Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 45–51

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Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/locate/ejar

Situational analysis of physico-chemical, biochemical and

microbiological quality of water along Mohokare River, Lesotho
Peter Chatanga a,⇑, Victor Ntuli a, Eltony Mugomeri b, Tumo Keketsi a, Noel V.T. Chikowore c
a
Department of Biology, National University of Lesotho, P. O. Roma 180, Roma Campus, Lesotho
b
Department of Pharmacy, National University of Lesotho, P. O. Roma 180, Roma Campus, Lesotho
c
Department of Geography, National University of Lesotho, P. O. Roma 180, Roma Campus, Lesotho

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The monitoring of aquatic ecosystems including important rivers, often limited in the African setting, is
Received 6 August 2018 essential for the sustainable provision of aquatic resources. Mohokare River, a major tributary of the
Revised 23 December 2018 Senqu-Orange River, is under threat of pollution from Maseru City, the most industrialised area in
Accepted 24 December 2018
Lesotho. This study investigated the impact of Maseru City on Mohokare River by assessing the situa-
Available online 4 January 2019
tional physico-chemical, biochemical and microbiological quality of the river. The study employed stan-
dard methods to assess nitrate and phosphate concentrations, total suspended solids, total dissolved
Keywords:
solids, electrical conductivity, turbidity, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen content, biochemical oxygen
Anthropogenic activities
Coliform
demand and coliforms. Overall, all water quality indicators, except pH, changed significantly along the
Contaminant river. Turbidity, phosphate and coliforms were above the expected levels. The findings indicate that
Maseru the water quality is affected by anthropogenic activities associated with industries, agriculture and set-
Pollution tlements of the Maseru City. Water from the assessed segment and downstream of the river can be a
Water quality potential threat to human health, animals and aquatic life. To protect the ecosystem integrity of
Mohokare River, the implementation of environmental policies should be strengthened. This study can
provide valuable information to municipal water providers in the riparian communities, policy makers,
aquatic ecosystem researchers and public health researchers.
Ó 2019 National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries. Hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Introduction Studies assessing water quality of important rivers in Africa

The ever increasing global human population and the associ-
ated industrialisation, agriculture and urbanisation are putting a
high demand on water and decreasing the availability of fresh
potable water. As such, in many developing countries where there
are notable increases in agricultural and industrial production,
waterways traditionally used for drinking water or other commu-
nity needs are reported to be heavily contaminated (Fianko et al.,
2010; Singh et al., 2013). The pollution is mainly due to anthro-
pogenic activities, coupled with inadequate wastewater treatment
facilities (Geneviève and Neary, 2008). This ultimately reduces the
potential uses of the water (Walakira and Okot-Okumu, 2011). The
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) reported that excessive
nutrient loading curtail the capacity of aquatic systems to deliver
ecosystem services such as fresh water.
Peer review under responsibility of National Institute of Oceanography and
Fisheries.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: chatangapn@yahoo.co.uk, p.chatanga@nul.ls (P. Chatanga).
revealed considerable temporal and spatial variation in water qual-
ity, mainly due to anthropogenic and seasonal factors (Mathuthu
et al., 1997; Fatoki et al., 2001). The presence of contaminants in
water leads to adverse health effects in humans and other animals
(Kolpin et al., 2002). DWAF (1996b) found that the biology and
physiology of aquatic fauna are primarily dependent on the water
quality of the habitat. Microbial contamination is one of the major
problems associated with water quality, particularly in developing
countries (UNEP GEMS/Water Programme, 2006). The WHO (2004)
reported that polluted water causes illnesses in millions of people,
annually.
Lesotho is one of the least developed nations in the world. How-
ever, the number of the production industries is increasing in the
country; generating foreign currency and creating jobs for the local
people (Gibbs and Gibbs, 2003). The textile industry, which
employs over 50,000 workers is the largest formal industry in
Lesotho and contributes significantly to the country’s economy
(Hapazari et al., 2015). These industries utilise and pollute large
amounts of water. Hapazari et al. (2015) reported that a typical
textile manufacturing plant generates approximately 960 m3 of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2018.12.002
1687-4285/Ó 2019 National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries. Hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
46 P. Chatanga et al. / Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 45–51
wastewater per day. The same authors also pointed out that at
least six large-scale textile industries are situated in Maseru City.
The wastewater from these industries is inadequately treated
(Gibbs and Gibbs, 2003) and the ultimate recipient of this effluent
is the Mohokare River. Therefore, given the ecological and eco-
nomic importance of the watercourse to Lesotho and other down-
stream riparian countries, the assessment of its water quality is
needed. Hence, this study assessed the situational physico-
chemical, biochemical and microbial water quality of the Moho-
kare River as it passes by the city of Maseru, with the aim of
investigating the effect of the city on the water quality of the river.
Materials and methods
Study area and background on the Mohokare River
The western boundary of Lesotho is formed by a large perennial
river called Mohokare (Fig. 1). The river is a major tributary of the
Senqu-Orange River, which is also one of the most important river
courses in Southern Africa. This river stretches over Lesotho, South
Africa and Namibia (Earle and Bazilli, 2013; ORASECOM, 2015).
Thus, the water quality of the Mohokare River is not only impor-
tant for Lesotho but also for these other riparian countries that
depend on the Senqu-Orange River Basin for water resources. The
Mohokare River flows through areas that are characterised by tex-
tile industries, urban settlements and agricultural activities in
Maseru (Fig. 1). Before the city of Maseru, some of the tributaries
of this river pass through rural settlements that have poor sanita-
tion (Kravitz et al., 1999).
Mohokare River is an important water source for the city of
Maseru. The river passes alongside a number of administrative dis-
tricts in Lesotho, including Leribe, Berea, Maseru (the capital of
Lesotho) and Mafeteng. From Mafeteng, the river continues into
Fig. 1. Map of the city of Maseru City showing Mohokare River and the sampling points.
South Africa (as Caledon River) where the water is used for various
purposes. Maseru water treatment plant also extracts water from
the river. A pumping station situated alongside the river supplies
up to 10,000 m3 per day to the Maqalika Reservoir, whose storage
capacity is 3.7 mega cubic metres (Mm3), to ensure adequate raw
water during periods of low flow in the river. Like other rivers,
Mohokare River relies on the capacity of lotic systems for waste
water purification. At least three districts, Leribe, Maseru and
Mafeteng discharge industrial and municipal effluent into the river.
Mohokare River is accessed from a number of sites for domestic
use, irrigation and other purposes, including brick making, recre-
ation and fishing.
Sampling
Sampling was done within the first week of each month from
January to March 2014 on nine selected sampling sites along the
river. This period coincides with the rainy summer season in
Lesotho. However, sampling was done on rain-free days and when
the river was not in flood. Site 1 was an upstream point, before
exposure to major anthropogenic activities of the city while site
9 was a downstream point after being affected by most of the city’s
activities (Fig. 1). Selection of other sampling sites was based pri-
marily on the accessibility of the river segment and whenever pos-
sible, the sites were located at approximately equal intervals along
the river. At each point, samples were collected at wrist-deep
below the surface of the water, using sterilised one-litre glass bot-
tles. After sample collection and sealing of the lid, all glass bottles
with samples were immediately covered with aluminum foil, and
placed in an icebox. The samples were then transported to the lab-
oratory where they were kept at about 4 °C while awaiting analy-
sis. Microbiological analyses were done within 24 h of sample
collection.
 P. Chatanga et al. / Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 45–51 47

Sample analysis
Physico-chemical and biochemical parameters
Water temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen (DO) content
were measured and recorded on-site using a thermometer, a por-
table digital pH meter and portable dissolved oxygen test meter,
respectively. Electrical conductivity (EC) was measured using an
EC meter. Prior to taking the measurements, the instruments were
calibrated according to the manufacturers’ instructions. In the lab-
oratory, physico-chemical and biochemical parameters, except
total suspended solids (TSS) and total dissolved solids (TDS), were
measured using methods outlined in the standard methods for the
examination of water and wastewater (APHA et al., 1998). Nitrate
and phosphate concentrations were determined by standard pho-
tometric method using UV–Visible spectrophotometer.
Total solids (TS) and TDS were determined gravimetrically, by
evaporating known equal volumes of unfiltered and filtered water
in a previously weighed crucible to get the mass of TS and TDS,
respectively. A 0.45 mm nitropolythene filter membrane was used
for the filtration. A sample of 100 ml was used in each case and
the difference between TS and TDS gave TSS. Turbidity was deter-
mined using a turbido-meter by measuring the absorbance of the
water samples at 450 nm wavelength. Biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD5) was determined by finding the difference between
on-site DO content and the amount of dissolved oxygen after five
days of incubation at 20 °C.
compared with the WHO and the South African Department of
Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) water quality standards.
Results and discussion
Table 1 presents the mean (±SD) values of the water quality
parameters. All parameters except pH changed significantly
(p < 0.05) along the river. Table 2 presents the Pearson’s product
moment correlation matrix for the water quality parameters along
the river.
The results of this study highlighted that there was a sharp
increase at site 4 in most parameters and this was followed by fluc-
tuations down the river. Upstream, Mohokare River has not been
exposed to major anthropogenic activities of the city while down-
stream the river was contaminated. The significant changes in all
parameters except pH can be attributed to the effluent released
from the textile industries, human settlements and municipality
wastewater treatment systems (Fig. 1). The textile industries,
which are a characteristic feature of the areas around site 4 and
7, are known to discharge large amounts of effluent into the river,
which can contribute to changes in water quality (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; Mustapha et al., 2013). The signifi-
cant changes (p < 0.05) observed in the different parameters, as
well as the lack of correlation and negative correlation between
some parameters (Table 2) implied that the contaminants getting
into the river originated from different sources.

Microbiological quality of water Water temperature, pH and electrical conductivity

Total coliforms were enumerated using the ‘most probable
number (MPN)’ estimations. Appropriate dilutions (10, 1, 0.1 ml)
of water samples were inoculated into a series of tubes containing
9 ml of lactose broth (LB). A loopful of suspension from positive
gassing lactose broth tubes was transferred to a tube of 9 ml bril-
liant green lactose bile (BGLB) broth (2%) and incubated at 35 °C.
Production of gas in the BGLB tubes observed within 48 h con-
firmed the presence of total coliforms in the water sample. The cal-
culations of MPN were done only for those LB tubes that confirmed
the presence of the coliforms (APHA et al., 1998).
Statistical analysis
Data were analysed using Stata version 13. The mean values and
the standard deviations for the water quality parameters at each
site were determined. The significance of the overall change in
water quality among the sampling sites along the river was tested
using ANOVA at p = 0.05. Pearson’s product moment correlation
analysis was also performed to test for the association between
the water quality parameters. Water quality parameters were also
Water temperature did not show any significant variation
(Table 1). Although water temperature is highly variable, it is an
important parameter in aquatic systems as it affects the solubility
of oxygen, as well as the rate of metabolic activities in organisms.
The temperatures recorded in the current study concur with those
recorded in Senqu-Orange River, South Africa (DWAF, 2009) and
Marimba River in Zimbabwe (Mathuthu et al., 1997). Unlike tem-
perature which showed significant differences along the river
(p < 0.05), pH did not show any significant differences (Table 1).
The pH showed a very weak positive relationship (r = 0.2, Table 2)
with water EC. However, the pH was within the DWAF (1996f) and
WHO (2007) recommended guidelines for drinking and irrigation
purposes. Furthermore, Friedl et al. (2004) and UNEP GEMS/
Water Programme (2006) reported that the tolerance of individual
species may vary but pH values between 6.5 and 8.5 are usually
indicative of good water quality. Nevertheless, the pH of the water
was generally high and fluctuating along the river. This could be
due to the presence of acid-forming substances such as phosphates
and nitrates that reduce the acid-neutralising capacity of the

Table 1
Mean (±SD) water quality parameters measured at each site along Mohokare River.

Site Nitrate Phosphate N:P TSS [mg/l] TDS [mg/l] Temp pH Turbidity Conductivity DO BOD5 Coliform
[mg/l] [mg/l] Ratio 103 103 [°C] [NTU] [ms/cm] [mg/l] [mg/l) index
[MPN/
100 ml]
1 0.44 ± 0.02 0.17 ± 0.02 2.59 0.28 ± 0.01 0.08 ± 0.01 19 ± 2 8.13 ± 0.02 162 ± 3 2000 ± 200 7.0 ± 0.2 0.2 ± 0.1 460 ± 7
2 0.44 ± 0.01 0.06 ± 0.01 7.33 0.22 ± 0.00 0.1 ± 0.01 19.2 ± 0.1 8.24 ± 0.02 135 ± 1 2500 ± 200 7.3 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.1 460 ± 4
3 0.44 ± 0.03 0.07 ± 0.02 6.29 0.32 ± 0.01 0.09 ± 0.01 20.2 ± 0.1 8.38 ± 0.01 156 ± 1 2400 ± 100 7.1 ± 0.0 0.2 ± 0.1 1100 ± 15
4 1.76 ± 0.02 0.34 ± 0.02 5.18 0.25 ± 0.01 0.2 ± 0.02 20.3 ± 0.2 8.22 ± 0 144 ± 1 3016 ± 325 8.0 ± 0.2 0.9 ± 0.2 1100 ± 10
5 0.88 ± 0.01 0.05 ± 0.01 17.60 0.29 ± 0.02 0.12 ± 0.01 20.5 ± 0.1 8.05 ± 0.01 174 ± 3 2300 ± 200 8.2 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.2 1100 ± 3
6 1.32 ± 0.01 0.05 ± 0.01 26.40 0.24 ± 0.02 0.13 ± 0.01 19.7 ± 0.2 8.21 ± 0.01 105 ± 2 2300 ± 100 7.2 ± 0.2 0.6 ± 0.1 1100 ± 6
7 1.32 ± 0.03 0.23 ± 0.02 5.74 0.18 ± 0.01 0.11 ± 0.01 21.4 ± 0 8.26 ± 0 56 ± 2 2300 ± 0 8.1 ± 0.2 1.3 ± 0.1 1240 ± 10
8 1.10 ± 0.10 1.02 ± 0.01 1.08 0.16 ± 0.02 0.15 ± 0.01 21.9 ± 0.3 8.19 ± 0.02 36 ± 1 3000 ± 200 8.1 ± 0.3 2.1 ± 0.1 1160 ± 10
9 1.32 ± 0.01 1.14 ± 0.01 1.16 0.28 ± 0.02 0.17 ± 0.02 21.5 ± 0.2 8.25 ± 0.01 77 ± 2 3800 ± 100 7.7 ± 0.5 2.7 ± 0.2 1100 ± 20

N = nitrates; P = phosphates; TSS = total suspended solids; TDS = total dissolved solids; Temp = temperature; DO = dissolved oxygen; BOD = biological oxygen demand;
MPN = most probable number; mg/l = milligrams per litre; NTU = nephelometric turbidity units; ls/cm = microsiemens per centimeter
48 P. Chatanga et al. / Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 45–51

Table 2
Pearson’s product moment correlation matrix for the analysed water quality parameters along the Mohokare River.

Water Quality Parameters (R; P-value)

Nitrate Phosphate TSS TDS Temp pH Turbidity Conductivity DO BOD5 MPN
Nitrate 1.0
Phosphate 0.4; 1.0
0.048
TSS 0.3; 0.3; 1.0
0.075 0.175
TDS 0.8; 0.6; 0.2; 1.0
0.000 0.002 0.300
Temp 0.5; 0.6; 0.3; 0.4; 1.0
0.016 0.000 0.123 0.045
pH 0.0; 0.1; 0.1; 0.0; 0.1; 1.0
0.842 0.765 0.712 0.834 0.476
Turbidity 0.5; 0.7; 0.7; 0.5; 0.6; 0.2; 1.0
0.017 0.000 0.000 0.117 0.000 0.263
Conductivity 0.5; 0.8; 0.0; 0.7; 0.6; 0.2; 0.4; 1.0
0.010 0.000 0.925 0.000 0.002 0.241 0.024
DO 0.6; 0.4; 0.4; 0.5; 0.7; 0.3; 0.4; 0.4; 1.0
0.001 0.057 0.038 0.005 0.000 0.122 0.053 0.067
BOD5 0.5; 0.9; 0.3; 0.6; 0.8; 0.1; 0.8; 0.8; 0.8; 1.0
0.003 0.000 0.093 0.001 0.000 0.766 0.000 0.000 0.001
MPN 0.7; 0.3; 0.1; 0.5; 0.7; 0.2; 0.6; 0.3; 0.6; 0.5; 1.0
0.000 0.110 0.457 0.013 0.000 0.327 0.016 0.089 0.001 0.008

MPN = coliform index. TSS = total suspended solids; TDS = total dissolved solids; Temp = temperature; DO = dissolved oxygen; BOD = biological oxygen demand; MPN = most
probable number; R-values indicate Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient.

water. This trend in pH was also reported in the Senqu-Orange
River (DWAF, 2009). Water pH affects biological processes in aqua-
tic systems and chemical processing of water post abstraction.
A significant increase in EC was observed between site 1 & 2, 3 &
4 and between site 7 & 9 (Table 1). The EC was directly propor-
tional to the concentration of TDS and this relationship concurs
with the reports by Harvey (2000) and Russell (1976). The residen-
tial area (Khubetsoana and Naleli), which is located in the catch-
ments of streams joining the river after site 1 (Fig. 1) could
account for the increase in conductivity at site 2. The sharp
increase in water EC at site 4 and 8 could be due to pollutants,
including nutrient ions from the textile industries and settlements
(Table 1, Fig. 1). However, all water EC values were within the
DWAF (1996f) water guidelines for domestic, livestock, irrigation
and industrial uses.
Nitrates and phosphates
The amount of both nitrates and phosphates increased signifi-
cantly at site 4. While phosphate content showed an increasing
trend from site 6 to 9, nitrates were fluctuating (Table 1). From site
4 to 9, phosphate concentration revealed a similar trend to that of
BOD. Nitrate and phosphate parameters had a medium level
positive correlation (r = 0.4, Table 2). The high N:P ratios; greater
than 14 (DWAF, 2009); from site 5 to 6 may indicate that phospho-
rus is limiting on that part of the river while nitrate limitation is
suggested on the rest of the river segment. The DWAF (1996e)
observed that N:P ratios that are less than 10 are usually indicative
of eutrophic or hypereutrophic systems as higher growth rates are
consistent with higher phosphate relative to nitrogen levels. The
decrease in nitrate concentration at site 5 could be attributed to
denitrification processes, biogenic assimilation and sediment bur-
ial (Kiirikki et al., 2006). The nitrate content was within the DWAF
target water quality guidelines for domestic water (DWAF, 1996f),
irrigation water (DWAF, 1996b), livestock water (DWAF, 1996c),
aquaculture water (DWAF, 1996d) and aquatic ecosystems
(DWAF, 1996e). Nevertheless, the DWAF has no available target
water quality guidelines for phosphate except for aquaculture
water and aquatic ecosystems (DWAF, 1996a). The phosphate
levels exceeded the target water quality guidelines for aquaculture
water (DWAF, 1996d) and aquatic ecosystems (DWAF, 1996e). The
fluctuations in nitrate content observed after site 4 can also be
attributed to the denitrification processes (Kiirikki et al., 2006).
The increase in nutrient concentration at some sites along the
river might be due to nutrient loading from agricultural sources,
urban settlements, sewer ponds and textile industries associated
with the city of Maseru (Fig. 1). It has been observed that nutrient
concentrations in rivers have increased worldwide due to anthro-
pogenic loading of nitrogen and phosphorus from industrial,
municipal and agricultural sources (Fianko et al., 2010). This load-
ing of nutrients has a potential to increase production of aquatic
plants and cause changes in the abundance and composition of
consumers in the water systems (Fianko et al., 2010). The sharp
increase at site 4 might be due to immediate nutrient loading from
point sources such as textile industries and settlements near this
site (Fig. 1). The increase in phosphates at site 8 may be attributed
to the addition of phosphate-rich water from Thetsane industries
and settlements. The similar trends for phosphate content and
BOD from site 4 to 9 is consistent with phosphate being the most
important limiting nutrient in aquatic ecosystems, thereby influ-
encing the rate of dissolved oxygen depletion. The decrease in
nitrate content and BOD at site 5 could be due to self-
purification, coupled with the inaccessibility of the river at this
segment, which reduced more the influx of contaminants. How-
ever, the increase in nitrates between site 5 and 6 can be due to
nutrient loading from settlements, sewer ponds and industries in
the station industrial area (Fig. 1). According to Geneviève and
Neary (2006), phosphates and nitrates can enter aquatic environ-
ments as runoff from human activities in urban and agricultural
areas. Although nitrate content was within the expected range,
levels in excess of 22 mg/l (DWAF, 1996f) become undesirable
because of their health implications (DWAF, 1996c).
Phosphate levels at all sites were higher than the 0.005 mg/l,
which is the water quality target for the health and integrity of
aquatic ecosystems (DWAF, 1996e). At sites 1, 4, 7, 8 and 9, the
phosphate content was higher than the target water quality guide-
line (0.1 mg/l) for aquaculture water (DWAF, 1996d). In the South
African surface waters, phosphates are rarely found in high con-
centrations because of the continuous uptake by plants (DWAF,
1996e). The same situation would be expected in Lesotho, given
 P. Chatanga et al. / Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 45–51
that the country is an enclave of South Africa. Rivers and lakes
receiving elevated inputs of nutrients ultimately experience
eutrophication, which promotes the development of algal blooms,
including blue-green algae, which is a source of cyanotoxins in
water. This raises the possibility of a health risk if the water is used
directly by humans and livestock. Phosphorus and nitrogen are
considered to be the most important limiting nutrients in aquatic
ecosystems and therefore the primary drivers of eutrophication
(UNEP GEMS/Water Programme, 2006).
The nutrient levels at all sampling sites were comparable to
those reported in Senqu-Orange River (DWAF, 2009) but higher
than those reported in Oti River, Ghana (Abdul-Razak et al.,
2009). However, the level of nitrates was generally higher while
phosphates were favourably comparable to those reported by
Fatoki et al. (2001) in Umtata River, South Africa. The nutrient
levels could be mainly due to point sources (industrial discharge),
coupled with runoff from diffuse sources such as settlements and
agriculture. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)
observed that nutrient loading associated with the use of nitrogen
and phosphorus in fertilisers can result in a decline in the capacity
of aquatic systems to supply fresh water and support some fish
species.
Dissolved oxygen and biological oxygen demand
DO content had a direct relationship with temperature (r = 0.7,
Table 2). Both DO and temperature showed a decrease at site 6.
However, DO revealed greater variation than temperature. BOD
showed an increasing trend along the river with a sharp rise at site
4 (Table 1). As expected, there was a strong negative correlation
(r = 0.8) between DO and BOD (Table 2). However, DO values
were well above the 5 mg/l threshold that Darko et al. (2013) con-
sidered as minimum for the proper functioning and survival of bio-
logical communities in aquatic systems. The direct relationship
between water temperature and DO (r = 0.7, Table 2) is contrary
to the UNEP GEMS/Water Programme (2006) that reported that
the solubility of oxygen in water is inversely related to tempera-
ture because warmer water decreases the saturation of dissolved
oxygen, leading to lower DO content. However, the current study
concurs with Tchobanoglous et al. (2003) who also reported a
direct relationship. According to Abdul-Razak et al (2009), DO is
a function of many factors, including organic matter content, tem-
perature, turbulence and velocity of water.
The increase in temperature and decrease in DO observed at site
3 was similar to the relationship reported by Tchobanoglous et al.
(2004). The temperature increase in the present study might be
due to the fact that the river segment on that stretch is more open
and shallower, and so allows more interchange of heat with the
atmosphere. Besides decreasing the saturation of DO, higher water
temperature increases BOD by elevating the rate of the breakdown
of organic matter (UNEP GEMS/Water Programme, 2006). Notably,
all BOD values were within the guidelines by the WHO (2011).
However, Shelton (1991) considered BOD  2 mg/l to indicate pol-
lution in freshwater systems. Furthermore, the BOD in the current
study had a direct relationship with nutrients (Table 2). The gen-
eral increase in BOD from upstream to downstream (Table 1) con-
curs with the findings from Oti River, Ghana (Abdul-Razak et al.,
2009) and Jakara River, Nigeria (Mustapha et al., 2013). BOD is a
measure of the amount of oxygen removed from aquatic environ-
ments by aerobic microorganisms for their metabolic requirements
as they breakdown organic matter. Thus, the increase in BOD can
be attributed to an increase in the amount of organic wastes dis-
charged from various parts of the city of Maseru, which elevates
the demand for oxygen.
The sharp increase in BOD at site 4 indicates a marked increase
in the demand for oxygen. The area close to site 4 is characterised
49
by textile industries (Fig. 1) which are the second worst polluter of
clean water after agriculture (Oecotextiles, 2012). As Fianko et al.
(2010) reported, the loading of nutrients such as nitrates and phos-
phates contribute to a decline in DO content in rivers because of
the associated increase in the demand for the gas. According to
UNEP GEMS/Water Programme (2006), water samples taken near
points of organic matter pollution often yield very high BOD val-
ues, a phenomenon known as DO sag. The decrease in BOD
between site 4 and 5 indicates a decrease in the amount of
biodegradable matter. Aquatic systems with low DO concentra-
tions tend to have high BOD (UNEP GEMS/Water Programme,
2006). Self-purification of the river, dilution by water from less pol-
luted tributaries and limited accessibility of the river segment
could account for the lower BOD. The condition of a river system
greatly depends on external factors, such as municipal and indus-
trial waste, agricultural fertilisers and other agrochemicals (Fianko
et al., 2010).
Turbidity, total suspended solids and total dissolved solids
TSS concentration varied substantially along the river (p < 0.05)
and was higher than the most common natural TSS concentration
(150 mg/l) in rivers (Chapman, 1996). However, the TSS values
were also generally lower than those reported in Senqu-Orange
River (DWAF, 2009) but generally higher than those recorded in
the river systems of Ghana (Darko et al., 2013). Turbidity was gen-
erally higher upstream than downstream, ranging from 174 to 36
nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) (Table 1). The turbidity had
a positive correlation with TSS (r = 0.7) and TDS (r = 0.5) (Table 2)
but was much higher than the expected  0.1 NTU for South Africa
(DWAF, 1996f). The DWAF (2009) reported that Mohokare River,
which is characterised by extreme seasonal fluctuations in turbid-
ity, is probably one of the most turbid rivers in Southern Africa.
Water turbidity in the southern hemisphere is considered to be
generally equivalent to some measure of the concentration of sus-
pended solids (DWAF, 1996e). The trend of turbidity observed in
this study was also reported by Abdul-Razak et al. (2009) in Oti
River, Ghana. However, this was contrary to the expected increase
in turbidity with the increasing levels of pollution. This study did
not characterise the TSS in Mohokare River.
Higher upstream turbidity and TSS could be due to the presence
of many soil particles from runoffs, which constitute a major part
of suspended matter in water. Furthermore, dust and particles
from sandstone mining, which is quite widespread in Lesotho,
can also account for the high turbidity and TSS. Most of these par-
ticles generally settle on the river bed as the water flows down-
stream, thereby reducing the concentration of suspended
particles in the water column and concomitantly, the turbidity.
Upstream, the presence of particles from soil and sandstone min-
ing could be observed during the sampling. Blooms of cyanobacte-
ria and other algae in water may also increase turbidity, which is
an important indicator of the possible presence of contaminants,
including coliforms (Fatoki et al., 2001; WHO, 2011). In addition,
turbidity can seriously interfere with the efficiency of disinfection
by providing protection for the microorganisms during water
treatment (Fatoki et al., 2001; WHO, 2011). Thus, the consumption
of high turbid water may cause health risks due to the protection of
pathogenic microorganisms from disinfectants and stimulation of
bacterial growth (Singh et al., 2013).
Microbiological quality
Coliforms increased significantly (p < 0.001) as the river gets
exposed to the Maseru City (Tables 1 and 2). The coliforms had a
positive correlation with turbidity (r = 0.6, Table 2). There was an
increase in coliforms at sites 3 and 7. Microorganisms have been
50 P. Chatanga et al. / Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research 45 (2019) 45–51
reported to be positively related with turbidity and TSS (Bilton,
2005). This positive correlation between coliforms and turbidity
was also evident in the current study (Table 2). The industries
and settlements could be responsible for the increase in coliforms
at site 3 and 7. However, no substantial overall increase in coliform
bacteria was observed from site 4 to 9. This could be because there
are fewer human settlements that could contribute to a significant
increase in coliform bacteria after site 4. Moreover, the area is
characterised by textile industries whose effluent is mainly
dissolved organic waste. According to UNEP GEMS/Water
Programme (2006), coliform bacteria generally increase with the
increase in the number of people living upstream. Furthermore,
Kravitz et al. (1999) found total coliforms present in 97% of the
samples in the highlands of Lesotho, a major catchment of the
Mohokare River.
Generally, coliforms were higher than the levels recommended
by the DWAF (1996f) for domestic and recreational use. Coliforms
are commonly measured and used as indicators of the presence of
pathogenic microbes which are a threat to human beings, livestock
and aquatic life (DWAF, 1996f; Bilton, 2005; UNEP GEMS/Water
Programme, 2006). The DWAF (2009) reported that the water qual-
ity of the Mohokare River is highly variable and the pollution
levels, including nutrient and microbial contamination are a mat-
ter of concern in Maseru. These findings may imply that the water
in the Mohokare River is contaminated by possible pathogenic
microorganisms.
Conclusion
Water quality of river systems is crucial for the sustainable
provision of water for different communities, given that rivers
are systems that connect communities in space. Thus, anthro-
pogenic activities upstream have consequences on downstream
users and systems. Water quality generally changes along the
Mohokare River as it passes by Maseru City. Exposure to the
anthropogenic activities of the city of Maseru significantly alters
the water quality of the river. While most physico-chemical and
biochemical water quality parameters of the Mohokare River are
within the recommended WHO and DWAF guidelines, the micro-
bial, turbidity and phosphorus levels do not meet the standards.
This makes the water unsuitable for many uses without proper
treatment. The water is also a possible threat to aquatic
ecosystem health and integrity. The study recommends strength-
ening the implementation of environmental policies to minimise
the pollution of the Mohokare River for the preservation of
water resources. Given the high levels of turbidity caused by
particles from soil and sandstone mining, the study further rec-
ommends the control of the cultivation in unsuitable areas. This
is because the cultivation contributes to soil erosion and the
concomitant siltation. The study is informative to municipal
water providers in the city of Maseru and downstream riparian
communities, policy makers and aquatic ecosystem researchers
in general. This assessment can also form part of the global
efforts to document and monitor the quality of water resources
worldwide.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the
Department of Biology at the National University of Lesotho for
providing materials for laboratory analysis of the water samples.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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