Co-cultural theory is a framework designed to provide insight into the communication behaviors of

individuals with little societal power. Generated primarily from the research of Mark Orbe, co-cultural
theory focuses on how culture and power affect communication. The theory focuses on various
segments of society that have traditionally been described as being a part of subcultural or minority
groups. This theory prefers the term co-cultural group. Initially, the theory focused on people of color;
women; persons with disabilities; gay, lesbian, or bisexual persons; and those from a lower
socioeconomic status. More recently, researchers have used the theory to study other groups, including
the homeless, first-generation college students, immigrants, and international students.
The core concepts of co-cultural theory emerged from a series of qualitative studies designed to study
communication processes from the perspective of those historically marginalized in social structures.
These foundational studies drew on the ideas of muted group and standpoint theories and used a
phenomenological methodology to gather descriptions of everyday communication inductively. In
particular, the theory is based on a specific set of assumptions and related factors that help individuals
understand how co-cultural group members use different practices (strategies) that are part of a larger
communication orientation.
Co-cultural theory is based on five assumptions, each of which reflects a foundational idea found in
muted group or standpoint theory. The first assumption states that a hierarchy of power exists in each
society whereby certain groups of people have greater access to power than others do. In the United
States, dominant group members include men, European Americans, able-bodied persons,
heterosexuals, and those in the middle or upper class. The second assumption is based on the idea that
dominant group members occupy most positions of power throughout society; these positions of
influence are used to create and maintain societal structures that inherently benefit their interests. The
third assumption of co-cultural theory explores how the reality of dominant group power impacts
members of non dominant groups. In particular, it states that dominant group members’ societal
structures work overtly and covertly against individuals whose cultural realities are different from the
cultural realities of those in power. The fourth assumption acknowledges the differences that exist
within and between different co-cultural groups; however, it simultaneously recognizes the similarities
that also exist within and across groups that occupy similar social positions. The fifth, and final,
assumption states that co-cultural group members will be more aware of the importance of strategically
adopting communication behaviors that help them negotiate dominant societal structures. Such
behaviors will vary within, and across, different co-cultural groups.
https://communication.binus.ac.id/2016/04/29/what-you-need-to-know-about-co-cultural-theory/
The Standpoint Theory
The standpoint theory concerns with the various levels of people’s perceptions. For instance, people
have similarity in their opinion depending on their demography and it concerns mostly of general issues.
The most influential factor that regulates a perception is through experience. The tradition and culture
also shape up a person’s perception to a certain degree. One of the basic factors for altering perceptions
is the socio-economic status in the society. The geographical locations, the socio-economic position in
the society, the kind of job a person is at, the basic gender differences all cater to the difference to the
perspectives.
The core concepts of the standpoint theory are to understand the perspective of the marginalized
society particularly the women. The standpoint varies from one person to the other but the
collectiveness in perspective can be viewed in certain groups where they share common environments.
The perspectives can be basically objective and subjective. The person from a higher position in the
society usually sees the issues one-sidedly whereas the person from the average or the lower levels of
the society takes the issue more practically. The reason for this is due to the dissimilarities in
circumstances in which these two sets of people live in.
While considering the women in the society, the perspective differs majorly. Here the marginalized
group, that is the women, they tend to accept the perceptions of the powerful groups. So the
circumstances change the perspective of the women.
https://www.communicationtheory.org/the-standpoint-theory/

Genderlect theory proposes that there are separate languages based on gender. The core of this
theory explains how different sets of linguistic features used by males and females develop through the
gender acculturation process and how these gender linked language features function as identity
markers for women (or men) in their social contexts. Genderlect theory (and the term genderlect) first
appeared in the 1970s. Its development since then—although not always tied to the term itself—has
been associated with a range of scholars who study how gender ideology shapes patterns in women’s
and men’s language usage. Scholars associated with the theory include Cheris Kramarae, Robin Lakoff,
Marsha Houston, and Deborah Tannen.
https://communication.binus.ac.id/2016/09/06/what-you-need-to-know-about-genderlect-theory/
Social learning theory combines cognitive learning theory, which posits that learning is influenced by
psychological factors, and behavioral learning theory, which assumes that learning is based on
responses to environmental stimuli. Psychologist Albert Bandura integrated these two theories in an
approach called social learning theory and identified four requirements for learning—observation
(environmental), retention (cognitive), reproduction (cognitive), and motivation (both).
Bandura developed what famously became known as the Bobo Doll experiments. In these studies,
children watched adults model either violent or passive behavior towards a toy called Bobo Doll; what
they saw influenced how they themselves subsequently interacted with the doll. Specifically, children
who observed violent behavior imitated this behavior and were verbally and physically aggressive
toward the doll. Children who witnessed nonviolent behavior behaved less aggressively toward the doll.
Bandura concluded that children learn aggression, violence, and other social behaviors through
observation learning, or watching the behaviors of others.
How We Learn Through Behavior
Social learning theory is at the root of many cultural and psychological questions including the influence
of nature vs. nurture on human personality and behavior, the perpetuating cycle of domestic abuse, and
the widely debated link between violent media and violent behavior.
In recent years, some psychologists have called Bandura’s original findings into question, labeling his
experiments as biased, poorly designed, or even unethical. Despite the criticisms, however, his larger
theory is still widely applied by psychologists seeking to understand the roots of anxiety and the
importance of role models, and to glean insight into purchasing decisions.
https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/basics/social-learning-theory

Communication accommodation theory (CAT) is a theory of communication developed by Howard

Giles. This theory concerns "(1) the behavioral changes that people make to attune their communication
to their partner, (2) the extent to which people perceive their partner as appropriately attuning to
them."[1] The basis of the theory lies in the idea that people adjust (or accommodate) their style of
speech to one another. Doing this helps the message sender gain approval from the receiver, increases
efficiency in communication between both parties, and helps the sender maintain a positive social
identity. This theory is concerned with the links between language, context, and identity. [2][3] It focuses
on both the intergroup and interpersonal factors that lead to accommodation, as well as the ways that
power, macro and micro-context concerns affect communication behaviors. [3]. Accommodation is usually
considered to be between the message sender and the message receiver, but the communicator also
often accommodates to a larger audience- either a group of people that are watching the interaction or
society in general.
"Communication accommodation theorists focus on the patterns of convergence and divergence of
communication behaviors, particularly as they relate to people’s goals for social approval,
communication efficiency, and identity".[4] "Convergence" refers to strategies through which individuals
adapt to each other's communicative behaviors to reduce these social differences. [5] Meanwhile,
"divergence" refers to the instances in which individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbal
differences between themselves and their interlocutors. [5] The speech accommodation theory was
developed to demonstrate all of the value of social psychological concepts to understanding the
dynamics of speech.[5] It sought to explain "... the motivations underlying certain shifts in people's
speech styles during social encounters and some of the social consequences arising from
them."[3]Particularly, it focused on the cognitive and affective processes underlying individuals'
convergence and divergence through speech. The communication accommodation theory has
broadened this theory to include not only speech but also the "non-verbal and discursive dimensions of
social interaction".[5] CAT has also created a different perspective from other research in language and
social interaction—and communication more generally—that focuses on either interpersonal or
intergroup communication.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory