Ezm ∠θz. Therefore
E(x, y, z, t)= Exm cos(ωt+θx) ax+ Eym cos(ωt+θy) ay+ Ezm cos(ωt+θz) az
= Re[Exm ej(ωt+θx)] ax+ Re[Eym ej(ωt+θy)] ay+ Re[Ezm ej(ωt+θz)] az
= Re[Êx ejωt] ax+ Re[Êy ejωt] ay+ Re[Êz ejωt] az
= Re[(Êx ax+ Êy ay+ Êz az) ejωt]= Re[Ê ejωt]
If we remember that the fields are real part of their exponential form, we may consider
the fields as follows:
E(x, y, z, t)= Ê(x, y, z) ejωt
Likewise
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H(x, y, z, t)= Ĥ(x, y, z) ejωt

D( x, y, z, t) = Dˆ ( x, y, z)e jωt
B( x, y, z, t) = Bˆ ( x, y, z)e jωt
d ˆ
In this cases, B( x, y, z)e jωt = jωBˆ ( x, y, z)e jωt that is, the first derivative of a sinusoidal
dt
varying field is jω times the field. Therefore, the Maxwell's equations in phasor form can
be expressed as:
Sl No. Point/Differential form Integral form Equation No.
1) ∇•D ˆ = ρ̂
v ∫ Dˆ • ds = ∫ ρˆ v dv
s v
(75)

2) ∇ • Bˆ = 0 ∫ Bˆ • ds = 0
s
(76)

3) ˆ = − jωBˆ
∇×E ∫ Eˆ • dl = − jω ∫ Bˆ • ds
L s
(77)

4) ˆ = (σ + jωε )Eˆ
∇×H ∫ Hˆ • dl = (σ + jωε )∫ Eˆ • ds
L s
(78)

3.7 Boundary condition for electromagnetic field

For the time varying tangential component of E-field let us apply the Faraday’s law (61)
along the rectangular path as the closed loop in figure (a). If its height ∆h is made
infinitesimally small then the only contribution to the line integral of the left side of (61)
is along the top and bottom edges of length dL and the right hand side becomes zero as
the area dLx∆h is vanishingly small.

∴ ∫ E • dl = E 1 • (−dL) + E 2 • (dL) = −E1t dL + E 2t dL = 0

L

leads to
E1t=E2t ⇒ D1t/ε1=D2t/ε2 (79)

where Et is the tangential component of E.

Hence E1t=E2t; the tangential component of E is continuous across any interface.
For the time varying tangential component of H-field let us apply the Ampere's circuital
law (66) along the rectangular path as the closed loop in figure (b). If its height dh is
made infinitesimally small then the only contribution to the line integral of the left side of
(62) is along the top and bottom edges of length dL and second term of the right hand
side becomes zero as the area dLx∆h is vanishingly small.

Then ∫ H • dl = H
L
1 • (−dL) + H 2 • (dL) = −H1t dL + H 2t dL = KdL leads to H2t-H1t=K

(80)
where a sheet of current having a linear current density of K A/m width is also assumed
at the interface of the two media.
Since the Gauss's law for time varying electromagnetic field for E and B remain same as
those for static field, the boundary conditions for normal components of E and B remain
uncharged.
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∆t

ρs
∆h

(a)

B1 H1
1 dS K
dt ⊕⊕⊕ dh
2 dS
dL H2
(b)

3.8 Potential due to time varying field (Retarded Potential)

dB
From Faraday’s law for time varying field (62), ∇ × E = − , and B=∇ ×A we have
dt
dB d (∇ × A ) dA
∇×E = − =− ⇒ ∇ × (E + )=0
dt dt dt
Now from the vector identity ∇ ×∇f=0 or ∇ ×-∇f=0, we may define
dA dA
E+ = −∇V ⇒ E = −∇V − (81)
dt dt
In static case dA/dt=0, (81) reduces to E= - ∇V and hence E can be determined from V
alone. For time varying case E is a function of both V and A. In time varying case A can
not be determined from (51) or (55). Similarly, V is not also the solution of ∇2V= - ρv/ε.
From (70) we have
dA
d (−∇V − )
dD dE dt
∇×B = µ J + µ ⇒ ∇×∇× A = µ J + µε = µJ + µε
dt dt dt
2
dV d A
∇(∇ • A) − ∇ 2 A = µ J − ∇( µ ε )− µε 2
dt dt
However, it is easy to prove from (16), (32) and (51) that ∇•A= -µεdV/dt
d 2A
∴∇2 A − µ ε 2 = −µ J (82)
dt
Again from ∇•D= ρv we have
dA ρ d 2V ρ
∇•E= ρv/ε ⇒ ∇ • (−∇V − ) = v ⇒ ∇ 2V − µ ε 2 = − v (83)
dt ε dt ε
The solution of eq (82) and (83) are of similar type and it is easy to solve them in
frequency domain. Therefore the fields are assumed to be a function of exp(jωt). Now
from (82) we have
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∴ ∇ 2 A + µ εω 2 A = − µ J ⇒ ∇ 2 A + β 2 A = − µ J (84)
2 2 2 2
where β = µεω = ω /c . Here c is the light velocity in the media whose permittivity and
permeability are ε and µ, respectively. To find the solution let us consider a point source
J=Jz az which is function only of radial distance. Then (84) takes the following form
1 d 2 dAz
∇ 2 Az + β 2 Az = − µ J z ⇒ 2 (r ) + β 2 Az = − µ J z (85)
r dr dr
At points far from the source (85) takes the following form
1 d 2 dAz
2
(r ) + β 2 Az = 0 (86)
r dr dr
Now if we assume Az=f/r, the dAz/dr=r-1df/dr – r-2f and (86) becomes
d2 f
2
+β2 f =0 (87)
dr
Since f=C exp(-jβr) is the solution of (87), therefore Az= C exp(-jβr)/r. In order to
determine C, let us integrate both sides of (85) over a small spherical volume of radius r0.

∇ 2 Az + β 2 Az = − µ J z ⇒ ∫ ∇ 2 Az dv = − β 2 ∫ Az dv − µ ∫ J z dv
V V V

⇒ ∫ ∇ • ∇Az dv = − β 2
∫ A dv − µ ∫ J
z z dv ⇒ ∫ ∇Az • dSa r = − β 2 ∫ Az dv − µ ∫ J z dv
V V V S V V
(88)
2
Now ∇Az•ar=dAz/dr= - (1+j βr)Cexp(-jβr)/r . Therefore in the limit r0 tends to zero
π 2π

∫ ∇Az • dSa r = lim ∫ ∫ [ − (1 + jβr0 )C exp(− jβr0 ) sin θdθdφ = −4πC

S
r0 →0
0 0

Again since dv=r2sinθdθdφ, and Az varies as 1/r, consequently, if r0 is vanishingly small

the volume integral of Az in (88) vanishes. Therefore,
µ µ J z exp(− jβr )dv
4π V∫ 4π V∫
C= J z dv ⇒ Az =
r
µ J exp(− jβr )dv µ J exp( jωt − jβ r )dv
∴ A (r ) =
4π V ∫ r
⇒ A (r , t ) =
4π V∫ r
µ J exp jω (t − r / c)dv µ J (t − r / c)dv
4π V∫ 4π V∫
⇒ A (r , t ) = =
r r
(89)
Similarly, the solution of (83) can be obtained as
1 ρ (t − r / c)dv
4πε V∫
V (r , t ) = (90)
r

3.9 Power flow and the Poynting Vector

The unit of E is volt/m and that of H is A/m, therefore the product of their magnitudes
have the unit of power density. The flow of power due to electromagnetic field in a
particular direction is of prime importance, the vector product of E and H is used to
determine the power of an electromagnetic wave.
If we define the power density vector as
P=E×H Watt/m2.
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Now ∇•P=∇•( E×H)= H•(∇×E) - E•(∇×H)

Using the Maxwell’s equations we have
∇•P=H•(-dB/dt) - E•(J+dD/dt) ⇒ -∇•P=µH•(dH/dt) + E•J+εE•dE/dt Watt/m2 (91)
Eq (91) is known as the point form of poynting theorem. Integrating both sides of (91)
over some volume v and applying the divergence theorem, we obtain the integral form of
poynting theorem as follows

⎛ dH dE ⎞
− ∫ ∇ • Pdv = ∫ E •Jdv + ∫ ⎜ µH • + εE • ⎟dv
V V V⎝
dt dt ⎠
⎛ dH dE ⎞
or − ∫ P • ds = ∫ E •Jdv + ∫ ⎜ µH • + εE • ⎟dv watt
s V V ⎝ dt dt ⎠
(92)
The term on the side of (92) is the net inward flux of P into the volume v. The first term
on the right side of (92) is a power dissipation term in that it represents the rate of
expenditure of energy by the electric field. The second term on the right side of (92) is
given by
⎛ dH dE ⎞ d 1 1 2
∫V ⎜⎝ µH • dt + εE • dt ⎟⎠dv = V∫ dt ( 2 µH + 2 εE )dv
2

and represents the time rate of increase of energy stored in the magnetic and electric
fields respectively in the volume v.
Therefore (92) states that the net inward flux of the poynting vector through some closed
surface is the sum of the power dissipated in the volume enclosed by the surface and the
rate of change of energy stored in the volume enclosed by the surface.

3.10 Poynting Vector in phasor form

The poynting vector can be expressed in phasor form as follows:

Pˆ = Eˆ × Hˆ∗
The density of average flow is then
1 1
Pav = Re[ Pˆ ] = Re[E ˆ ×H ˆ ∗].
2 2
This can be proved as follows:
E = Re(E ˆ e j ωt ) = 1 ( Eˆ e jωt + E ˆ ∗ e − j ωt )
2
H = Re( H ˆ e j ωt ) = 1 ( Hˆ e j ωt + H ˆ ∗ e − j ωt )
2
1 ˆ ˆ ∗ ˆ∗ ˆ 1 ˆ ˆ j 2 ωt ˆ ∗ ˆ ∗ − j 2 ωt
∴ P = E × H = (E × H + E × H ) + (E × He +E ×H e ) (93)
4 4
Since (Eˆ × H ˆ ∗ ) ∗ = Eˆ ∗ × H ˆ and Eˆ ∗ × H ˆ ∗ = (E
ˆ ×H
ˆ ) ∗ (93) can be written as
1 ˆ ˆ ∗ ) + 1 (N ˆ e j 2 ωt + N ˆ ∗ e − j 2 ωt )
P = (M +M (94)
4 4
where M ˆ = Eˆ × H ˆ ∗ and N ˆ = Eˆ × H ˆ and we obtain from (94)
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1 ˆ ) + 1 Re( N ˆ e j 2 ωt )
P= Re(M
2 2
1 ˆ ×H ˆ ∗ ) + 1 Re(E ˆ ×H ˆ e j 2 ωt )
= Re(E
2 2
T
1 1 ˆ ×H ˆ ∗)
∴ Pav = ∫ Pdt = Re(E (95)
T 0 2
because the time average of the second term within one period is zero.