INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Coral reefs are considered one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems on the
planet, in addition to being economically important. They provide habitat to various
marine organisms, while being an avenue for income through fisheries, tourism, etc.
Although, due to anthropogenic activities and the ever-emerging climate change, coral
reefs worldwide have experienced significant deterioration. In fact, two decades since the
first International Year of the Reef (IYOR) in 1997, which was declared globally in
response to growing threats to coral reefs, there has still been a continued deterioration of
coral reefs mainly due to human activities (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007). Global warming
and the significant increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has given rise to
ocean acidification, which is a critical threat to coral reefs; reducing the calcification rate
of reef-building organisms such as corals and calcifying microalgae (Anthony et. al.
2008). The vulnerability of coral reefs to ocean acidification is due to the fact that they
produce capacious amounts of calcium carbonate, which when interacts with excessive
carbon dioxide, produces carbonic acid, thus causing a decrease in the pH of the ocean.
The increased decline of calcium carbonate production, in addition to its increased
dissolution has led to a diminished building of the reefs and consequently, decreased
benefits that the reefs can provide, ecologically and economically (Kleypas et al. 2009).

In response to this unfortunate trend of decline of the coral reefs, various

rehabilitation and restoration techniques have been developed over the years.
Advancements in technology has allowed for a better understanding of more effective
strategies to restore these underwater ecosystems. Risks come with restoration, so the
proper method with minimal risks and maximal restoration is important to achieve
optimal success. The most common approach used in restoration of coral reefs involves
coral transplantation (dela Cruz et al. 2014). A modification of this method called coral
gardening, which involves an intermediate step of growing fragments in a nursery before
transplantation, is another common approach (dela Cruz 2010). Researchers in several
countries with abundance in corals have extensively studied these aforementioned
approaches and are continually seeking improved methods to cease the exacerbation of
coral reefs. One of those countries is the Philippines.

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 The Philippines is one of several Southeast Asian countries that belong to a
marine area known as the Indo-Pacific Coral Triangle. The Coral Triangle serves as home
to about 76% of the world’s coral species, making it the most biodiverse and possibly
economically significant coral hotspot in the world (Burke et al. 2002). The biodiversity,
however, is not limited to coral species alone as over 2000 reef fish species have also
been identified within the area. The Philippine coral reef area is the 2nd largest in
Southeast Asia with an estimated area of 26,000 km 2, coming next only to Indonesia
whose coral reef area is estimated to be around 51,000 km 2. In the Philippines alone, at
least 915 reef fish species and over 400 coral reef species, 12 of which are endemic to the
country, have been identified (Burke et al. 2002, Gomez et al. 1994). Over the last
century, Philippine coral reefs have been experiencing a rapid decline in quality largely
due to human-related factors such as coastal development, agriculture, and destructive
fishing techniques such as muro-ami and blast fishing (Burke et al. 2002, Gomez et al.
1994, Licuanan and Gomez 2000). Of the various factors that contribute to coral reef
destruction in the country, the least explored are the impacts of anthropogenic climate
change (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007).

Statement of the Problem

Little studies have been published on anthropogenic climate change and its effects
on coral reef ecosystems in the Philippines. Furthermore, little scientific evidence has
been published with regards to ocean acidification and coral reef status in the country.
Recent data has shown that the pH of waters surrounding the archipelago have decreased
by .02 units (Burke et al. 2002, Kleypas and Yates 2009), on average, since the industrial
revolution. Various experiments have also implicated and shown the detrimental effects
of decreased pH levels on oceanic calcifying organisms (Kleypas and Yates 2009). Thus,
the effects of ocean acidification on Philippine corals and methods for rehabilitation and
restoration will be assessed in this study.

Significance of the Study

The Philippines is an archipelago with a large coastal population that relies
heavily on marine resources (Burke et al. 2002, Gomez et al 1994). Consequently, a
major contributor to economic activity and livelihood in the country is that of the fishing
industry. In fact, in 2014, the production volume of all sectors of Philippine fisheries

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amounted to nearly 4.7 metric tons or 47 billion kilograms, which translates to a
production value of slightly above Php 24 billion (PSA 2014).

With the rapidly growing population and high rate of poverty, Philippine reefs
have been facing overexploitation by the local fishing industries (PSA 2014). The
implications of the overexploitation of Philippine reefs have been well studied and
documented, however, the consequences of the country’s industrialization along with the
rest of the world have not.

It has been documented that the waters surrounding the Philippine archipelago
have lowered in pH by about 0.02 pH units (Hoegh-Guldberg 2010), on average, since the
dawn of the industrial age. Among other factors, such as the increase in global
atmospheric temperatures, ocean acidification is primarily caused by the increase of CO 2
in the atmosphere. Oceans, lakes, rivers, and other large bodies of water serve as basins
for the deposit of atmospheric CO2. Acidification due to dissolved CO2 is as follows
(Mora et al. 2014):
CO2 (aq) + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3− + H+ ↔ CO32− + 2 H+

Ocean acidification is problematic primarily because of its impacts on oceanic

calcifying organisms (Mora et al. 2014). Calcifying organisms, such as corals and
mollusks, typically possess skeletons and layers composed primarily of calcium carbonate
(Kleypas and Yates 2009, Burke et al. 2002). As ocean pH decreases, calcified structures
such as exoskeletons composed of calcium carbonate, become prone to dissolution (Mora
et al. 2014). In corals, the effects of ocean acidification are manifested mainly through
observable fragmentation and coral bleaching (Kleypas and Yates 2009).

The rate at which at world’s oceans have been acidifying in the last 200 years is
the fastest known in 55 million years. If the rate does not slow down, it is estimated that
by the year 2100, the pH world’s oceans will have lowered by a staggering 0.20 pH units
(Mora et al. 2014(. Organisms that will be directly affected are marine calcifying
organisms, which include, corals, foraminifera, coccolithophores, echinoderms,
crustaceans, and molluscs (Kleypas and Yates 2009, Burke et al. 2014). It should also be
worthy to note that today’s rate of ocean acidification is estimated to be about 10 times
faster than the rate which preceded the Paleocene-Eocene mass extinction-- wherein

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massive populations of benthic organisms suddenly went extinct (Mora et al. 2014).
Reminiscent of the aforementioned mass extinction, at the current rate of ocean
acidification, it is likely that today’s marine organisms will not be able to adapt fast
enough to the changing conditions. This then poses a problem on archipelagic nations
such as the Philippines, whose coastal populations are highly dependent on the local coral
reef ecosystems, which represents 20% of the country’s marine fisheries production (PSA
2014).

Objectives
The study aims to:
1. Assess the effects of increasing acidity on the calcareous structures of
coral species frequently used for coral restoration, namely: Acropora,
Heliopora, and Porites.
2. Determine appropriate coral restoration methods to be carried out.
3. Determine possible large-scale management techniques to ensure the
protection of maintenance of the nation’s coral reef ecosystems.

Scope and Limitations:

The study is limited to the fringing reefs of Puerto Princesa Bay in Palawan. This
site was chosen specifically as coral reefs in this area were documented to be in poor
condition with about only 11- 30% coral cover (PCSDS 2006). Moreover, a 1991 study
on the carbonate and aragonite composition, as well as the geochemical record of the past
750, 000 years, in the Sulu Sea, indeed suggests the increasing acidification in the area
(Linsley and von Breymann 1991). One limitation, however, to surveying coral within
Puerto Princesa Bay, is that coral reef destruction cannot solely be attributed to ocean
acidification; other factors such as destructive fishing methods, are more often than not,
the main causes of coral reef destruction within the area. Experimental procedures will be
limited to coral species frequently used for coral restoration, namely: Acropora,
Heliopora, and Porites (Dela Cruz and Baria 2014). The experiments are to be conducted
in simulated environments and results obtained may not necessarily reflect the corals’
natural environment. Similar studies on ocean acidification in the Philippines have yet to
be published, making literature somewhat limited.

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 LITERATURE CITED

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productivity loss in coral reef builders. PNAS. 105(45):17442-17446.

Burke L, Selig E, Spalding M. 2002. Reefs at risk in Southeast Asia. Washington (DC):
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Dela Cruz D, Villanueva R. Baria M.V. 2014. Community-based, low-tech method of

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Dela Cruz D. Comparison of Coral Gardening and Direct Transplantation Methods in

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