Final Site Notes PDF

Compiled by R.
Rajalakshmi
SITE ANALYSIS AND PLANNING

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Definition of plot, site, land and region, units of measurements. Introduction to survey,
methods of surveying, where they are used, Surveying Instruments and their
application. Need for surveying. Measuring and drawing out a site plan from the
measurements.
SITE / PLOT
A piece of land that has the potential for development. A space of ground occupied
or to be occupied by a building / group of buildings. The ultimate planning of any building or
group of buildings is influenced by site conditions and by the surroundings of the site.
LAND
The part of the earth's surface that is not covered by water, as opposed to the sea or
the air.
REGION
A region is an area. In geography, regions are areas broadly divided by physical
characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and
the interaction of humanity and the environment (environmental geography). Geographic
regions and sub-regions are mostly described by their imprecisely defined and sometimes
transitory boundaries, except in human geography, where jurisdiction areas such as national
borders are defined in law.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
Measurements are either Linear or Angular. The Units of Measurements used are primarily
for length, angle, area &Volume. Till relatively recently, the FPS (Foot Pound Second) system
developed by the British was in UK, USA, and India and in many other parts of the world. It
has been replaced by the metric MKS (Metre Kilogram Second) system in most countries.
India adopted the metric system in 1957 through the Standards of Weights and Measures
Act of 1956.All systems of weights and measures, metric and non-metric, are linked through
a network of international agreements supporting the International System of Units.
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI)
The International System is called the SI, using the first two initials of its French name
Système International d'Unités. The key agreement is the Treaty of the Meter (Convention
du Mètre), signed in Paris on May 20, 1875. The SI is maintained by a small agency in Paris,
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, for Bureau International des
Poids et Mesures), and it is updated every few years by an international conference, the
General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM, for Conférence Générale des Poids et
Mesures), attended by representatives of all the industrial countries and international
scientific and engineering organizations
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Compiled by R.Rajalakshmi
At the heart of the SI is a short list of base units defined in an absolute way without referring
to any other units. The base units are consistent with the part of the metric system called
the MKS system. In all there are seven SI base units:
 The meter for distance,
 The kilogram for mass,
 The second for time,
 The ampere for electric current,
 The Kelvin for temperature,
 The mole for amount of substance, and
 The candela for intensity of light.
Other SI units, called SI derived units, are defined algebraically in terms of these
fundamental units. Currently there are 22 SI derived units. They include:
 the radian and steradian for plane and solid angles, respectively;
 the Newton for force and the Pascal for pressure;
 the joule for energy and the watt for power;
 the degree Celsius for everyday measurement of temperature;
 units for measurement of electricity: the coulomb (charge), volt (potential), farad
(capacitance), ohm (resistance), and Siemens (conductance);
 units for measurement of magnetism: the Weber (flux), tesla (flux density), and
Henry (inductance);
 the lumen for flux of light and the lux for illuminance;
 the hertz for frequency of regular events and the Becquerel for rates of radioactivity
and other random events;
 the gray and sievert for radiation dose; and
 The katal, a unit of catalytic activity used in biochemistry.
The more commonly used sub-divisions of the metre are the following:
1 decimetre (dm) = 0.1 metre (m)
1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 m
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 m
1 micrometre = 0.001mm
1 nanometre (nm) = 0.001micrometre
For large distances, a multiple of the metre, a kilometre, (1,000 metres) is used.
Some frequently needed conversions between the SI system and the British system are :
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 foot = 30.48 cm
I yard = 0.9144 cm
The units of area in the British system are the square foot, acre, and square mile.
One acre equals 43,650 sq.ft or 4840 sq.yards, while one sq.mile is 640 acres.
In the SI system the units of area are the square metre, the area, the hectare and the square
kilometer.
One are is 100sq.m; One hectare is 100 ares or 10,000sq.m, where one sq.kilometer equals
100 hectares.
1 hectare = 2.471 acres ; 1 acre = 0.4047 hectare
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INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY
SURVEYING is the art of determining the relative position of points on, above or beneath the
surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction, and
elevation. The application of surveying requires skill as well as the knowledge of
mathematics, physics.
Surveying may be comprehensively defined as
“the process of determining by measurement the relative positions on or near the surface
of the earth, in order to produce a map, plan or section which brings out natural or man-
made features in their correct relationships in the horizontal or vertical plane.”
The importance of surveying
Surveying has been used to mark property boundaries and divide land since the earliest
times. Present day surveys include the following:
 Establishing the property boundaries of private and public lands.
 Preparing navigational charts for use on land, sea and air.
 Mapping the earth above and below the mean sea level.
 Collecting data for land use and natural resource management, with a view to
protecting and preserving the environment.
 Determining the size and shape of the earth and mapping its gravitational and
 magnetic fields
 Preparing astronomical charts showing the locations of the sun, moon,
 Planets, stars and other celestial bodies.
The phases of survey work
Good survey work includes the following steps or phases:

 Planning, analysis and decision-making involves selection of the method of
survey, selection of the equipment, location of salient survey stations and the
like.
 Care and adjustment of instruments includes the use of delicate, precise
instrument whose care and adjustment require the best attention of the
surveyor to ensure the accuracy f the survey.
 Field work or acquisition of data involves making measurements, recording them
in a systematic, sequential manner.
 Office work i.e., computing and data processing consists of making the necessary
computations, preparing plans and maps to suitable scale.
 Setting out on the ground is a sort of converse operation to surveying, involving
pegging out the structure on the ground. It is the final phase of the surveying
before the construction engineer can begin work.
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Classification of surveys
Based upon the nature of the field of survey,
 Land Surveys
 Hydrographic, marine and navigational surveys
 Astronomical Surveys
Surveys can be classified in the following ways
 Control Surveys
 Topographic
 Cadastral
 Engineering
 Route
 Construction
 Archaeological
 Geological and Georaphical
 Mine
 Military
Surveys classified according to the principal instrument
 Chain survey
 Compass
 Plane Table
 Levelling
 Theodolite
 Tacheometric
 Photographic
 Aerial
 Electronic distance Measurement
Several other approaches or methods
 traverse
 triangulation
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CLASSIFICATIONS OF SURVEYING
Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has been
classified into:
• Control surveying: To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.

• Land surveying: To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as
property survey, boundary survey.
• Topographic survey: To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well as
and man-made features including elevation?
• Engineering survey: To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of
engineering projects. Three broad steps are
1) Reconnaissance survey: To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.
2) Preliminary survey: To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map of area to be used for
planning and design.
3) Location survey: To set out work on the ground for actual construction / execution of the
project.
• Route survey: To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways, canals,
pipelines, and other linear projects.
• Astronomic surveys: To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and
azimuth (of a line through observation station) from astronomical observation.
• Mine surveys: To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining
purposes.
Surveying Equipment
The main surveying instruments in use around the world are the Theodolite, measuring
tape, total station, 3D scanners, GPS/GNSS, level and rod. Most instruments screw onto
a tripod when in use. Tape measures are often used for measurement of smaller distances.
3D scanners and various forms of aerial imagery are also used.
The Theodolite is an instrument for the measurement of angles. The total station is a
development of the Theodolite with an electronic distance measurement device (EDM). A
total station can be used for leveling when set to the horizontal plane. Since their
introduction, total stations have shifted from optical-mechanical to fully electronic devices.
Modern top-of-the-line total stations no longer need a reflector or prism to return the light
pulses used for distance measurements. They are fully robotic, and can even e-mail point
data to a remote computer and connect to satellite positioning systems, such as Global
Positioning System. Real Time Kinematic GPS systems have increased the speed of
surveying.
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METHODS USED IN SURVEYING
TRADITIONAL METHODS
Compass and chain:
From colonial times, through the 1800’s, most boundary surveys were performed with a
compass and “Gunter’s Chain”, usually 66 feet long and divided into 100 links. The compass
was either mounted on a tripod or a single pole, called a “Jacob’s Staff”. These early
surveying tools were not very precise, but were sufficient in the days when land values were
50 cents per acre, or less.
Transit and tape:
Eventually, the use of the compass gave way to the transit, and the chain to the steel tape.
While the compass was generally only able to measure the magnetic bearing of a line to the
nearest one-quarter degree, a transit is able to measure the angles between lines to less
than one minute of arc. The steel tape, usually 100 or 200 feet long and graduated in
hundredths of a foot, provided an accuracy significantly greater than the Gunter’s Chain.
The transit and tape permitted the more precise measurements necessary in land
subdivision planning, construction surveying, and nearly all boundary or land title surveys.
Until recently, this method was used for most surveying work.
Transit and stadia:
Angles were measured with a transit and distances “measured” by optical methods. A rod or
“Stadia Board” was graduated in hundredths of a foot, and horizontal crosshairs in the
telescope of a transit, called Stadia Hairs, were positioned so that, based on trigonometry,
at a distance of 100 feet the stadia hairs subtended exactly one foot on the rod. Thus, within
about 500 feet, a distance could be “read” directly from the rod. Due to its speed and
efficiency, this method was most common for topographic mapping. For the most part,
stadia have also given way to electronic instruments.
MODERN METHODS
Theodolite and electronic distance measurement:
There are no exact standards differentiating an instrument referred to as a “Transit” from

one that is referred to as a “Theodolite”. Generally, a theodolite is a much more precise
instrument. Some can measure an angle to within 1/10 of one second of arc (one
thousandth of a foot in one mile), but 1-second or 3-second theodolites are typical. Also, the
angles on a transit were read off of a circular metal plate, graduated in degrees and
minutes, while the theodolite replaced the metal plate with an internal etched glass plate
and the ability to read an angle through the eyepiece via a series of mirrors and lenses.
By the 1970’s, relatively small, lightweight and easy-to-use electronic distance measuring
devices, called EDM’s were in use. They were mounted on the theodolite, and operated on
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the principle of transmitting a narrow beam of infrared light to a reflector and measuring
the time it takes to return.
Before long, the advance of technology and miniaturization of electronic components

enabled the building of theodolites that measure angles electronically, measure distances
with their own internal EDM, and display a variety of data on an LCD screen. These super-
theodolites are referred to as “Electronic Total Stations”. In addition to enhanced speed and
accuracy, the digital data can be automatically “downloaded” to an electronic data collector
for transfer directly to computers for calculations or CAD drafting. In addition to the speed
and accuracy that they provide, the decreasing cost of the electronic total stations has
allowed them to virtually totally replace all previous methods and instruments for most
survey work.
Photogrammetric mapping:
Topographic mapping may be done from aerial photographs and is particularly useful
for large areas. Usually, the photography is made specifically for the project involved.
Accurate ground survey work must be used to establish measurements, both
horizontally and vertically, to photo-identifiable points to insure scale accuracy and
proper orientation of the photo model. Supplemental field surveys are usually required
for locating features that are not identifiable on aerial photographs, such as
underground utilities, wetlands, culverts, and any feature too small to be seen.
GPS:
The GPS, or Global Positioning System, is the newest method available to surveyors.
The system is based on a constellation of 24 satellites in precise orbits around the Earth.
Today’s GPS receivers can directly calculate the position of any place on the Earth’s
surface from signals broadcast from the satellites. While inexpensive, handheld
receivers can provide a position to within a hundred feet, or less, more sophisticated
receivers can provide a position to within a few inches. If two or more of these receivers
are used, and one is placed on a known position, the directions and distances between
the receivers over very large areas can be determined with a precision never before
obtainable. However, due to technical limitations, GPS technology is not suitable for
precise determination of elevations. At present, the high cost of these receivers is
prohibitive for use in all but the larger control surveys or aerial mapping projects.
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UNIT II SITE DRAWINGS
Computation of area by geometrical figures and other methods. Drawing marking out
plan, layout plan and centerline plan – Importance, procedure for making these
drawings and dimensioning. Setting out the building plan on site – Procedure and
Precautions. Exercises on the above.
Layout of Building
The real meaning and purpose of setting out (layout) is to transfer the plan, length and
width of its foundation on the ground so that the foundation can be excavated for
construction of purposed building as per drawing.
The following preliminary works should be executed before actual planning of layout for the
house.
Clear the site from all grass, bushes, trees, etc.

Record spot levels of the ground.
Construct a permanent bench mark in construction area.
Base Line
For setting out /layout, the most important requirement is to establish a baseline. This is
marked on the ground as per site plan requirement with the help of offsets which are taken
from the existing road or existing building.
Centre Line
Centre line divides the plan into two equal parts. This can be marked in the field with the
help of baseline. This line is very necessary and useful for layout. This line should be
transferred to Burjis and be kept up to the completion of foundation work.
Burjis' and its' Distance
Burji or marking pillars are masonry pillars constructed with bricks and cement mortar.
These are constructed on both ends of walls /columns and center line should be marked on
the top surface of the burjis with the help of base line. Burji is also constructed for indicating
the plinth level of the building. Burjis are very useful for the layout. Accuracy of the
foundation can be checked with the help of Burji at any time during construction. Burjis
should be kept intact till completion of foundation work.
Demarcation/layout Procedure
The following procedure is recommended for demarcation of a building.
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 For layout of a building baseline is marked on the ground either from centre line of
the road or from any permanent building nearby. This line helps to mark out the
front of a building. Side baseline is also marked with the help of side structure or
road or it can be marked with the help of first baseline or boundary of the plot.
 Fix temporary pegs at the centre line of walls/columns on both sides of walls and
columns in front and back side.
 Fix peg at the centre line of walls/columns on both sides of wall and columns in left
and right side of front of building.
 Check diagonals of the square or rectangle formed after fixing pegs.
 Construct Burji or marking pillars with pegs at a distance of 1.5 meter to 2 meters
and their top surface should be plastered.
 Mark centre line on the top of Burjis with the help of thread (Soot) or with the
Thedolite in big projects and the diagonal and other dimension should be checked.
 Level Burji on all corners of building and the top level is fixed at a proposed plinth
level.
 Mark the foundation of walls/columns according to drawing on the ground with the
help of centerline marked on the Burji.
Mark foundation trenches on the ground with chalk powder.
 Excavate the foundation of the walls /columns up to required level and the
excavation must be checked with the help of centre line and level burji to avoid any
complication later on.
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Advantages of Layout with the help of Burjis
 It saves time for measuring and setting of point again and again at the time of
construction.
 It increases the efficiency of mason and foreman for doing their jobs.
 Accuracy can be checked at any time at any step.
 If any mistake is found, it can be easily be rectified at early stage. It is very difficult to
rectify the mistake in later.
 Cross check can be done by senior engineer in minimum time.
Disadvantages for doing the work without layout
At some sites of work the contractor brings steel pieces, erects the same on the ground and
start the work of excavation. In due course these steel pieces are just discarded. Thus no
proper reference point is available while doing further jobs.
 It involves extra time for measuring the offset again and again.
 Accuracy can not be checked at early stage and it will be very difficult to rectify the
same in later stage.
 It involves wastage of time and money while doing rectification. This also leads to
bad quality of work.
Materials used during Setting up of Layout
1. Leveling Instrument
2. Balli
3. Long Nails
4. Hammer
5. Right Angle(Guniya)
6. Steel Tape
7. Thin Cotton Thread
8. Bricks
9. Cement
10. Screen Sand
11. Lime Powder
12. Theodolite
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How To Set Out Your Building Foundation
Now we have cleared the site and are ready to start setting out the build. Now we have to
position your building in the exact position shown on your plans. Great emphasis should be
put on this especially if your building has required planning permission, your local authority
building inspector will certainly check this and if found to be in the wrong position, you
stand a good chance that the whole building may have to be moved in future. This obviously
would not be a good thing, so you have been warned!
This stage is to establish the excavation, this will be wider than the size of your specified
structural wall to allow for enough concrete to get a good bearing, it essential you centre
your wall on the concrete and will be checked by your local building inspector/authority.
Establish Parallel Line
The first thing we need to establish is a parallel line, we will assume for the sake of this
article that we have an existing building close to the proposed new structure. Shown as AA-
AA / BB-BB. These lines should be off-set from the building to prevent any possible snagging
of the string lines, in this case i have off-set the lines 500mm. This line should then be
established with the use of a stake at each end and the line should be fixed at each point.
Please ensure the line is very tight as this will prevent a false reading if the weather
conditions are very windy, (it is very difficult to measure from a moving line).
Step 1: First Corner A
Now we have the parallel lines established we can refer to the drawing to find the distance
required from these lines to comply with your planning permission and we can put in our
first pin at position A
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Step 2: Second Corner B
Now we can measure out along our parallel line using the off set of 500mm to establish
position B and we can put in another pin.
Step 3: Third Corner C
Now we have a little more work to establish point C. For this we will need our 2 tapes, you
will need to work out the diagonal measurement from point A to point B this would be
done using the Pythagorean Theorem. Once you have this measurement established you
can extend your tape from position A to position B until you reach the measurement, then
extend your other tape from position B until the 2 tapes exactly cross at the required
measurements, this will establish position C and a pin should be driven into the ground.
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Step 4: Fourth Corner D
Now we have to repeat the process of stage 3. Using the diagonal measurement you have
established take your tapes and run them out from position B and C until they exactly cross
on your tapes at the established measurements and drive a pin in at position D. Now we
have a box which is bigger than an actual building to allow for a concrete toe which is
explained in the picture below.
Step 5: Establishing Your Profiles
Now we have 4 pins in the ground establishing the outside of our dig, you should get these
lines very close to the ground without being snagged and either run a line of sand on the
lines or use a ground spray paint, this is to help the excavator dig in a straight line. The next
thing we need to to is set up our profiles, these should be about 500mm away and be about
300mm about the finished level. I have made a graphic to explain how they should look.
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You should then plumb up your pins and mark the line on top of your profiles and put in a
nail and write on the profile something like “outside of dig” from this point we can mark the
centre of our dig, which will also be the centre of our structural wall. As we know this
measurement we can then establish on the profile our actual building line, i would write this
on the profile “outside structural wall” and the inside. Put in small nails and repeat this on
each profile.
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Sample center line drawing
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UNIT III SITE ANALYSIS

Importance of site analysis; on site and off site factors; Analysis of natural, cultural
and aesthetic factors – topography, hydrology, soils, vegetation, climate, surface
drainage, accessibility, size and shape, infrastructures available - sources of water
supply and means of disposal system, visual aspects; Preparation of site analysis
diagram. Study of microclimate: - vegetation, landforms and water as modifiers of
microclimate. Study of land form; - contours, slope analysis, grading process,
Grading criteria, functional and aesthetic considerations – Case studies and
exercises on the above.
SITE ANALYSIS
Site analysis is the process of studying the contextual forces that influence how we
might situate a building, lay out and orient its spaces, shape and articulate its enclosure,
and establish its relationship to the landscape. Any site survey begins with the gathering
of physical site data.
Site analysis is a predesign research activity which focuses on existing and potential
conditions on and around the building site. It is an inventory of the site factors and
forces, and how they coexist and interact. The purpose of the analysis is to provide
thorough information about the site assets and liabilities prior to starting the design
process. Only in this way can concepts be developed that incorporate meaningful
responses to the external conditions of the site.
The analysis:
 Shapes and refines the eventual design of a development

 Helps identify constraints and opportunities, both on and off site
 Assists communication with the local Council and neighbours
 Helps all parties involved to understand the influences on design and the reasons
for design choices.
The first rule of site planning is to understand the site. This requires the collection of
information on existing natural, constructed and other features of the site, with the
express aim of:
a) Understanding the existing form of a locality and the relationships that have caused
its development;
b) Identifying the qualities and character of the existing urban form; and
c) Identifying a successful development pattern and inappropriate developments.
The level of analysis required will vary depending on the scale of the proposal. Different
levels of analysis are:
a) Regional analysis (the regional context in relation to nearest urban centres, major
services and infrastructure, and broad environmental catchments)
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b) Local analysis (the local context around the site including local
services and infrastructure, local environmental issues, and the
local built form and landscape context of the site); and
c) Site analysis (the immediate context around and within the site
including adjacent built form and services, site environmental
issues and key site opportunities and constraints).
SITE ANALYSIS involves the study of the site in terms of the following:
Natural factors:
1. Geology
2. Geomorphology – physiographic, landforms, soils, drainage, topography and
slopes, and soil erosion
3. Hydrology – surface and ground water
4. Vegetation – plant ecology
5. Wildlife – habitats
6. Climate – solar orientation, wind, and humidity.
Cultural factors:
1. Existing land use – ownership of adjacent property, off-site nuisances
2. Traffic and transit – vehicular and pedestrian circulation on or adjacent to site
3. Density and zoning – legal and regulatory controls
4. Socio-economic factors
5. Utilities – sanitary, storm-water, water supply, power supply, and
communications.
6. Historic factors – historic buildings, landmarks, and archeology
Aesthetic factors:
1. Natural features
2. Spatial patterns – spaces and sequences
3. Visual Resources – views and vistas
Set of 2 factors to be considered:
 Site factors: Relating to the characteristics of

the site.
 Use factors: Relating to the proposed use of

the site – the building ,program
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Context:
Site analysis requires the systematic consideration of three major contexts:
 Spatial context of the site: natural and man made

 Behavioral context: The social and economic activity patterns of the city and locate
with the public policies that affects site development.
 Perceptual context :( Perceptions and use of space) the task is to develop an
ordered arrangement of spaces with a coherent visual image, compatible with
carrying capacity of the site.
Need of site planning

Understanding the site is the first step towards designing or substantially renovating a building that
will minimize its impact on the environment, minimize the use of resources and be comfortable and
healthier to live in. Site planning is studying the Compatibility at the site level. Broadly classified into
6 parts:
 Zoning
 Circulation
 Orientation
 Mass – space relationships
 Landscaping
 Services
 Zoning: Segregation of various zones from each other(residential, commercial recreational

zones etc).
 Circulation: Vehicular and pedestrians (road network , parking)
 Orientation: Orientated the spaces in proper and comfortable directions.
 Mass- Space relationship: height of the buildings to width of the road.
 Landscaping: Green spaces, water bodies, land form etc.
 Services: Water supply,Drianage, Electrical communication etc
ANALYSIS
The study and understanding of the site factors constitutes site analysis / site appreciation. An
organized method to access the characteristics of the site. Site analysis is an inventory completed as
a preparatory step to site planning, a form of urban planning which involves
 research
 analysis and
 Synthesis.
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 Research phase: The first step is defining the problem and its definition. The site design and
site planning process begins with the initial problem to be solved.
 Analysis phase: The next step involves programming the site as well as site and user analysis,
which is focused on in-depth below. There are numerous site elements related to the
analysis during this phase.
 Synthesis phase: From the analysis, a program is developed, which is part of the synthesis
phase. The third step deals with schematic deign of a site plan as well as a preliminary cost
estimate for the site.
Elements of site analysis:

These elements include location, neighborhood context, site and zoning, legal elements,
natural physical features, man-made features, circulation, utilities, sensory, human and cultural,
and climate components.
Location:
 The site should be related to major streets or landmarks previously existing.

 Aerial photographs help in this assessment stage.
 There should be documentation of distances and time from major places.
Neighborhood context:
 Features of this sort include architectural patterns, street lighting, and condition of
existing buildings.
 This would also include the immediate surroundings of the site.
 The reaction of the surrounding buildings towards the site and people moving around
should be analyzed.
Size and zoning:
 Site boundaries can be located by either verifying the dimensions physically.

 Zoning classifications, set-backs, height restrictions, allowable site coverage, uses, and
parking requirements.
Legal:
 In this deed is information such as the property description, present ownership, and the
governmental jurisdiction the site is located in, and the city or county.
Natural physical features:
 Topographic contours (high points, low points, ridges and valleys).

 Flat area
 Slope area
 A contour map of this magnitude can be located from the survey engineer.
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 Drainage problems as well as existing natural features of trees, ground cover, ground
texture, and soil conditions on the site should be directly observed.
Man made features:
 Features located on the site such as buildings, walls, fences, patios, plazas, bus stop
shelters should be noted.
 Documentation of existing historical districts should be made, some of which may
already have reports completed.
Circulation:
 The uses of streets, roads, alleys, sidewalks, and plazas are important in this inventory
step.
Utilities:
 Information for utilities concerning the site can be found through the utility
departments and companies in the local area
 Information includes the location of all utilities (services) and their locations around or
on the site itself.
Sensory:
 Much of the sensory information collected will be done through firsthand experience.
 This type of information is obtained from sketching and photographs (sometimes aerial
photographs).
 Direct observation of other sensory elements of noise, odors, smoke, and pollutant
areas must also be completed.
Human and cultural:
 This information can be obtained through census statistics on the neighborhood.

 This information includes activities among people on the site and their relationships to
these activities.
Climate:
 This information can be obtained through the local weather service.

 Conditions such as rainfall, snowfall, humidity, and temperature over months must be
considered and analyzed.
 The sun-path and vertical sun angles throughout an entire year are important to note.
 Elements of climate:
1. Sun
2. Wind
3. Humidity
4. Temperature
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UTILITIES / SERVICES:
It is important to determine the existing availability of utilities on site in terms of adequacy and
efficiency. This includes:
 Sanitary/sewage system
 Electric power supply
 Water supply
 Drainage
Most water systems will supply domestic, industrial, and fire stand-by supply from a distribution
system. Storm drains collect surface water and conduct it to rivers, creeks, or other bodies of water.
DRAINAGE:
GOOD DRAINAGE refers to the soil’s ability to transfer gravity water downward through:
1. Infiltration - the rate at which water penetrates the soil surface (usually measured in cm or
inches per hour);
2. Permeability - the rate at which water within the soil moves through a given volume of
material (also measured in cm or inches per hour)
3. Percolation - the rate at which water in a soil pit or pipe within the soil is taken up by the
soil (used mainly in wastewater absorption tests and measured in inches per hour)
POOR DRAINAGE - means that gravity water is not readily transmitted by the soil and soil is
frequently or permanently saturated and may have water standing on it caused by:
1. The local accumulation of water ;
2. A rise in the level of groundwater within the soil column;
3. The size of the particles in the soil being too small to transmit infiltration water.
HYDROLOGY
It provides information about all
types of water bodies present in and
around the site: lakes, streams, any
marshy land (swamps), or natural
wells. It also reveals the availability
or otherwise of a groundwater table
and the depth at which it is
available.
Watershed – a geographic area of

land bounded by topographic
features and height of land that
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captures precipitation filters and stores water and drains waters to a shared destination. Knowledge
of watershed boundaries is critical to water quality and storm water management.
A watershed is a basin-like landform defined by highpoints and ridgelines that descend into lower
elevations and stream valleys. An understanding of storm water management begins with the
concept of a watershed, drainage basin, or drainage area. A watershed is comprised of the total land
area contributing runoff to a given outfall location. Watershed management practices
simultaneously reduce pollutant loads, conserve natural areas, save money, and increase property
values.
Surface drainage
 The greatest single factor in the deterioration of

surfaces is the presence of standing water on or
free water beneath the surface.
 Surface drainage (above ground) and subsurface

drainage (below ground) are both essential
components of properly constructed surfaces.
 Using sustainable drainage options on your site

can reduce pollution and reduce the risk of
flooding.
 All pipe carrying surface drainage or a

combination of surface drainage and subsurface
drainage (groundwater) shall have a minimum
internal diameter of fifteen (15) inches.
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SURFACE WATER MANAGEMENT
 The primary functions of surface water management are to establish positive drainage,
prevent flooding of roadways, facilities and activities, and prevent erosion.
 Proper management techniques also provide storm water infiltration, habitat preservation,
and recreational opportunities.
 Surface water management should be designed to replicate natural systems and maintain
public safety, health and welfare.
 Ayacut: The area served by an irrigation project such as a canal, dam or a tank.
Vegetation
 Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region. Vegetation analysis is used to
record and interpret the vegetation within a habitat.
 At a basic level it may be interested in identifying the species present within a site.
Therefore the analysis is no more than recording the presence or absence of species to
create a list of plant species present. Plants, trees and landscape features provide shade and
wind shelter, help with storm water and erosion control, provide a habitat for native or
other wildlife and can make a site more attractive
Classification of vegetation
 Ground cover
 Herbs
 Shrubs
 Short trees
 Tall trees
Site considerations
 When assessing the existing topography and vegetation of a site, considerations include:
 access to winter sun
 the amount of shading required
 provision of shelter from strong, cold winds
 enhancement of cooling breezes
 privacy
 existing biodiversity
 planted species – native or introduced
 Age of the existing planting.
Plants as a passive design tool
 Plants and trees can assist the passive design of buildings by:
 providing shade
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 funneling breezes where cooling is required

 providing shelter from intrusive winds
 reducing glare by filtering summer sun
 Having species that let in winter sun during cooler weather.
 If the site is large or complex, or has other issues that require specialist advice, a
landscape architect should be consulted in the early stages of the design process.
Retaining/removing trees
 Removing trees and other vegetation may:

 require permission from the local council
 alter drainage patterns
 increase risks of erosion and land slippage
 result in increased exposure to pollution and noise from adjacent roads.
 Some trees are protected under local authority district plans and require resource
consent to be pruned or cut down.
 It is easier to retain existing trees and plants than to restore an area of planting. Where
possible, planting should be retained and protected during the construction process. If a
mature tree must be removed, relocation may be a better solution than removing it.
Considering the environment
 Before removing trees from a site, consider their value to the environment and/or the
community.
 Long areas of planting provide corridors for wildlife to move between areas of bush and
encourage native species that improve biodiversity.
 Streams and wetlands provide food or shelter to local wildlife, and stream banks can
also provide corridors through which wildlife can move.
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Soil
 Soil is a thin layer of material on the Earth's surface in which plants have their roots. It is
made up of many things, such as weathered rock and decayed plant and animal matter.
Soil is formed over a long period of time.
 Soil Formation takes place when many things interact, such as air, water, plant life,
animal life, rocks, and chemicals.
 Sand, silt, and clay are the basic types of soil. Most soils are made up of a combination of
the three.
 The texture of the soil, how it looks and feels, depends upon the amount of each one in
that particular soil.
 The type of soil varies from place to place on our
planet and can even vary from one place to
another in your own backyard.
Soil Analysis:
The soils may be important in terms of stability,

suitability for structural foundations, erosion
susceptibility, surface drainage, and soil fertility to
support plant growth. Again, the suitability of soils is
very much dependent upon the proposed uses. A site
suitable for intensive structural development may be
unsuitable for recreational activities and vice-versa
Microclimate
 Each specific site has its own unique climatic characteristics that need to be analyzed.
The climatic aspects of the specific site or areas on the site are called the microclimate.
 The specific characteristics of the site are analyzed only after one has a good
understanding of the macroclimate and general climatic characteristics which give an
overview of the climate for your region.
 The microclimate must be studied not only for the natural elements, but for how any
man-made elements, such as buildings and landscaping are affecting and/or will affect
the site. For example, a windbreak that protects against the winter winds can change
the microclimate of the site significantly
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Affected by: Earth, Wind, Fire and Water
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TOPOGRAPHY
What is Topography?
 Topography is the study and description of the Earth's surface shape and features.
 Topography specifically involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional

quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms. It also includes the
graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of techniques, including
contour lines, and relief shading.
 The topographic structure of a site is a visual and aesthetic resource that strongly influences
the location of various land uses and functions.
Importance
Topography and slopes on a site are very important determinants of how the land can be used.
 Topography affects the microclimate and surface drainage.

 Different categories of slope from steep to gradual are identified on a contour plan. A
pattern indicating land which can be built upon will emerge.
 The system of ridges and valleys formed by the topography of an area determines the
drainage pattern of storm water.
 The steepness of slopes together with soil characteristics and vegetation cover
determines the susceptibility of the land to erosion.
 Topography also affects the visual impact, the future development is likely to make.
TOPOGRAPHY AND SLOPES
SLOPE ANALYSIS – Understanding slope forms for site design requires understanding of
local geologic, soil, hydrologic, and vegetative conditions.
SSLOPE FORM -- is expressed graphically in terms of a slope profile, a silhouette of a slope

drawn to known proportions with distance on the horizontal axis and elevation on the
vertical axis.
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Why slope analysis?
 To understand the existing drainage pattern.
 To identify potential locations for locating structures, roads, parking, etc., or to avoid
developments.
Basic categories:
 0-1% - Flat areas
 1-3% - Flat areas
 3-8% - Moderate slope areas
 8-15% - Moderate slope areas
 15-25% - Steep slope areas
 >25% - Steep slope areas
Slope gradient / slope percentage
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TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
Contours – are imaginary lines that join points of equal elevation

on the surface of the land above or below a reference surface such
as the mean sea level. Contours make it possible to measure the
height of mountains, depth of the ocean bottoms, and steepness
of slopes.
They are lines drawn on a map through all points which

are of the same elevation above a chosen height, say
mean sea level.
Spot heights are interpolated to obtain contour lines.
The vertical distance between two contour lines is called

“contour interval”.
Slope Analysis: is an important analytical process made

on a topographic map that makes a proper match
between land uses and slopes and produces an overall
pattern of slopes which helps the site planner in
determining the buildable portions of the site. The
process involves breaking down of topography into
grades which will establish the desired patterns for a
given land use.
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In the analysis of the slopes, the distances for each Slope Pattern are computed from the given
topographic map, for use on the Slope Map.
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Basic planning principles

 Cut and fill
 Stepped construction
 Minimize earth work during construction
 Relations of floors to contours
 Height of spaces in relation to views
Site planning strategies on

gradients
1. Plain / flat ground
 Easy construction, excavation, marking,
etc.
 Drainage problem – stagnation.
2. Sloping ground
 0.5% to 10% - best suited for
construction
 > 25% - undesirable
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Grading
Grading: It is the means by which we modify the surface of the land to meet the requirements of a
design and program.
 The extent to which surface changes can normally be made depends on the elevations of the
site and fixed elements on its surfaces.
 Further determinants of form are maximum gradient criteria for roads, paths, and slopes,
the balance of cut and fill, bank stability, erosion control, and surface drainage.
 The shaping of the land for visual impact is also very important.
Grading is the process of modification of existing landform to accommodate new structures, parking
and circulation and to ensure positive drainage. Consideration must be given to utilities such as:
water, gas, power, communication services, and sewerage for disposal of wastewater, and storm
water.
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Grading process requires a careful change of contours so that they support the integration of
building with the site. Extensive alterations in the landform may lead to unstable conditions
resulting in erosion, landslides, floods, and a complete destruction of ecosystem.
Knowledge of grading technology is useful in site planning process. It is needed to make detailed
leveling between building and the landscape on any site. Site planning grading takes care of the
adjustment necessary between fixed levels, structures, and use areas within the boundaries of a site.
In many cases the grading scheme is a primary determinant in the total design.
PRINCIPLES OF GRADING TECHNOLOGY
1. The ground surface must be suitable for the intended purpose or use.
2. The visual result should be pleasing.
3. The result of any grading must have positive drainage.
4. The grading plans should attempt to keep new levels as close as possible to the original
state of the land.
5. When ground is reshaped it should be done positively and at the scale of the machinery.
6. Top soil must be conserved wherever possible.
7. The quantity of cut should be approximately equal to the quantity of the fill.
Grading methods
Grading scheme is a primary determinant in the total design.
 The site to structure relationship is a visual as well as a functional matter. The floor levels of
buildings should be higher than the surrounding region so that rain water will not easily
enter the structures or undermine foundations.
 There are two principal relations between buildings and land.
1. The land may be graded or adjusted to suit the architectural or engineering requirements.
2. The architecture may be adapted to meet variations in ground level so that the original
surface is disturbed less.
Functional and aesthetic reasons for grading
 Grading for drainage

 Grading to create berms
 Grading to create level areas
 Grading to modify existing landforms
 Grading for increased site interest
 Grading related to good views
 Grading related to bad views
 Grading to fit structures to site
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Grading alternatives for a defined area
 Slopes of less than about 2% appear flat to the human scale

 Slopes of greater than 25% are considered unsafe.
The basic principles and goals of grading
i. The ground surface must be suitable for the intended purpose or use.
ii. The visual result should be pleasing; indeed the purpose of the grading may be purely
aesthetic, to screen views or create symbolic land form.
iii. The resulting ground surface must have positive drainage.
iv. The grading plan should attempt to keep the new levels as close as possible to the original
state of the land. In non urban areas especially, existing landscape represents an ecological
balance, a natural drainage system, and a developed soil profile.
v. In the grading operation, the quantity of cut should approximately equal the amount of fill.
This eliminates the need to import soil or to find a place to dump unwanted material.
Grading criteria
1. Calculating percentage of slope
2. Grading of outdoor areas is aimed at controlling surface storm water runoff.
3. Roadway design consists of two major phases.
a) Alignment of the road - giving the horizontal and vertical directions
b) Grading the adjacent landscape to the road edge.
4. Typically, swales are shallow, have a parabolic cross section, and are very wide, while ditches
are deeper and have a narrower geometric configuration.
Grass swales will not erode if velocities do not exceed 4 ft per second. If velocities exceed 6
ft per second, then some form of non vegetative material should be used to construct the
swale, such as gravel, crushed stone
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Schematic grading plans:
Define general use areas, set building floor a areas by spot elevations, and diagram drainage
flow using slope arrows pointing along the direction of flow. This will help in the following
procedures:
1. Developing a general landform concept.
2. Locating swales and surface water flow.
3. Locating drainage receptacles.
4. Calculating water runoff for various areas.
5, defining an area that could be altered (raised or lowered) with limited impact on drainage
or existing trees. This area could be used to help balance any surplus cut or fill.
Final Grading Plan:

1. Prepare final road profiles.
2. Indicate changes in direction or rate of slopes.
3. Show spot elevations for all critical points, including manholes, inverts, drainage
structures, tops and bottoms of all walls, steps, and curbs at intersections and/or
other critical points.
4. Draw proposed contours and complete The final grading plan
Complete an estimate of the amount of cut and fill based upon the proposed Grading plan,
and, if needed, adjust the Amount of one or both to make them Balance
The essential information that a grading plan includes:

1. Existing and proposed contours.
2. Spot elevations at the corners of all structures such as buildings, walks, walls,
parking lots, and streets. The corners are referred as reference points, and the
slopes are uniform between unless noted otherwise.
3. Spot elevations at all high points and low points.
4. Contours that cross pavements are uniform mechanical lines while contours on
the surface of ground are drawn freehand.
5. Spot elevations at top and bottom of steps and ramps.
6. The elevation of ground before the entrance.
7. Spot elevations at drainage inlets marked as “rim” elevations and the “invert”
elevations
8. The process of removal of earth from one part of site to achieve required
grading and the place and using the dug up earth to achieve required grading by
filling it at another place on the same sit.
9. The amount of material from cuts roughly matches the amount of fill needed to
make nearby embankments, so minimizing the amount of construction labor.
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UNIT IV SITE CONTEXT

Context of the site. Introduction to existing master plans land use for cities,
development control Rules. Preparation of maps of matrix analysis & composite
analysis. Site selection criteria for housing development, commercial and institutional
projects - Case studies.
CONTEXT- Whole situation, background or environment relevant to some event or

product. The derivation of the word means to ‘weave together’
• Typical issues in this regard are changing zoning patterns around our site, shifts in the
designation of major minor streets, changing cultural patterns in the surrounding
neighbourhood and the construction of significant projects nearby that impact on our site.
Contextual analysis: The study of project property is a vital prelude to making sound
decisions about optimum site utilization, best on site arrangements of client’s interior and
exterior activities and spaces, and most effective ways to respect and capitalize upon site
assets.
Contextual analysis is a predesign research activity which focuses on the existing, imminent
and potential conditions on and around a project site. It is, in a sense, an inventory of all the
pressures, forces and situations and their
interactions at the property where our project
will be built.
The major role of contextual analysis in design is

that of informing us about our site prior to
beginning our design concepts so that our early
thinking about our building can incorporate
meaningful responses to external conditions.
Typical site issues addressed in a contextual

analysis are site location, size, shape, contours,
drainage patterns, zoning and setbacks, utilities,
significant on site features (buildings, trees, etc.),
surrounding traffic, neighbourhood patterns,
views to and from the site and climate.
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Master Plan
Master plan is prepared for town and cities giving emphasize for zoning regulation for
judicious use of urban land. Thus a Master Plan is a key development plan to provide land
use allotment for residential, commercial, industrial, public and semi-public, traffic and
transportation, parks, play fields and open spaces, etc., taking into consideration the
existing land uses.
The plans while suggesting for broader land use restrictions, will also identify the problem
areas in traffic and transport, location for education, recreation site etc., and propose for
provision of infrastructure facilities based on the projected population for that area. 114
Local Planning Areas (108 Local Planning Areas and 6 New Town Development Areas) have
been declared and master plans and new town development plans have been prepared for
these urban areas.
a) A perspective Plan for future Development.

b) A Document of Transportation/Road Network Plan for the Present & Future needs.
c) A Tool for Regulating the Development through Land Use control & Zoning
Regulations.
Contents of the ‘Master Plan’

 Proposals for future requirements and growth direction of the Town.
 Proposals for improvement of existing roads and future road network.
 Grouping of various Land Uses.
 Proposals for availability and access to basic services to all Citizens.
 Proposals for protection of environmentally sensitive areas.
 Conservation of Heritage Buildings & Precincts.
 Zoning Regulations & Building Requirements.
Broad Land Use Categories of a Master Plan
 Residential Use
 Commercial Use
 Public – Semi Public Use – Govt offices, Institutions, Schools, Hospitals.
 Recreational Use – Parks, Play Grounds
 Traffic & Transportation Use.
 Industrial Use.
 Conservation Use – Water body, hillocks, CRZ
 Agriculture Use.
Implementation of Master Plan
 Formation of Master plan roads & Road Widening.
 Junction improvements.
 Special schemes – housing, recreational development etc.
 Land Acquisition - Private Negotiations.
 Public Private Partnerships
 Development Control - Layout & Building Permissions.
 Enforcement of Zoning Regulations
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Road Widening
 To improve traffic circulation and quality of environment.
 Good traffic circulation helps in less fuel consumption.
 Wider roads boost city's image and land values.
 The public cause is compensated through additional Built up Area.
 Cash compensation for loss of structures.
 Funding for compensation & roads development to be met from own sources.
The Director of Town and Country planning submitted draft Zoning regulations on use of
land and building particulars in urban areas. These regulations list out the uses
permissible in each of the use zone and the restrictions to be imposed. For the purpose
of these regulations, it has been suggested that the urban areas may be divided into the
following six major use zones.
1. Residential Use Zone
2. Commercial Use Zone
3. Industrial Use Zone
4. Educational Use Zone
5. Public and Semi public Use Zone
6. Agriculture Use Zone of course,
The residential use zone has been further sub divided into two categories namely;
1. Primary Residential Use Zone and
2. Mixed Residential Use Zone
The Industrial use zone has been similarly sub-divided into three categories namely:
1. Controlled Industrial Use Zone
2. General Industrial use Zone
3. Special Industrial and Hazardous Use Zone
Development controls and regulations
The developments that are taking place in the metropolitan area are extremely volatile in
character. They are being continuously put under pressures by environmentally endogenous
variables like spatial contiguity, access and physically exogenous variables like economic
input and social fabrics (Sorensen and Auster 1989). A development plan, be it a Structure
Plan or Master Plan or Detailed Development Plan or local plan, uses this generalized
development trends at metropolitan scale to allocate structured proposals for development.
By purpose and nature the development plans are abstracts and long term perspectives,
and anticipate various local developments to modulate within this abstract frame.
Definition of Development
The urban development and control has originated with statutory basis. The definition of
‘development’ marginally varies from country to country, but generally falls with that of
Town Planning Act of England, the first known user of the word ‘Town Planning’ which hails
from England’s 1909 Housing and Town Planning Act. The definition of development is
evolved from this Act and the Town and Country planning Act 1971 (of England) defines the
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development as (Section 22(1): "The carrying out of building, engineering, mining and other
operations in, on, over or under land, and the making of any material change in the use of
any buildings or other land"(HMSO 1970). This is a wide spectrum which includes all land
owners, private, public to seek permission for ‘development’. This procedure is common in
many countries including India.
Definition of Development Control
As the ‘development’ means the activity of use of land and building, the regulating
mechanism is the ‘development control.’ The instrument of regulating the use of land and
building is through issue of ‘planning permission.’ Planning permission is issued through an
application to the appropriate development authority for the purpose of enabling
development to be carried out in accordance with the plan. No person, other than agencies
listed, shall use the land and building or develop for other than conformity with the
development plan. In the process of issuing planning permission, a set of procedure is
adopted. For instance, Tamil Nadu Town and Country planning Act 1971, Section 47 through
58 defines the procedures through which the development control is operated.
Development controls have been defined as the mechanism through which entire process of
urban development is regulated to achieve the objective of promoting overall benefit of the
society and creating a distinct image of the city. It includes guiding the development and use
of land, curbing misuse of land and promoting rational and orderly development of built
environment.
Development controls are required to meet situations and contexts which are generally
static. In this context they tend to become too rigid and complex. Looking at the far reaching
impact and implications of the development controls on the growth and development,
character, fabric and personality of a city, they need to be framed with great care and
abundant caution. Considering the larger public interest and general welfare of the
community, formulation of the development control should satisfy the basic requirements
of the health, safety convenience, economy and amenity.
Development Plan and Planning Policies
Under the statute of many countries preparation of a development plan is mandatory. The
scope and details of these plans vary with countries. These development plans are also
named differently according to the scope and content such as Structure Plan, Master Plan,
Detailed Development plan, Development Plan and Zonal Plans. The development of urban
area is not exclusively governed by physical form; there are many policies of the
government to be accommodated while making decision on planning permission. Many
policies/Acts/guidelines come into the picture of urban planning, as every development has
to ultimately take place on land. In general, the purpose of a development plan is "to
present the policies and proposals designed to achieve the stated planning goals for the
area. The development plan must be sufficiently flexible to deal with all matters that are
subject to planning control and influence" (HMSO 1970).
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UNIT V SITE PLANNING AND SITE LAYOUT PRINCIPLES

Organization of vehicular and pedestrian circulation, types of roads, hierarchy of roads,
networks, road widths and parking, regulations. Turning radii & street intersections.
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Circulation
a. On site sidewalks, paths and other pedestrian movement patterns including users,
purposes schedule of use and volume of use.
b. Off site pedestrian movement patterns using the same characteristics mentioned for
onsite movement.
c. Evaluation of the pedestrian pattern’s importance.
d. On site or adjacent vehicular movement patterns including type of traffic and peak loads.
Also included should be intermittent traffic such as parades, festivals, concerts, fire truck
routes, etc
e. Off site or neighbourhood vehicular movement issues such as traffic generators as well as
the other traffic characteristics outlined under on site traffic. Adjacent or nearby parking
areas that may be used for offsite car storage. Off-site traffic patterns should also include
the relation of the site to the public transportation routes, stops at or near the site,
probable directions of dispersal of traffic from our building. Traffic analysis should
document future projections to the extent they can be made.
Locations of probable or optimum access to our site for each type of pedestrian and
vehicular traffic that will use the new building or move through the site.
g. Time – Travel time to walk, to cross the site, time it takes to walk between classes at a
school) to or from related locations in the site.
Land use pattern; The pattern may be developed as a logical total organization of the uses
and their linkages, with some general visual form in mind.
The general forms are the ring, the concentric peak, the radial star, the symmetric hierarchy,
the axis, the line, the constellation of cultures, the network, and the checkerboard.
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Forms may be differentiated according to their characteristics of district pattern; focal

pattern; and network pattern.
Systems of circulation: Access
• Access is the prerequisite to the use fullness of any block of space. Without the ability to
enter, leave, and move within it, to receive and transmit information or goods, space is of
no value, however vast or rich in resource.
• This system of flow is intimately related to the pattern of localized activities, or land use.
• The economic and cultural level of life is roughly in proportion to the capacity of the
circulation system.
• Flows can be of many different types: the movement of people, of goods, of waste, or of
information, carried in wheeled vehicles, on foot, on rails, in the air, in pipes or wires or on
the belts under on, or above the surface.
• The layout of streets affects the pattern of underground utilities, and the location of
telephone cable depends on the method being used to transmit power. It is in this domain
that the site plan is the most sensitive to technological change.
• The channel types in most common use today are the graded and surfaced right of way
for pedestrians or wheeled vehicles , the rail systems , the wires conveying power and
information , the gravity flow sewers carrying of surface drainage and water –borne wastes,
and the pressure pipes supplying such fluids as water, gas, steam or even bulk materials in
water suspension/. Vehicular paths are normally laid on the surface and the pipes beneath
it. Wires are placed underground or strung overhead.
• Of all these vehicular rights of way are likely to be most critical in the plan. They are the
fundamental to the usefulness and quality of the locations.
• It is possible to consider the layouts of roads before that of the rest of the circulation
systems, and then refine this layout by study of the other components.
• First the utility networks to be analyzed. It is the flow of the rain and melt over the entire
site, plus the offsite watershed, moving in sheets in open ground, concentrating into the
ditches and swales, running then into the street gutters, entering the ground pipe systems,
and finally reaching the natural drainage lines of the river, lakes, or sea. The designer is also
concerned with the drainage of the ground surface, and its flooding and erosion.
Pattern of channels:
• Physical circulation organized in defined channels with terminals and interchanges. These
channels are then organized into networks, which distributes the flow over the larger areas.
• A hexagonal or triangular grid may be used for a local street system but at a small scale
tends to produce awkward sites for development.
• Grids need not be composed of geometrically straight lines nor must it enclose blocks of
equal size and shape. The grid may be modified by controlling the traffic flow through it.
Capacities will increase and intersections will be simplified with most of the conflicting
manoeuvres eliminated.
• The grid pattern has the definite advantages of simplicity, convenient access, good
orientation, and suitability for complex distributed flow.
• Radial system is particularly appropriate where flows have a common origin, interchange,
destination, such as single water source or sewage disposal point.
Rings added to the system make a radio concentric circle, which will favours central flow but
allows bypassing movements as well. A local street of radial systems is rarely used since it
causes problems in local flow and creates difficult building sites.
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• Linear system consists of a single line or a parallel series. Particularly useful where flows
run between two points rather than to or from a single point. All activities are grouped
along the line, and all subsidiary flows also have direct lines of travel. The linear system is
typically seen in developments along freight railroad, canals, or trolley car lines, in
agricultural areas where road cost is relatively high, and in strip development along
highway.
• Grain – Issue in the design of circulation systems is that of grain: the degree of
specialization of flow, and the fineness with which it is applied. Greater flows can be
accommodated with safety if pedestrian and car travel on their own systems. It is
advantages to put fast, long distance traffic in special channels of its own, separate from
slow local flow.
• For example, trucks, cars, and pedestrians are all separated in a residential area, and then
trips will be longer and require better orientation.
• At a residential scale, complete dissociation of foot and vehicular travel now seems
neither necessary, except for the traditional separation of streets and bordering sidewalks.
- Major walkways that cut across long blocks or pass through their landscaped interiors at
some distance from the streets walk s that carry substantial number of pedestrians, are very
desirable as addition to the normal street and side walk channels.
- These pedestrian walkways must be adequately maintained, policed, and lighted.
- Even the sidewalks along the streets need not follow the road alignment slavishly but can
emerge and diverge in response to minor accidents of terrain, in consonance with the
nature of pedestrian movement.
- Sidewalks are play areas as well as foot paths and are an essential element in most site
plans.
- The conventional hierarchy of urban streets begins with a loop, cul-de-sac, or minor street
which gives access to the low intensity uses fronting on them.
- The minor streets lead to the collector where local centers are located, the collector
empties into the major arterial, built for heavy flows, with intersections at longer intervals,
intensive fronting uses, and access controlled but not excluded.
_ Parking may be dispersed, placed in separate levels, or threaded with lines of activity or
landscaping that afford an inviting access to the principal destination.
Social and Aesthetic impact of circulation: The Social and aesthetic are the two factors to
be considered, to the channels along which people move.
- The path systems affect communications between people. It appears that one prime way
to encourage contacts between neighbours is to put them in common pathway, with which
their dwellings have frequent visual contact, and upon their entrances visibly open.
- Friendships are made along the street rather than across the park.
- the designer can foster privacy, division, isolation by providing separate routes, masked
routes such as apartments hallways , and doors not intervisible.
- A crowded downtown street can be a center, while an expressway is a divisive wall.
- A cul -de- sac will focus a neighbourhood, while a broad planted parkway may delimit it.
-- Advisable to use ‘ T ‘ junctions on minor streets, with an important structure on the axis.
54
WHAT IS A ROAD HIERARCHY?
A road hierarchy is a means of defining each roadway in terms of its function such that
appropriate objectives for that roadway can be set and appropriate design criteria can be
implemented. These objectives and design criteria are aimed at achieving an efficient road
system whereby conflicts between the roadway and the adjacent land use are minimised
and the appropriate level of interaction between the roadway and land use is permitted.
The road hierarchy can then form the basis of ongoing planning and system management
aimed at reducing the mixing of incompatible functions.
The road hierarchy principles will assist planning agencies with:-

• orderly planning of heavy vehicle and dangerous goods routes;
• planning and provision of public transport routes;
• planning and provision of pedestrian and bicycle routes;
• identifying the effects of development decisions in and on surrounding areas and
roadways within the hierarchy;
• development design that facilitates urban design principles such as accessibility,
connectivity, efficiency, amenity and safety;
• assigning control over access onto traffic carrying roads to ensure safe and efficient
operation for traffic;
• Identifying treatments such as barriers, buffers and landscaping to preserve amenity
for adjacent land uses.
55
Arterial roads carry through traffic external to the specific area, and sub arterial roads carry
through traffic between multiple specific areas and the arterial roads.
Collector streets are located within the specific area, providing indirect and direct access for
land uses within the specific area to the road network. These streets should carry no traffic
external to the specific area.
The environmental cells within the specific area are bounded by the collector streets, and
contain local streets with low speed environments and pedestrian priority. Their function is
to provide direct property access. Within environmental cells, considerations of amenity and
environment dominate.
ROAD HIERARCHY FRAMEWORK
The four levels have been arranged in terms of an increasing degree of detail with respect to
functional objectives and are defined as follows:-
Level 1. Purpose relates to the primary objective of the element, whether to carry through traffic or
provide direct property access;
Level 2. Function relates to the relationship between the roadway and the land use it serves (i.e.
how the roadway serves the land use);
Level 3. Management relates to the emplacement of policies to achieve the envisaged function
based upon the attributes of the element and of the adjacent land uses; and
Level 4. Design relates to specification of the form of the element in order to achieve its functional
objectives.
Classification
The Roads classified in to THREE classes
1. Primary System:
a) Expressways.
b) National Highways (NH).
2. Secondary System:
a) State Highways (SH).
b) Major District Roads (MDR)
3. Tertiary system or Rural Roads:
a) Other District Roads (ODR).
b) Village Roads (VR).
Classification of urban roads in plains
Arterial Roads: A street primarily for through traffic, usually on a continuous route. These should
be coordinated with existing and proposed expressway systems. These are divided highways
with full or partial access.
Sub-arterial Roads: A street primarily for through traffic, usually on a continuous route but
offering somewhat lower level of traffic mobility than the arterial
56
Collector Roads: A Street for collecting and distributing traffic from and to local streets and also
for providing access to arterial streets.
Local Street: A street primarily for access to residence, business or other abutting property.
As per the standards of Indian Roads Congress the maximum width of vehicle is 2.44 m.
So approximately if you take it as 2.5 m then 0.6 to 5 m clearance on each side is there
making the 3 total widths as 3.75 m for single lane road. for two lane roads it is suppose
to be used for movement of two vehicle at a time so two vehicles must be placed so it is
placed here each of which is 2.5 m wide, there is gap in between two vehicles which is
assumed to be as 1 meter and the lateral clearance on each side is 0.5 m. So 0.5 m on
each side, 1 m in between, 1 m, 2 m and 2.5 plus 2.5 so the total makes it 7 m. Thus, like
that for different types of roads: single lane, two lanes, multi-lane the width of carriage
way is decided.
57
According to the Institute of Urban Transport (IUT), Ministry of Urban Development.
Parking
Parking may be dispersed, placed in separate levels, or threaded with lines of activity or
landscaping that afford an inviting access to the principal destination.
The three basic dimensions of any parking layout are: (1) the length and width of car stalls,
(2) the width of aisles, and (3) the angle between car stall and aisle. Aisle width is related to
stall width and angle of stalls . With a wider stall, it is possible to use a slightly narrower
aisle.
58
59
Shoulder width:
A shoulder is the portion of a roadway contiguous with the pavement for (1) accommodation of
stopped vehicles in emergencies and (2) lateral support of base and surface courses .Well-designed
and properly maintained shoulders on roads, where appreciable volumes of traffic exist, may serve
one or more of the following purposes :
1. Space is provided for stopping free of the traffic lane.
2. Space is provided for the occasional
motorist who desires to stop to consult road
maps, to rest, etc.
3. Space is provided to escape potential
accidents or to reduce their severity.
4. Horizontal sight distance may be improved
in cut sections and may thus reduce hazards.
5. The capacity of the highway may be
improved, encouraging uniform speeds.
6. Space is provided for maintenance
operations.
7. Storm water can be discharged farther
away from the pavement, and seepage
adjacent to the pavement is minimized.
8. Structural support is given to the pavement, which is especially important for flexible pavements .
60
Turning Radius
61
Intersections
62
63

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SITE ANALYSIS AND PLANNING

THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI)

Surveying may be comprehensively defined as

The importance of surveying

The phases of survey work

Good survey work includes the following steps or phases:

Based upon the nature of the field of survey,

Surveys can be classified in the following ways

Surveys classified according to the principal instrument

Several other approaches or methods

• Control surveying: To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.

METHODS USED IN SURVEYING

Compass and chain:

Transit and tape:

Transit and stadia:

Theodolite and electronic distance measurement:

There are no exact standards differentiating an instrument referred to as a “Transit” from

Before long, the advance of technology and miniaturization of electronic components

UNIT II SITE DRAWINGS

Clear the site from all grass, bushes, trees, etc.

Burjis' and its' Distance

The following procedure is recommended for demarcation of a building.

Advantages of Layout with the help of Burjis

Disadvantages for doing the work without layout

Materials used during Setting up of Layout

How To Set Out Your Building Foundation

Establish Parallel Line

Step 1: First Corner A

Step 2: Second Corner B

Step 3: Third Corner C

Step 4: Fourth Corner D

Step 5: Establishing Your Profiles

Sample center line drawing

UNIT III SITE ANALYSIS

 Shapes and refines the eventual design of a development

Set of 2 factors to be considered:

 Site factors: Relating to the characteristics of

 Use factors: Relating to the proposed use of

Site analysis requires the systematic consideration of three major contexts:

 Spatial context of the site: natural and man made

Need of site planning

 Zoning: Segregation of various zones from each other(residential, commercial recreational

 Circulation: Vehicular and pedestrians (road network , parking)

 Orientation: Orientated the spaces in proper and comfortable directions.

 Mass- Space relationship: height of the buildings to width of the road.

 Landscaping: Green spaces, water bodies, land form etc.

 Services: Water supply,Drianage, Electrical communication etc

Elements of site analysis:

 The site should be related to major streets or landmarks previously existing.

Size and zoning:

 Site boundaries can be located by either verifying the dimensions physically.

Natural physical features:

 Topographic contours (high points, low points, ridges and valleys).

Man made features:

Human and cultural:

 This information can be obtained through census statistics on the neighborhood.