Lecture-3

Cells of the Immune System

Jyothi.Ch
Head,Dept. of Microbiology
St.Ann’s College for Women
 5
What Is Immunity

The ability of the body to defend itself

against specific invading agents such as
bacteria, toxins, viruses, and foreign
tissue is called immunity.
 8
The complexity of this task requires
sophisticated mechanisms for the recognition
of, and defense of the body against, these
pathogens.

This is achieved by an array of cells and

molecules which they secrete which are
dispersed through- out the body and
collectively constitute the immune
system
 9
Most of the major cell types of the
immune system are derived from progenitors
(stem cells) in the bone marrow.

Many mature Ce lls circulate in the

bloodstream and are dispersed throughout tissues
of the body, while some also congregate in
specialized lymphoid tissues.
 1

Furthermore,in order to generate effective

immunity, the various cell types cooperate
with each other by means of direct
interactions between cell surface
molecules and via the molecules that they
secrete.
Development of the immune system
Stem cell T cell
Granulocyte

Myeloid Lymphoid
progenitor progenitor NK cell

Mast cell

B cell
Monocyte

Macrophage
Dendritic cell Plasma Cell
Cells of the immune system

Immune system

Myeloid cells Lymphoid cells

Granulocytic Monocytic T cells B cells NK cells

Neutrophils Macrophages Helper cells

Basophils Kupffer cells Suppressor cells Plasma cells
Eosinophils Dendritic cells Cytotoxic cells
 Hematopoiesis

• The process of formation of blood cells i.e. RBC’S, WBC’S

and platelets is called as haematopoiesis and the sites
where it occurs are known as hemopoietic tissues or organs
(bone marrow,liver, spleen)

Cells responsible to do function of hemopoiesis are first seen

in yolk sac of embryo in third week of embryonic
development and these cells are known as hematopoietic
stem cells
STEM CELL
Cells capable of asymmetrically dividing,
one group of cell is responsible for
production of well differentiated products
and another group of cell is responsible to
maintain the original population if stem cell
and shows a character called as self-
renewal
 Anatomy of Hematopoiesis:

• First Trimester: Yolk Sac

• Second Trimester: Liver and Spleen
• Third Trimester: Central, Peripheral Skeleton
• Adulthood: Axial Skeleton –bones
of head and trunk
oSternum-Breast bone
oRibs
oPelvis
• Overall Cellular Organization of
Hematopoiesis:
1. Stem Cells:
Totipotential.
Multipotential.
2. Progenitor Cells.
3. Precursor Cells.
4. Effector Cells.
 The cellular pathways of
hematopoiesis:
I. Stem cells:
Totipotential Stem Cells :"The Godfather Cells”:
1. Unlimited Self-Renewal.
2. Unlimited Differentiation: can give rise to any cellular element.
3. Present in Marrow in Small Numbers.
4. Highly Resistant to Chemotherapy.
5. Reside Primarily in Marrow. Small numbers circulate in blood.
6. Look like Small Lymphocytes.
.
Multipotential Stem Cells: -i.e. Lymphoid, Myeloid
Stem Cells
1. Derived from Totipotential Stem Cells.
2. Capable of Extended Self Renewal.
3. Capable of Extended Differentiation
• Lymphoid stem cells give rise to all categories of mature
lymphocytes.
• Myeloid stem cells give rise to red cells, granulocytes,
monocytes, and platelets.
II. Progenitor Cells:
1. Derived from Multipotential StemCells.
2. Capable of limitedself-renewal.
3. Capable of limiteddifferentiation.
4. Responsive to Hematopoietic Growth Factors,
III. Precursor Cells -Blasts and their
progeny:
• First morphologically identifiable cells:
o Erythroblast -Red Cells.
o Myeloblast -Granulocytes.
o Monoblast –Monocytes.
o Lymphoblast –Lymphocytes.
o Megakaryoblast –Platelets.
• Little if any self-renewal.
IV. Mature Effector Cells:
• Red Cells: carry oxygen, carbon
dioxide; lifespan 120 days.
• Neutrophils: phagocytosis, killing.
• Monocytes: phagocytosis, killing, antigen
presentation.
• Lymphocytes: identify cells as self or non-
self.
• Platelets:hemostasis.
 Cells of the immune system
Lymphocyte (T, B, NK)
Eosinophil

Plasma cell

Basophil
Granular Agranular (35% in circulation)

Monocyte

Neutrophil Dendritic cell

Leukocytes
White blood cells that provide either innate or specific adaptive
immunity.

Myeloid Cells: First line of defense, non-specific innate immunity

• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Basophils/Mast cells
• Monocytes/Macrophages/Dendritic Cells

Lymphoid Cells: non-specific immunity

• Natural Killer Cells

Lymphoid Cells: Humoral and Cell Mediated specific immunity

• B Lymphocytes
• T Lymphocytes (Helper and Cytolytic)
 Leukocytes: Myeloid
Myeloid Leukocytes and Their Properties
Circulating
Phenotype Morphology Differential Effector Function
Count*
PMN Phagocytosis and digestion
Neutrophil granulocyte 2-7.5x109/L of microbes
Immediate hypersensitivity (allergic)
Eosinophil 0.04-0.44x109/L
granulocyte reactions; defense against helminths
Basophil 0-0.1x109/L Immediate hypersensitivity (allergic)
granulocyte reactions
Mast Cell granulocyte Tissue Immediate hypersensitivity (allergic)
Specific reactions
monocytic 0.2-
Monocyte 0.8x109/L Circulating macrophage precursor

Macrophage monocytic
Tissue
Phagocytosis and digestion of
Dendritic monocytic microbes; antigen presentation to T
Specific
Cell cells
Antigen presentation to naïve Tcells;
Tissue
initiation of adaptive responses
Specific
* Normal range for 95% of population, +/- 2 standard
deviations
 Granulocytes
• Granulocyte, any of a group of white blood cells (leukocytes) that
are characterized by the large number and chemical makeup of the
granules occurring within the cytoplasm.
• Granulocytes are the most numerous of the white cells and are
approximately 12–15 micrometres in diameter, making them larger
than red blood cells (erythrocytes).
• They also have a multilobed nucleus and are important mediators
of the inflammatory response.
• There are three types of granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils,
and basophils.
• Each of these types is distinguished by the colour that the granules
stain when treated with a dye. The differences in staining
characteristics reflect differences in the chemical composition of
the granules.
• Granulocytes have a life span of only a few days and are
continuously produced from stem cells in the bone marrow.
• They enter the bloodstream and circulate for a few hours, after
which they leave the circulation and die.
• Granulocytes are mobile and are attracted to foreign materials by
chemical signals, some of which are produced by the invading
microorganisms themselves, others by damaged tissues, and still
others by the interaction between microbes and proteins in the
blood plasma.
• Some microorganisms produce toxins that poison granulocytes and
thus escape phagocytosis; other microbes are indigestible and are
not killed when ingested.
• As a result, granulocytes are of limited effectiveness by themselves
and require reinforcement by the mechanisms of specific immunity
(e.g., antibody-mediated immunity).
Granulocytes are components of the innate (but also play a part
in adaptive immunity) immune system that are characterized by
cytoplasmic granules.
As a subset of white blood cells (leucocytes) and the first line of
defense, granulocytes play an important role in defending the
body against pathogens as rapid responders .
Granulocytes make up between 50 and 70 percent of the total
white blood cells.
 Eosinophils
• 2-5% of total WBC cells
• Eosinophils are (11-15µm) in diameter,
heavily granulated with bilobed nucleus

• Acidophilic granules are stained by

acidic dye eosin and are pink in colour,

• They are motile cells that migrate from

blood stream into tissue spaces.

• Play a role in defense against

parasitic(protozoan & helminths)
organisms by phagocytosis.

Immunological functions of Eosinophil:

• Granules contain various hydrolytic
enzymes that kill parasites which are
too large to be phagocytosed by
neutrophils.
Source: Bristol Biomedical Image Archive,
used with permission
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2

Eosinophils secrete their granule contents for

extracellular digestion of infectious pathogens which
are too large to be engulfed.

Release mainly cationic proteins and reactive oxygen

metabolites into the extracellular fluid which damages
the plasma membrane of the parasite
 Basophils
Basophilic granulocytes (basophils) derive
their name from the affinity of their
cytoplasmic granules for certain basic dyes.

They constitute less than 1% of white blood

cells.

Basophils are of hematopoietic origin.

Typically mature in the bone marrow and then

circulate in the peripheral blood, from where
they can then be recruited into the tissues
•Basophils are non-phagocytic cell found in small number
in blood and tissue
•Cytoplasm contains large number of prominent
basophilic granules containing histamine,serotonin and
other hydrolytic enzymes and release them on stimulation.
•These substances influence diameter of blood vessels
and are termed vasoactive mediators.

Immunological functions:
•Provide hypersensitive and allergic reaction
•Have high affinity Fc receptors for IgE on their surface.
Cross-linking of the IgE causes the basophils to release
pharmacologically active mediators (histamine,
prostaglandins, leukotrienes).
 Mast Cells
• Mast cell precursors originate in bone marrow
• When the mast cell precursors leave the blood and enter into
the tissue they get differentiated into mast cells(Formed in
tissue from undifferentiated bone marrow precursors.)
• Found in variety of tissues-skin,mucosal epithelial tissue of
respiratory,genitourinary and digestive tracts.
• Like basophils,possess large number of granules in cytoplasm
Function:
• Similar importance in allergic reactions as basophils, but only
found in tissues.
• Contain granules with preformed mediators to be released after
stimulation
– histamine, prostaglandins
– Leukotrienes
Play an important role in allergies and hypersensitivities
 Phagocytosis and
Intracellular killing
Neutrophils and Macrophages
 Phagocytes – neutrophils (PMNs)

Neutrophil

Geimsa stain
Source: www.dpd.cdc.gov
•Neutrophils are (11-14µm) in diameter with multilobed
nucleus with granules in cytoplasm.

•It constitutes 50-70 % of total circulating WBC and

remains for 7-8 hours in blood and then migrates to
tissues(motile)

•Life span is 3-4 days.

•Also known as polymorphonuclear (PMN) leucocyte.

•Neutrophils is stained by both acidic and basic dye &

contain primary and secondary granules in cytoplasmic
matrix
•Function:Phagocytosis
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Lytic enzymes and bactericidal substances
in these cells are contained with primary
and secondary granules

The primary granules are larger and denser

and contain peroxidase,lysozyme and various
hydrolytic enzymes .
They also possess secondary specific
granules which contain the iron-binding
protein lactoferrin as well as lytic enzymes
lysozyme.
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7

•Both primary and secondary granules fuse with

phagosome whose contents are then digested nad
the remains are excreted.
•They also use oxygen dependent and oxygen
independent pathways to generate antimicrobial
substances to kill ingeated organisms
 Monocytes

• They are mononuclearphagocytic leucocytes posessing oval

or kidney shaped nucleus.
• Produced in bone marrow
• Circulate in the blood after leaving the bone marrow.
• Survive only a day or so before they enter the tissue to
mature into macrophages.
• They enlarge in size and migrate into tissues and
differentiate into tissue specific macrophages
 Macrophages
• When monocytes enter the tissues they
become macrophages:
– Enlarge 5 to 10 fold in size
– increase the number of intracellular
organelles (lysosomes and
phagolysosomoes, production of
intracellular lysozymes
– Acquires Greater phagocytic ability
– Produces higher levels of hydrolytic
enzymes & secrete variety of soluble
factors.
– Develops microvilli on the surface of its
plasma membrane
– Can live for years in tissue; highly
motile.
 Features
• Are transported throughout the body
• Fixed & free/wandering macrophages
• Named according to tissue location:histiocytes
in tissues,oteoclasts in bone marrow,microglial
cells in brain,alveolar in lungs,kupffer cells in
liver etc
• Remain in resting stage and activated by
variety of stimuli
 Functions
• Activation of these cells occurs by phagocytosis
of antigens, or in response to T cell derived
cytokines.
• Activated macrophages
recognize and remove
unwanted particulate
matter including products
of inflammation and
invading organisms, antigens
and toxins by secretion of
cytotoxic proteins
 Dendritic Cells
• Specialized phagocytic cells which constitute only 0.2% of
WBC
• Found in most tissues and derive their name because of
membrane extensions resembling dendrites of nerve cells.
• Abundant at interfaces between the external and internal
environments (skin, lining of the gastrointestinal tract),
where they encounter invading pathogens.
• Actively motile; continuously sample surroundings by
endocytic processes.
• Function:Present antigen to T-Helper cells by
expressing high levels of class II MHC molecules
• Hence also called potent antigen presenting cells
(APC)
 Lymphoid Progenitor cells in Immune system

Lymphocytes-Adaptive(Specific
Immunity)
Natural Killer cells(NK)-Nonspecific
Immunity
 Lymphocytes

Main cells of our immune system is a group of specialized cells

known as lymphocytes.

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that function as part

of the immune system.

Their various functions allow them to properly respond to

foreign invaders in the body.

Some lymphocytes work alone, while others are able to

coordinate with other cells.
 Types
Two types- known as T cells, B cells.

T Cells
• T cells get their name because they are developed in the thymus gland.
• These cells are distinguished from other lymphocytes by the specialized T-
cell receptor molecule that is located on the surface of the cell.
• This molecule is important in immunity because it recognizes antigens and
is able to bind to them.
B cells
• B cells are an important part of the immune system.
• B cells get their name because they mature in the bone marrow of
humans, and in the bursa organ of birds.
• These cells are distinguished from other lymphocytes by a protein on their
surface known as the B-cell receptor. This protein is specialized to
recognize and attach to specific antigens.
 T cells
• T cells (also called T lymphocytes) are one of the
major components of the adaptive immune
system.

• Their roles include :

directly killing infected host cells,
activating other immune cells,
producing cytokines and
regulating the immune response.
 Production
• T cells originate from haematopoietic stem cells which are
produced in the bone marrow.
• Some of these multipotent cells will becomes progenitor cells
that leave the bone marrow and travel to the thymus via the
blood.
• In the thymus these cells mature: T cells are named after their
thymus-dependent development.
• Each T cell will develop its own T cell receptor (TCR) that is
specific for a particular antigen.
• T cells that survive thymic selection will mature and leave the
thymus.
• They will circulate through the peripheral lymphoid organs, each
ready to encounter a specific antigen and be activated. Once
activated, the T cell will proliferate and differentiate into an
effector T cell.
 Classes/Types of T cells
• T cells can be categorized into three distinct
classes:
• helper T cells,
• regulatory T cells,
• cytotoxic T cells.
These classes are differentiated based on their
expression of certain surface molecules, their
mode of activation, and their functional roles
in adaptive immunity
• All T cells produce cluster of differentiation (CD)
molecules, cell surface glycoproteins that can be
used to identify and distinguish between the
various types of white blood cells. Although T
cells can produce a variety of CD
molecules, CD4 and CD8 are the two most
important used for differentiation of the classes.
Helper T cells and regulatory T cells are
characterized by the expression of CD4 on their
surface, whereas cytotoxic T cells are
characterized by the expression of CD8.
Classes of T cells can also be distinguished by the
specific MHC molecules and APCs with which
they interact for activation. Helper T cells and
regulatory T cells can only be activated by APCs
presenting antigens associated with MHC II. In
contrast, cytotoxic T cells recognize antigens
presented in association with MHC I, either by
APCs or by nucleated cells infected with an
intracellular pathogen.
The different classes of T cells also play different
functional roles in the immune system.
Helper T cells serve as the central orchestrators that help
activate and direct functions of humoral and cellular immunity.
In addition, helper T cells enhance the pathogen-killing
functions of macrophages and NK cells of innate immunity.

Regulatory T cells prevent undesirable and potentially

damaging immune responses. Their role in peripheral tolerance,
for example, protects against autoimmune disorders,

Cytotoxic T cells are the primary effector cells for cellular

immunity. They recognize and target cells that have been
infected by intracellular pathogens, destroying infected cells
along with the pathogens inside.
Table 1. Classes of T Cells
Surface CD
Class Activation Functions
Molecules
Orchestrate humoral
and cellular immunity
APCs presenting antigens
Helper T cells CD4 Involved in the
associated with MHC II
activation of
macrophages and NK
cells

Regulatory T cells
APCs presenting antigens
CD4
associated with MHC II
Involved in peripheral
tolerance and
prevention of
autoimmune responses

APCs or infected nucleated cells Destroy cells infected

Cytotoxic T cells CD8 presenting antigens associated with intracellular
with MHC I pathogens
 Functioning of T Cells
Naïve T cells( are cells that have not yet encountered their specific antigen.)

In peripheral lymphoid organs naïve T cells can interact with antigen

presenting cells (APCs), which use an MHC molecule to present antigen.

If the T cell recognises a specific antigen, it will proliferate and differentiate

into effector T cells of a particular type.

The cell either uses a co-receptor called CD8 or CD4 to bind to the MHC
molecule – these proteins help us to differentiate major groups of effector
T cells. Naïve T cells with CD8 will become cytotoxic T cells and those with
CD4 will become T helper cells, each of which are specialised in particular
tasks.
Following an infection, antigen-specific, long-lived memory T cells are
formed. Memory T cells are important because they can quickly expand to
large numbers of effector T cells upon re-exposure to the antigen
• They provide the immune system with memory against previously
encountered antigens. Memory T cells may either be CD4+ or CD8+.
 Types
Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8 T Cells)
• Cytotoxic T cells kill their target cells, primarily by releasing cytotoxic granules into the cell to
be killed. These cells recognise their specific antigen (such as fragments of viruses) when
presented by MHC Class I molecules that are present on the surface of all nucleated cells.
• MHC Class I molecules interact with a protein called CD8 on the cytotoxic T cells, which helps
to identify this cell type. Cytotoxic T cells require several signals from other cells to be
activated, such as from dendritic cells and T helper cells.
• Their main function is to kill virally infected cells, but they also kill cells with intracellular
bacteria or tumorous cells.

• T-Helper Cells (TH) (CD4 T Cells)

• T helper cells have a wider range of effector functions than CD8 T cells and can differentiate
into many different subtypes, such as Th1, Th2, Th17 and regulatory T cells.
• They become activated when they are presented with peptide antigens by MHC Class II
molecules, which are expressed on the surface of APCs. MHC Class II molecules interact with
a protein called CD4 on the T helper cells, which helps to identify this cell type.
• The roles of a CD4 T cell may include activating other immune cells, releasing cytokines, and
helping B cells to produce antibodies. They help to shape, activate and regulate the adaptive
immune response.
This illustration depicts the activation of a naïve (unactivated) helper T
cell by an antigen-presenting cell and the subsequent proliferation and
differentiation of the activated T cell into different subtypes.
This figure illustrates the activation of a naïve (unactivated) cytotoxic T cell (CTL) by an
antigen-presenting MHC I molecule on an infected body cell. Once activated, the CTL
releases perforin and granzymes that invade the infected cell and induce controlled
cell death, or apoptosis.
 B-Lymphocytes

• The B lymphocyte (B cell) is one of the most

important cells of the body. They form a part
of the adaptive immune response by
producing antibodies and presenting antigens
to T cells. Once activated they will either
mature into plasma cells or memory B cells.
 B cell Development
• Like T cells, B cells are formed from multipotent hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)
in the bone marrow and follow a pathway through lymphoid stem cell and
lymphoblast .
• Unlike T cells, however, lymphoblasts destined to become B cells do not
leave the bone marrow and travel to the thymus for maturation. Rather,
eventual B cells continue to mature in the bone marrow.
• The first step of B cell maturation is an assessment of the functionality of
their antigen-binding receptors. This occurs through positive selection for
B cells with normal functional receptors.
• A mechanism of negative selection is then used to eliminate self-reacting
B cells and minimize the risk of autoimmunity.
• Negative selection of self-reacting B cells can involve elimination
by apoptosis, editing or modification of the receptors so they are no
longer self-reactive
• Immature B cells that pass the selection in the bone marrow then travel to
the spleen for their final stages of maturation. There they become naïve
mature B cells, i.e., mature B cells that have not yet been activated.
 B cell Receptors
• B-cell receptors are embedded in the membranes of B cells.

• Like T cells, B cells possess antigen-specific receptors with diverse specificities.

• Although they rely on T cells for optimum function, B cells can be activated
without help from T cells.

• B-cell receptors (BCRs) for naïve mature B cells are membrane-bound monomeric
forms of IgD and IgM. They have two identical heavy chains and two identical light
chains connected by disulfide bonds into a basic “Y” shape (Figure 1). The trunk of
the Y-shaped molecule, the constant region of the two heavy chains, spans the B
cell membrane. The two antigen-binding sites exposed to the exterior of the B cell
are involved in the binding of specific pathogen epitopes to initiate the activation
process. It is estimated that each naïve mature B cell has upwards of 100,000 BCRs
on its membrane, and each of these BCRs has an identical epitope-binding
specificity.

• In order to be prepared to react to a wide range of microbial epitopes, B cells, like

T cells, use genetic rearrangement of hundreds of gene segments to provide the
necessary diversity of receptor specificities.
 Differences between T cell & B cell
Receptors
• One important difference between BCRs and TCRs is
the way they can interact with antigenic epitopes.
Whereas TCRs can only interact with antigenic epitopes
that are presented within the antigen-binding cleft
of MHC I or MHC II, BCRs do not require antigen
presentation with MHC; they can interact with
epitopes on free antigens or with epitopes displayed
on the surface of intact pathogens.
• Another important difference is that TCRs only
recognize protein epitopes, whereas BCRs can
recognize epitopes associated with different molecular
classes (e.g., proteins, polysaccharides,
lipopolysaccharides).
 T Cell-Independent Activation of B
cells
• Activation of B cells without the cooperation of helper T cells is referred to as T
cell-independent activation

• This occurs when BCRs interact with T-independent antigens.

• T-independent antigens (e.g., polysaccharide capsules, lipopolysaccharide)

have repetitive epitope units within their structure, and this repetition allows for
the cross-linkage of multiple BCRs, providing the signal for activation)

• Once a B cell is activated, it undergoes clonal proliferation and daughter cells

differentiate into plasma cells.

• Plasma cells are antibody factories that secrete large quantities of antibodies.

• The T cell-independent response is short-lived and does not result in the

production of memory B cells. Thus it will not result in a secondary response to
subsequent exposures to T-independent antigens.
T-independent antigens have repeating epitopes that can induce B cell
recognition and activation without involvement from T cells. A second signal,
such as interaction of TLRs with PAMPs (not shown), is also required for
activation of the B cell. Once activated, the B cell proliferates and differentiates
into antibody-secreting plasma cells.
 T Cell-Dependent Activation of B cells
• In T cell-dependent activation of B cells, the B cell recognizes and internalizes an antigen and
presents it to a helper T cell that is specific to the same antigen.

• The helper T cell interacts with the antigen presented by the B cell, which activates the T cell
and stimulates the release of cytokines that then activate the B cell.

• Activation of the B cell triggers proliferation and differentiation into B cells and plasma cells.
• T cell-dependent activation of B cells is more complex than T cell-independent activation, but
the resulting immune response is stronger and develops memory.
• T cell-dependent activation can occur either in response to free protein antigens or to
protein antigens associated with an intact pathogen.

• Interaction between the BCRs on a naïve mature B cell and a free protein antigen
stimulate internalization of the antigen

• Once internalized inside the B cell, the protein antigen is processed and presented with MHC
II.

• The presented antigen is then recognized by helper T cells specific to the same antigen. The
TCR of the helper T cell recognizes the foreign antigen, and the T cell’s CD4 molecule interacts
with MHC II on the B cell. The coordination between B cells and helper T cells that are
specific to the same antigen is referred to as linked recognition.
• Once activated by linked recognition, TH
cells produce and secrete cytokines that activate
the B cell and cause proliferation

• After several rounds of proliferation, additional

cytokines provided by the TH cells stimulate the
differentiation of activated B cell clones
into memory B cells, which will quickly respond
to subsequent exposures to the same protein
epitope
• After initial secretion of IgM, cytokines secreted by TH2
cells stimulate the plasma cells to switch from IgM
production to production of IgG, IgA, or IgE. This
process, called class switching or isotype switching,
allows plasma cells cloned from the same activated B
cell to produce a variety of antibody classes with the
same epitope specificity. Class switching is
accomplished by genetic rearrangement of gene
segments encoding the constant region, which
determines an antibody’s class. The variable region is
not changed, so the new class of antibody retains the
original epitope specificity.
In T cell-dependent
activation of B cells, the B
cell recognizes and
internalizes an antigen
and presents it to a helper
T cell that is specific to the
same antigen. The helper
T cell interacts with the
antigen presented by the
B cell, which activates the
T cell and stimulates the
release of cytokines that
then activate the B cell.
Activation of the B cell
triggers proliferation and
differentiation into B cells
and plasma cells.
 Natural killer (NK) cells

Small proportion of B lymphocytes lack membrane bound

organelles
Do not differentiate into T cells or B cells
Referred to as null cells
Some of them have killer functions and are distinguished
as NK cells
Natural killer (NK) cells
• Also known as large
granular lymphocytes
(LGL)
• Kill virus-infected or
transformed cells
• Identified by the
/CD16+
Long AnswerQuestions

1.Give a detailed account on various cells

of immune system and their functions

Short Notes

1.PMN’s
2.Macropahges
3.Natural Killer (NK) cells