sya NA VOICES IN STONETHE MAYA VOICES IN STONE‘THE MAYA: VOICES IN STONE © Amar Diet, SC, 208 ‘Second revised and enhanced edition: {© Tuner/ Ambar Das Se UNAM, ons ‘ia isn (Unies Nana Aston de Méen ‘Maria el Carmen Valverde Insta de vestiges Etc Unies Naot Anno de Meso Marcela Aaa aco, Jot Caso Chari Mrs dels Gar, Athar A Demet: Ma er Onin Eps Cin lind Tn ‘Scns Inanisowak, Ana Ls tein y de a Cue, Ha Keune Alan Landes Cac Glla, yet Lowe, Eh Man Ae Aljanara Marine de Vere Cortina Cao Pallan Cao, oge Pee de ‘aR, Mars Hens eps Vill fk Vlges Gar ed Ana ‘elie Meret ‘vane Scher Majoras Arb Dio Jorge Peer dere Ibm Chiher ad Cathy Lane None Mur, Riad Val and esa aser {Colourseparaon Preps Jun sl Amgen Are Ceifae Phoeogray bythe photographers Mason © by theater {TURNERISEN 78-54-80 AMAR DSENO SIN 99 50 56340 {CONACULTA NAIL: MEX; Author rept by lin Nacional de Antopelogle Hina, A ger sere No pt tl eprdcton this woe is eit arson of sso by any eter mean orth led ileonc or mahal ito the pros ween ators he pebieber Distsbte inthe United Sats by rderdapinccom Diatibated in arope by ACCDISTRIBUTION ‘Sieesniqueacecom ‘eescedabton cm/s SPANISH EDITION AVAILABLE Ditbte in Spin Machado Gripe de Db ‘mihadelrertmschalbos om hnibgosanocom Aces eyVOICES IN STONECONTENTS FROM THE EDITORS FOREWORD David Stuare MESOAMERICA MAP CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE INTRODUCTION Maya Identity Ana Lisa Izquierdo yde a Cueva ‘THE ART OF AN ANCIENT CULTURE I. Archaelogical Contexts of Classic Inscriptions Tynneth S. Lowe Negrén 1, Maya Art: Revelations ofthe Nobility ‘Maria Teresa Uriarte Castaneda ti Surfaces Made Immortal by the Chisel and the Brush Alejandra Martinez de Velasco Cortina AHIEROGLYPHIC WRITING SYSTEM. 1¥. The Languages: History and Diversity ‘Toms Pérez Suez The Calendar Maricela Ayala Falcon Vi Maya Hieroglyphic Language and Literature Alfonso Lacadena Garea-Callo 3 6 % % ee 1»vn. Hieroglyphic Writing rik Velisquez Garcia vin. The Sereenfold Paper Books Nikolai Grube ‘THE WORLD OF THE SACRED 18. Gods of Heaven, Gods of Earth ‘Ana Garcia Barrios, ‘. Spirit Entities and Forces in Classie Maya Cosmovision Erk Velisquez Garcia xt. Prophecies and Auguries Maria Flena Vega Villalobos and Erik Velisquer Garcia xh, Astronomy Erik Veliaquez Garcia, Jens Galindo Tio, and Stanislaw Iwaniszewski Xl, A Gaze into the Underworld Roberto Romero Sandoval HUMAN BEINGS BEFORE THE GODS 2x1v, Dancing with the Gods: Ritual Dancing Rogelio Valencia Rivera 2. His Breath was Extingwished Death in the Classie Period Marlas Eber Xv1. The Ballgame: Confluence Between the Hun ‘and the Divine Erik Velasquez Garcia KINGS, QUEENS, AND COURTIERS xv. The Divine Lord: Rulers Asier Rodriguez Manjavacas XVII, Members ofthe Court, ‘Asier Rodrigues Manjavacas ‘xn Staging Maya Life:A Frozen Image “Takeshi Inomata xx, Under the Auspices of ltzamnaaj:Scribesin Royal Palaces jat Nikolai GrubeBUILT SPACE. xx, Temples, Palaces, and Thrones: the Cities ‘Maria Elena Vega Villalobos ‘xxi. Representations of Power: the Monuments Elizabeth Marroquin Alvarez and José Crasborn Chavartia ext, Ritual Backdrop Spaces (Gctavio Q. Esparza Olguin and Kenichiro Tsukamoto ‘xxv. Courely Spaces: Voices of Lakamha' Jorge Pérez de Lara Elias WAR “xxv, Ancient Maya Warfare: Military Techniques, ‘Tacties, and Strategies Hare Kettunen ‘xxv1, Of Weapons and Bindings: Warriors and Captives Hugo Garcia Capistrin ‘THE POLITICAL LANDSCAPE. XVIL Features of Socio-Political Organization Ana Liisa lquierda y dela Cueva xxvii From the jungle t the Sea: the Oriental Coast Adriana Velizque Morlet xxix. Geopolitical Interaction and Long-Distance Influence in the Lowlands (Carlos Pallin Gayol scx. From Apogee to Collapse ‘Arthur A. Demarest EPILOGUE Mercedes dea Garea Camino ‘TO READ MORE INDEX CREDITS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FROM THE EDITORS SANANDO HERIDAS 3 a5 “7 “7 “ a8 ¥ 53.gure Ballou; Ux, Yeah, lng the use of ings in cours or paying been suggeted dat onrareoceasions ‘he baled have gone thoagh them. XVI THE BALLGAME Erik Veldsquez Garcia Academicstudiesof the ballgame, some gong backasfarasthe1% century have helped to establish its place in Maya culture. Ihas been interpreted asa rite tat symbolized war; hunting, the movement ofthe planets and the stars (especially of Venusand the Sus, butalso ofthe Moon and star), thestrugge of day against night, lie agains death, and ofthe hot, celestial male powersof the cosmos against the cold earthly female ones. twasan arena where ply followed the seasons (the ainy and ry seasons, summer and svinte),proptiating agricultural fertility by means of sympathetic ‘magic, while the court on which the game took place wasa portal between ‘the earthly word and the upper world liminal ite of death and birth, « ceavefor both exiting and entering ‘This research ha also shown thatthe poplar stories concerning the sacrifice of victorious teams playersare litle more than romantic tales as thesculpted panes from sites sch as La Corona, in the Petdn, Guatemala, ‘or Toning, in Chiapas, Mexico, have allowed scholar to conclude that not ‘even losers received thiskind of treatment. Thisritual role could have been performed by wae captives or peshaps by children It is true thatthe ball ‘players in the Popol Vuh weresacrificed, but one should not forget that this isa Highland myth fom the Colonial period, dating from atleast 6 years fer what might have happened inthe Classic Maya Lowlands ‘THE BALLCOURT “The ballgame’: huge cultural importance among the Classic-period Maya is attested through archaeological remains, through carved or painted Scenes, through terracotta figurines, and through hieroglyphic texts. In archaeologieal and architectural terms, the blleourtis defined asanlley,que Payhnone este of unkown provenance 526, court, or rectangular track with a lar earthen floor, which could be plastered or paved with tones its limits were defined by two ‘more or less parallel structures with sloped walls The oldest evidence ofthe ballgame that we have for Meso america comes from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec around 0 BC, through the finding of rubber tll, open courts, and pethapssome so-called yugos (yokes) Some texts fom the Classe period, su as Naranjo Altar3 (Guatemala), contain mentions of paved, pol- ished, or plastered place called Biewun or i cau, “tone oad’ a ated to Bitun, which means “court” in century Chal is term appears to refer to bllcouts o toa oad related to them, orto. stepped building, The paved surfaces ofthese tone court or roads were ritually activated by way ofthe ver ator jaa, "totrike, hit, a fact that isatested on Naranjo Alar ite Concern the appearance of balleourts, the prevailing type among the Lowland Maya was open in form, wth ony two paral lelstructures to markt iits Courts closed atone end were also ‘commons these, one oftheendsfnishesata rectangular, the Timits of which are marked by wall orastructure perpendicular to the court's axis. Sometimes, the opposite end ofthis kindof court ‘opened direct into a plaza, as can be seen in Copin, Honduras ‘Much less common an restricted in me an place were Fae bulleourts which had rectanglar areas at both ends, such a the ‘one in Chichén Iz Yuean, Mexico. Ballgame alleys o courts ‘might include seulpt stones or carved disk set along the floor at regular intervals these are known as marcadores (markers) and are ‘ormally thee in number, The floor ofthe transverse spaces of the balleourt might be at the same level asthe playing alley or sunken, while the side walls were sloped outwards to allow the ball to rollover them thesesloped portions were topped bya vertical wall Sometimesthe sloped portion was built on a low platform that extends towards theplayingally(Figure1ns). The vertical wall, builton top ofthe sloped portions, occasionally featured sculptures connected with the proper name ofthe ballourt or alkuding to the game. There ‘were also sometimes rings attached tothe wall, cough whieh ‘on rare occasions the ball might have passed (igure). These ‘ings are not usually ound in Blleourts ofthe Cental Lowlands,but they were more common during the Late and Terminal Clasic period atstes suchas Chichén zi, Oxkintok and Usmal in Yuea: tn, The Maya name for these rings was chikn tuum, which means “tone ea’ a tem that evokes certain anthropomoephism that tundetes the names for architectural elements Several authors have pointed out that balleourts were located in the civic, political, and religious hearts of cities, thereby showing the importance thatthe ballgame rituals held for Maya kingdoms. It is even sid that they were builtin publi visible places, thereby enabling lage crowds to witness the game. Such crowds possibly stood or saton tiered rows of “terracing” on topof the parallel structures that flanked the blleout, ascending tothem by way of stairs ‘THE BALLGAME ‘Thanks to advances in epigraphy, we know that the name ofthe ‘gamewas pez, a noun that is equivalent to “ballgame which in turn might have given rise tothe ver pte, which means “to play ball!” ‘The verb jatz'orjaat’ “to strike’ ean be found in Maya {ncriptions in ballplaying contexts, writen syllabicaly a ja-ta'a ‘or through use ofa logogram showing.a hand holding a stone: sara’ The word yl, “to throw’ isalso found in association with the ballgame, a6 attested in the interesting Panel 2 from La Amelia, in the Ptén, Guatemala; here the local ruler is shown dancing dressed as ballplayerafter having taken part ina ball: game and sacrificed a war captive identified as ‘the guardian (of BahlamnalAs willbe discussed later, ritual sacrificial act shown in several Clssi-period Maya monuments consisted of throwing prisoners from the top ofthe stairs of a building, connected t the balleour "The most typical variant of the “ballcourt” logogram has resisted all efforts at decipherment, although it is known that i tended ith the consonant =n. graphically represents aballcourt cross-section, including side stairs that donot evoketheslopes of the balloour,butather the aforementioned building with stairs. 269Figure. Poehrme vel f unnown provenance, "snap alles wore great plumed eadreses, 2 Padded bt ory accoutrements called hackor nd palmas (of uncertain prpose) wrists 2nd Incepads Pages 70 Figen Hllonr; Palenque, Chaps, Mec. “This means that the imagery in the hieroglyph conceptually combines two diferent moments or aspects ofthe same ritual complex the game and the sacrifice by throwing down a stairway Tn Quiche, alanguagespoken in the Highlands of Guatemala, the name ofthe balleourtwasjom hos, a word that means “cemetery, court where btey was played’ this surely evokes the idea that ‘a balleour was an abyss cleft ora liminal space. Indeed, the cross-section af the balleourt was ha- birualy reproduced inthe forehead of Yahaaal Witznal, the Place ofthe Fest Tue Mountain this isthe location where the Maize Godin Maya mythology was reborn after having been decapitated at 1k’ Waynal, the Place ofthe Blak Subterranean Abyss" In Classic Maya mythology, the ballgame i ‘associated with Ik’ Waynl, whiein the Popo Vuh the well-known Quiché myth thereisacearand Continuous association between the gameand the Underworld ‘Theinseriptionsalso show words fr step or "stair indirect connection withthe game; the most frequent of thes seh or ehbU. There ia cose relationship between the concept of stat and that ofthe ballgame. This is evident in the logogram kw tai’ which frequently illustrates bl coming ven the stars ofa bling that is noc to be confused with the blleourt, Researcher Andrea J Stone has pointed out the conceptual amalgsmation of two moments (game and sacrifice by rolling down ‘stairway in the iconic character of the hieroglyphs for ballourt and for stairs. His ike thatthe ‘enormous rubber balls chat were represented i some Maya works of art didnot really exist, but that the body of captive thrown from the top of stars was metaphoviealy equated with the bouncing, ‘down ofa ball (igure 7). Various structures for the game received the name uf aca eb or alr ofthe three awakenings which refers othe mythical acts of creation or rearrangement ofthe cosmos. Regarding the robber ball wth which the game was played, theresa hieroglyph fori, identified byyreearcher Mare U ZenderItisa closed spiral, almost aire, the interior of which iscrosshatched, marking ita¢a black or dark object its read woo, balla value that was arrived at independently by epigraphers Erik Boot and Alfonso Lacadena, It is very likly tha the Clssie-peviod Maya con sidered the ball as having is own personality, wil, or conscience. The most direct information wehave concerning it is probably found on the inscription on La Amelia Panel 2(Ax-B7): yo flo) Uchan Pahlamnal ubeaba’ Balun nahb; yetk'eablaal uvoo!.,"Uchan Bahlamnal was thrown; it isthename of nine handspans itis the nickname ofthe ball and the cond “Among the indirect information we have on this, it & worth mentioning the comments of the 6 century Dominican friar Diego Durkin: he observed the propitiating and magical words with which Nahua players of his ime adresse the bal thei eather protectors and their goves, for the purpose ofinluencing these objet to hep them win the game. Iehasalso been posited that the Cassie period Maya belived in the vitality ofthe instruments created by humans, and on many inscriptions these “reatures are the main subjects mentioned inthe hieroglyphic texts This ele isalsoat the core of myth om the Popo! Vih, in which objects rebel against hamans, For Mesoamercansall worldly things had a soul, even those created by humans, but it seems that instruments used fr the ballgame and ‘specially the balls wereabetoestablshalivlerand moredirect communication with human beings. ‘THE PLAYERS Inhieroglyphictexts, the common name for baliplayers was generally itil. Sometimes this name contains the agentve prefix / to form apitzl “the ballplayee In famous inscriptions from Palenque, in Chiapas, Mexico, such asthe Tablet ofthe Temple ofthe Sun, the Palace Tabet, and the Tablet of 96 Glyphs, local rulers bear the title api! oa, “he of the ballplayer hear. Another phrase connected withthe subject and used asa tite by Maya nobles and rulers was tat pitil ‘or ize peel, “wise ballplayer’, which suggests that at least in those eases the physical aspect of. the game was related to type of mystical o intellectual knowledge. ased onthe analysis ofthe painted or carved scenes on several Maya works ofa, it is known thatthe main element of ballplayersattrewasa padded yoke or belt made of oth, wicker, leather, Figure. Poychrome was of unknown provenans ‘abs Although the ruler of the bllgme ore not, Know depiction f th ge niga ha aes Theirs 2braided cotton or other fibres, and perhaps wood. This garment wwas used to deflect the ball and protect the players’ hips and ‘ibu_—from groin to chest—against the impact of the heavy rubber balls figures 2757). Theyoke was shape ikea horseshoe tnd had three grooves a the height of the diaphragm: judging fom the ancient depiction, tsopen part was worn on onesideof the body and it was in that place that it was ied using elements tmade of fabric. An apron or skirt was worn under the yoke: it was made of heavy fabric and other fibres itis known fiom depictions in Maya ar that certain compact orlongelements could beassembled over or inserted into the yoke; Known by the nicknames of hachas (itealy axes) and palmas (palin), these were decorated withthe faces of animals, men, or tgs Thefunetionof these lementsemainsunknown although it hrs been suggested that in some variations ofthe game they might have served as portable markers or hive been used forstriking the ball mart acertainspin ot. Like the yokes, hachasandpalmas were probably made of relatively ight materials, such 25 wood br wicker, examples made of tone (found in funerary contexts) right have been trophies won by talented players (Figures 79-80). The attire of ballplayers also included—at least idealy—a treat feathered headdress with an anima’ head, which served {he purpose of allowing ballplayersto personify numinous entities. ‘The players forearms were protected by a series of vera wrist band, which were probably made of padded cloth, It must be pointed outhat handpieces with handles andthe representations ‘ofthe heads of animals of supematural beings have been identi fied on painted or carved scenes from the Classic period. ‘Balplyers alo wore kneepads, sometimes on only one knee, sometimes on both; judging from the scenes represented on. [reworks and teracota figurines, they used to fall on one knee to strike the ball back tothe opponents’ sie ofthe balleourt, 30 ences were potentially exposed to harm and had tobe protected Finally, footwear was oceasionally worn. Anclement that must be mentioned is these of black body pain in several ballplaying scenes depicted on ceramics. This is tn important detail since dark pigments were away of sugaest ing courage, sacredness, protection, politcal hierarchy, priestly ‘over military leadership, and power in general, ‘THE RULES OF THE BALLGAME [Nothing is known for certain abou the ules ofthe game as prac tised by the Maya in the Classic period, Nevertheless, some Inypotheses and ideas may be put forward, based on content ofthe hieroglyphic texts and, toa lesser degree, on representations ‘ofthe ballgame in at. We ean also take into account indirect oF ‘secondary sources, such as the 16-centuty chronicles Researcher Linda Schele observed thatthe images on the risers of Hieroglyphic Stairway 2 of Temple 33 at Yaxchiln, in ‘Chiapas, Mexico, contain evidence that the game began with ites conducted byeite women, who summoned the so-called vision serpent. Some authors have also pointed out that each player might have had his own ball. ‘A unique, yoke shaped, tripod vessel dating fom the Ely ‘Clasi period displays a painted scene where the balls wrapped cortied asifiewerea bundle might depict way toconsecate the bal asthe practiceo wrapping object in cloth, paper orropeswas common inactivation rites and has been interpreted asa way contain the divine essence ofthe ted objects. The ballgame prob- ably began after these rites or ceremonies had been conducted Judging from the diversity in the sizeof the balloouts and the many sies of balls, there were probably diferent variations ofthe game and it seems there was no fxed numberof players per team. Diego Durin wrote that players did not use their feet and that a foul was called whenever the ball was touched with anything other than the buttocks or the knees, On the evidence of painted or carved scenes ofthe Classe period, 25 well as terra- ‘cotta figurines, it seems that ballplayers were able to intercept ‘or contro the ball with thei es, arms, chest, thighs, striking the bal frontaly and with fore, bracing themselves by puting ‘the hands or a knee on the floor The other leg might have been | slightly bent, one ofthe ams falded around the waist, and the ‘other totaly extended (figure 17). The handpices with handles mentioned above could wll have ben used to serve the ball, et- ting it in motion, It has also been proposed that the ball might have been se in motion with the hand, bu that after this initia launch it could not be touched again with that pare ofthe body No standard duration was set for games and some of them could have lasted for days. Iwas necessary to make the ball go across perpendicularlinedvidingthe playingalleintwohalves, wich, inthe case of the Classic period Maya, used to be marked by stone disks embedded in the floor. In the Guatemalan High- Jands this line was marked by sculptures set on the wall of the side structures, while in Yueatan it was customary to have ether stone rings onthe walls ora simple gen or black line, painted with pigment made from ‘a certain plant ‘Another subject that has stimulated the imagination of scholars sthatof the prizes won by some successful ballplayers. In ate times, some x-century chroniclers speak about these prizes (feathers, mantles, hip cloths, jewels, or even the clothes ofthe spectators), especially for those few lucky ones who were able to make che ball go through the rng, but there is no frm evidence about the existence of trophies among the Clasic- period Maya. Nevertheless thas been proposed that prizes could Figure, Pn; ona, Tabasco, Meo Palmas originally made of light material omy wood), were pat of allplayers accoutrements thas been suggtsted tha hse tone cuales may have been ge voice Fgueto, Vigo Balancan, Tabasco, Mescn,Rlplayes ied thir ygoe (Geral yoke) around her wait ose the compact ber bal Isosumed that they ere made of igh materials bu onto yu ve ben found in archseoogal contextaf hhave included elegant vesels filled with inebriating beverages, ‘orstone hachas and palmas, MYTHS AND SACRIFICES CONNECTED WITH THE BALLGAME From Olmee times onwards, many ballgames ended with ritual sacrifice, Ballgame iconography among the Maya suggests that at leastsome games that wer politically significant might have ended vwith the sacrifice of captives. common form of saetific involved ‘throwing victims from the top of stanways.Stuctures with steps ‘whose ses ate adormed with scene and inscriptions concerning, ‘the ballgame might have had that purpose. Famous examples of this kind of structure inclade the stepped platform tothe north ‘of Copan’ balleour, in Honduras; the stairs of Tikal Temple I, in Guatemala, which are adjacent to a blleout; Hieroglyphic Sar ‘way 2of La Corona, Petén, Guatemala; and Hieroglyphic Stairway + of Yaxchiln, Chaps, Mesco. This kindof sneifce isthe most Frequently represented in Clasic Maya at. Throwing the body ‘of a captive from the top of the steps ofa building, connected with the balleoure but distinc fom it, might have been meant toemulate the fal of the stars behind the horizon or of seeds sown ie the eultvation field ‘Ceremonial decapitation was also carried out as can be seen inthe well-known panes ofthe Great Balleourt at Chichén lz This kindof human sacrifice was associated with fertility it re~ produced or had as an archetypal model the myth epresented in ‘Step Vi of Hieroglyphic Stairway 2ofYaxchiln. Ido not mean to say that this myth wa local or exclusive to Yaxchili, but merely ‘hat its details have ben best preserved in that hieroglyphiestep. ‘Without downplaying the importance of other ancient myths linked tothe ballgame, the one depicted on Step vt might have provided the main cosmogonie basis for his sacred game among the Clase May. Talinewith thehieoelyphicinscripion on Step vi, three gods ‘were decapitated on diferent dats of the deep or mythical past ‘According to US researcher David Stuart, these three sacrifices by ‘decapitation ae equivalent to three “awakenings” or creations an fda that fit well with the Mesoamerican concep thatthe word ‘was destroyed and re-ordered several times. The hieroglyphic text ‘of Step vit tself points ou thatthe third decapitation sequivalent to the “awakening of he ofthe stairway’ a posible allusion tothe activation ofthe actions ofthe patron god ofthe thowing-down ‘uci, which was in tur associated with the ballgame. The text ‘adds that the day ofthe thir decapitation isthe “entry into the road’ an expression that epigraphers have known for many years ‘383 reference to death This death or “entry into the road” tok place at an Otherwerld Ioeation—a part inhabited by gos, an- cestors, and the dead—known as Ik’ Waynal "Place of the Black Subterranean Cavity” or Wk Haabinal, “Place ofthe Sb Times" of Place of the Six Yeas, the sacred location where Maya rulers, re-enacted the creation of the cosmos by decapitating important warcaptives. “Another mythical native that was probably present inthe Cassi period involves the ith ofthe Maize God, asubject that has been investigated in depth by Dutch searcher rik Boot rom rep- resentations onthe so-called Tikal Dancer plates Boot shows that there isa connection between this det’ dance, the implements for playing bal, and the gods rebirth at the summit ofa cefed ‘mountain, a clef that curs out tobe the ery abyss ofthe ball ‘court, scan be admired in the culminating scene shown on wesel x26 (igure 17)- Here the divinity emerges rom the ballet, at the same time invoking the Paddler Gods, wo symbolize minal ‘tates and who emerge from the aws oftwo-headed serpent ‘Various gode and animals areassodated in one way oranother with the ballgame, through their presence in either the ballplay- ers’ headdreses or thie “Xay" masks. In these images, ballgame paticipants incarnate divine forces fom the Otherword,cuning their actions inte deep rites of sacred presence or personification, ‘which were called Bail alain che Maya inscriptions. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS “The ceremonial character ofthe ballgame doesnot exclude the possibly that i mighe have also been a sport and an entertain- ‘ment. There is no certainty i this egaed, but during much of ‘Mesoamerican history tis function af the game as entertain- rent probably coexisted with its state, ofc or itual fanetions. Ruling elites evidently used itasa means of solving internal and ‘external political confit, inluding the negotiation ofaliances, the strengthening offal, and the settling of border disputes. In the field of religion, the game was arte that sought to reproduce certain cosmogonic myths elevating worldly conduct fo sacred acts, whose consequences had effects on the dee, tran scendental time ofthe so-called Long Count. No doube pois ‘nd religion intermingled nthe game, since high-ranking captives fiom enemy states might have been made to personify certain ‘characters active forces inthe myths before turning into the sub jects of ritual sacrifice (¢hrough decapitation, being thrown fom ‘thetop of stairway, or other methods). Its posible thatthe game had other ital wes, suchas initiations ordvinations, given thatit proved a vehicle for avelling tothe Otherworld and consulting supernatural beings. "A Maya ruler wbo put the bain motion must have been con sidered to bea crucial agent in establishing the course or trajectory ofthe stars and plants, possibly using hsdvine clabis-ahkebs {eeation-night) powers; that is, his supernatural capacity t0 re-onder the cosmos,