Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992

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Materials Science and Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Modeling the fatigue crack growth behavior of Ti-6Al-4V by considering grain

size and stress ratio
Bernd Oberwinkler ∗
Montanuniversität Leoben, Chair of Mechanical Engineering, Franz-Josef-Straße 18, A-8700 Leoben, Austria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ti-6Al-4V is a commonly used titanium base alloy in aerospace applications. The increasing demand
Received 27 August 2010 for damage-tolerant designs of such components necessitates a detailed knowledge of its crack growth
Received in revised form 12 April 2011 behavior. The aim of this research was the characterization and phenomenological modeling of long crack
Accepted 14 April 2011
growth behavior with respect to microstructure and stress ratio. Therefore, the long crack propagation
Available online 21 April 2011
was characterized for eight different heat treatment conditions and four stress ratios. For comparison,
physically short crack growth tests were also performed. The long crack growth threshold was found
Keywords:
to be dominated by roughness-induced crack closure, and the fracture surface roughness is controlled
Titanium alloys
Fatigue crack growth
by the primary ␣-grain size. The reason for this correlation is a near-threshold crack propagation mode,
Microstructure which is dominated by the transcrystalline fracture of ␣-grains. This correlation was used to model the
Stress ratio crack growth threshold with respect to microstructure. A linear relation was determined between the
stress ratio and the threshold value, which was also found in this approach. Further presented models
cover the crack growth behavior in the near-threshold (Stage I) and mid-growth rate regions (Stage II).
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction size due to the crack growth resistance contributions mentioned

Forged components made of the titanium base alloy Ti-6Al-
4V are generally used in the aerospace industry, e.g., for engine
mounts, pylon fittings and frame parts. The increasing demand
for damage-tolerant designs in such applications necessitates a
detailed knowledge of its crack growth behavior. Several authors
have investigated the short and long crack growth behavior of
Ti-6Al-4V. Their studies have shown that the crack propagation
behavior is strongly influenced by the stress ratio, microstruc-
ture, environment and temperature. However, a prediction of crack
growth behavior, with respect to these influences, for forecasting
lifetimes is still lacking.
Wagner and Gregory [1] reported the crack growth behavior
of microstructurally short cracks and long cracks in coarse lamel-
lar and fine equiaxed microstructures, respectively. They found
that the coarse lamellar microstructure exhibited a poorer short
crack growth behavior but, due to the additional crack growth
resistance contributions of the crack front geometry and crack
closure, a slower long crack propagation as compared to the
fine equiaxed microstructure. Furthermore, they ascertained a
decrease in the long crack growth rate with increasing ␣-grain
∗ Tel.: +43 3842 402 1466; fax: +43 3842 402 1402.
E-mail address: bernd.oberwinkler@unileoben.ac.at
URL: http://www.unileoben.ac.at/amb.
above.
Gray and Lütjering [2] also observed that an increase in the
equiaxed grain size reduces the fatigue crack propagation rates
of Ti-6Al-4V for low stress ratios. They attributed the influence of
grain size and the increase in fatigue crack propagation resistance
with decreasing stress ratio to roughness-induced crack closure.
Furthermore, they observed that coarse lamellar microstructures
possess (in comparison to equiaxed microstructures) a higher resis-
tance to fatigue crack propagation due to roughness-induced crack
closure. Exposure to a more aggressive environment (ambient air)
was found to drastically reduce the crack propagation resistance of
Ti-6Al-4V for both equiaxed and lamellar microstructures in com-
parison to the experimental results in vacuum.
Lütjering and Gysler [3] investigated the long crack propaga-
tion behavior of Ti-6Al-4V for varying microstructures. Equiaxed
and bimodal microstructures were found to have a mixed
basal/transversal texture after rolling. They ascertained that mate-
rials with larger ␣-grain sizes exhibited slightly lower long crack
propagation rates for both high and low stress ratios. Similar find-
ings were reported by Peters et al. [4].
Lütjering and Williams [5] presented an example for the fatigue
crack propagation behavior of fully equiaxed microstructures with
an ␣-grain size of 6 ␮m. The propagation rates of small, self-
initiated surface cracks (microcracks) measured on round smooth
specimens and large cracks (macrocracks) measured on fracture-
mechanics-type specimens for two different stress ratios were

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2011.04.046
5984 B. Oberwinkler / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992
compared. Their results indicate that, even for relatively fine-
grained equiaxed microstructures, a sufficiently large grain size
effect on the crack front profile of macrocracks exists, which
explains the change in grain size ranking between microcracks and
macrocracks observed in these experiments. The microcracks in
the fully equiaxed microstructure showed the tendency to grow
through areas containing interconnected ␣-grains whereas the
microcracks in the bimodal microstructure showed the tendency to
propagate through the lamellar (␣ + ␤)-phase. Although the macro-
scopic crystallographic textures measured by XRD were similar for
both microstructures, the slip length appeared to be larger in areas
with interconnected ␣-grains (equiaxed microstructure) than in
the lamellar (␣ + ␤)-phase of the bimodal microstructure.
The initiation and growth behavior of microstructurally short
cracks with respect to microstructure are discussed in more detail
in [6]. It was observed that the transition from equiaxed- (primary
␣-grain size controlled) to bimodal-type (colony length controlled)
fatigue behavior occurs at a relatively low (␣ + ␤)-content of 20%.
Based on linear elastic fracture mechanics, it was further deter-
mined that the average short crack growth rate is in accordance
with the extension of the Paris region for long crack growth data.
Nalla et al. [7] examined the mixed-mode fatigue crack growth
thresholds of long and short cracks in bimodal Ti-6Al-4V. They
found that the large crack growth thresholds were significantly
influenced by load ratio and mode mixture. These influences were
primarily attributed to crack-tip shielding. Furthermore, they found
that the magnitude of physically and microstructurally short crack
thresholds was significantly lower than that measured for large
cracks. Moreover, they were essentially independent of the mode
mixture and load ratio, again suggesting a dominant role of shield-
ing in mixed-mode fatigue threshold behavior.
The crack growth behavior of Ti-6Al-4V with respect to stress
ratio and temperature was reported by Ding et al. [8]. They found no
apparent effect of elevated temperature on the fatigue thresholds.
However, elevated temperatures increased the crack growth rates
of the near-threshold region and, depending on the stress ratio,
even of the Paris regime.
Dubey et al. [9] studied the crack growth behavior in mill-
annealed Ti-6Al-4V. They ascertained that the crack growth rates
increase with increasing stress ratios due to crack closure effects.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of the crack tip revealed
that crack extension in the Paris region occurs by alternating shear-
ing and unzipping along intersecting slip bands. They developed a
three-parameter multiple regression model to predict fatigue crack
growth data as a function of the stress intensity factor, the closure
stress intensity factor level and the stress ratio. However, this is a
complex model, which needs adapted fitting parameters for each
microstructure. Hence, it is not easily applicable in practice.
The aim of the present research was to predict the long
crack growth behavior of Ti-6Al-4V with an equiaxed or bimodal
microstructure with respect to characteristic microstructural
parameters (in this case, as we shall see, the primary ␣-grain size)
and stress ratio. Furthermore, the model should be easily appli-
cable for engineers. Therefore, the long crack growth behavior
of Ti-6Al-4V in eight different microstructural configurations was
investigated with respect to the stress ratio. Physically short crack
growth experiments on mill-annealed Ti-6Al-4V were used as a
reference. To gain a better understanding of the fatigue crack prop-
agation behavior, light optical and scanning electron microscopy
were additionally performed on the fracture surfaces.
2. Material characterization
The material used for this research was provided by Böhler
Schmiedetechnik GmbH & Co KG (Kapfenberg, Austria) in the
Table 1
Summarized microstructural parameters of the analyzed materials.
Material ˛p [␮m] C␣+␤ [%] Con [%] Col [␮m]
MAV 11.5/8.7 20.3 28.7 9.2
STPQV 8.1 61.4 39.5 13.4
STV 9.0 67.0 78.9 32.4
MAP 8.2/7.3 30.9 45.2 7.1
STP 8.9 50.9 33.7 16.1
RAP 10.3 0 99.0 –
FB 9.8 0 0 –
form of Ti-6Al-4V V-shaped (V) and side-pressed pancake (P) forg-
ings, respectively. Additionally, the feedstock billet (FB, diameter:
230 mm) for the V-shaped forgings was investigated in as-received
(AR) condition.
Different heat treatments were used for the forgings: mill-
annealing (MA), solution treatment with air cooling (ST), solution
treatment with polymer quenching (STPQ), recrystallization-
annealing (RA) and beta-annealing (BA). These different heat
treatments led to a high diversity of equiaxed and bimodal
microstructures, respectively (Fig. 1). Analysis of the different
microstructures was performed with a light optical microscope.
The metallographic sections were grinded, polished and etched
(in HF-HNO3 solution). The microstructure was thus visible in
a light optical microscope, with the ␣-phase appearing bright
and the ␤-phase appearing dark. The mill-annealed V-shapes
and the mill-annealed pancakes showed a typical mill-annealed
microstructure. Mill-annealing did not cause complete recrystal-
lization and therefore led to a distinct texture of the primary
␣-grain shapes, which is representative of the forging process. The
recrystallization-annealing of the pancakes resulted in a coarse
equiaxed microstructure. In comparison to the coarse equiaxed
microstructure of the feedstock billet, no continuous ␤-seam was
observed at the ␣-grain boundaries. The solution treatment of
the V-shapes and pancakes produced bimodal microstructures.
For comparison, a lamellar microstructure was achieved by beta-
annealing.
Due to the chosen forging temperature (between 900 ◦ C
and 930 ◦ C), no crystallographic texture was observed in the
microstructures, cf. [10]. This was confirmed by X-ray diffraction
(XRD) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) measurements.
The feedstock billet in the as-received condition also showed
isotropy in XRD measurements and was therefore comparable to
the forgings. However, macrozones were observed in the feedstock
billet in polished unetched micrographs, analyzed with polarized
light; see Fig. 2 (l). The same structure is observable in the primary
␣-grain shape texture, Fig. 2 (r). It is believed that these macrozones
correlate with prior ␤-grains.
The microstructures were characterized by the parameters
primary ␣-grain size ˛p , (␣ + ␤)-content C˛+ˇ , connectivity Con
of ␣-grains, and colony length Col of the (␣ + ␤)-lamellae. With
the exception of the colony length, the parameters were deter-
mined by an intercept approach. The (␣ + ␤)-content was defined
as the balance of 100% minus the primary ␣-content. The
connectivity is defined as the ratio of the mean size of inter-
connected ␣-regions and the mean primary ␣-grain size. The
analyses of the different microstructures are summarized in
Table 1.
For the mill-annealed microstructures, two values were deter-
mined for the primary ␣-grain size, namely the average grain
size in the direction of the grain shape elongation of three
cuts, and the mean grain size. For the crack growth models
discussed below, the mean grain size was determined to be appli-
cable.
 B. Oberwinkler / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992 5985

Fig. 1. Micrographs of the analyzed materials.

3. Experimental procedure 3.1. Single-edge bending tests

The crack growth behavior of Ti-6Al-4V was characterized
with respect to microstructure and stress ratio (ratio of mini-
mum and maximum stress or stress intensity factor, respectively)
with single-edge bending tests. Additionally, physically short crack
growth tests were performed on the V-shaped mill-annealed mate-
rial for two different initial crack lengths and for different stress
ratios. All crack growth tests were done at ambient air and room
temperature.
The characterization of the long crack growth behavior was
achieved with V-notched single-edge bending (SEB) specimens
(dimensions: 80 mm × 20 mm × 10 mm) under four-point-bending
loading, cf. ASTM E647 [11], using a Rumul Cracktronic resonant
testing rig with a frequency of approximately 140 Hz. The crack
length was measured with the potential drop method; see Fig. 3.
The distance between the contact pins for crack voltage measure-
ment was 6 mm. Temperature compensations were made with a

Fig. 2. Macrozones in the microstructure of the feedstock billet; unetched (l) and etched (r) micrographs.
5986 B. Oberwinkler / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992
Fig. 3. Schematic of the potential drop method.
Pt100 resistance temperature sensor fixed near the crack of the
specimens.
Measurements were collected for four different stress ratios R.
The stress intensity factor range K was derived according to lin-
ear elastic fracture mechanics (the geometry factor according to
Murakami [12]) for all stress ratios. The measurements were con-
√
ducted up to 80 MPa m due to testing rig limitations regarding
the maximum stress intensity factor range. At least two specimens
were tested for each stress ratio and microstructure. The testing
procedure consisted of three stages: constant K testing for crack
initiation up to a crack length of 6 mm, K-decreasing testing from
the mid-growth rate region down to the threshold, and subsequent
K-increasing testing with a constant bending moment from the
beginning of the mid-growth rate region to fracture or the testing
rig limit. Carboni et al. [13] reported that this testing method could
lead to non-conservative threshold values, mainly due to plasticity-
induced crack closure. Therefore, the size of the plastic zone after
the constant K testing was determined by both analytical estima-
tion and FE analysis, cf. [6]. It was found that the size of the plastic
zone was in the range of the grain size and that plasticity-induced
crack closure could thus be neglected.
The measured data points were fitted with a newly developed
four-parameter equation, Eq. (1), where a is the crack length, N is
the number of load cycles, K is the range of the stress intensity
factor, and p1,2 and q1,2 are parameters resulting from the fitting.
The value with the lowest crack growth rate was thereby weighted.
da p1 · log K + p2
log = 2
(1)
dN (log K) + q1 · log K + q2
This fit results in an ideal representation of the data points in the
near-threshold and Paris region and is hence suitable for a visual
comparison of the varying microstructures. Due to the high varia-
tion and complex interaction of these parameters, they cannot be
used for linking crack growth and stress ratio or microstructure.
Fig. 4 shows the long crack growth behavior of all tested
microstructures. The equiaxed microstructure of the feedstock
billet exhibited the slowest crack propagation rate, whereas
the mill-annealed microstructure of the pancake showed rela-
tively fast long crack growth. Crack growth was found down to
propagation rates of 10−12 m/cycle, which was also reported by
Stanzl-Tschegg [14]. For crack growth rates higher than approx-
imately 10−7 m/cycle, all investigated microstructures showed
almost the same crack propagation behavior. Distinct differences
were found in the near-threshold region with respect to the stress
ratio. Based on the literature information discussed above, it can be
assumed that this behavior is caused by crack closure. Both mill-
annealed microstructures had an anomalously high crack growth
Fig. 4. Single-edge bending long crack growth behavior with respect to the
microstructure and stress ratio.
rate in the region between 10−9 m/cycle and 10−7 m/cycle. The
ranking of the different microstructures regarding crack propaga-
tion was not affected by the stress ratio.
3.2. Physically short crack growth experiments
If a crack is short (possibly microstructurally short) in the crack
propagation direction and long perpendicular to the crack propaga-
tion direction, it can be classified as physically short. In this case, an
influence of local microstructure on the global crack propagation
behavior can be excluded. Planar short crack growth (SCG) spec-
imens (gauge section dimensions of 8 mm × 4 mm) were used for
this research; the narrow side was provided with a wire-eroded
initial crack with a width of 0.04 mm and an initial crack length a0
of 0.2 or 0.4 mm, respectively.
The SCG specimens were tested under tension/compression
loading for three different stress ratios R (−1, 0 and 0.3) on a
servo-hydraulic test stand at room temperature and ambient air
with a testing frequency of 30 Hz. The measurement of the short
crack propagation was done with a specially developed camera
device. A compact, digital progressive charge-coupled device (CCD)
monochrome area scan camera with 1380 × 1040-pixel resolu-
tion and eight-fold magnification was used in combination with
dark field illumination. This illumination technique capitalizes on
oblique illumination to enhance the contrast of surface defects. The
crack thus appears bright with a dark background, cf. [15]. The
specimens were polished and ultrasonically cleaned to avoid light
scattering due to surface roughness or impurities. The fatigue tests
were interrupted after certain load cycles to image the crack with
the camera system; then, the fatigue tests were continued. This
procedure was repeated until failure.
The crack initiation phase was determined for all stress ratios.
The cycles completed before the first crack propagation detection
in the notch root (crack elongation a ≈ 0.02 mm) were related to
the cycles to failure. It was found that the average crack initiation
phase was about 25% of the total life.
The plastic zone near the crack tip is small in Ti-6Al-4V, cf. [6] or
[16]. The application of linear elastic fracture mechanics is hence
possible. The distance within which the local notch stress field
dominates the stress intensity solution is generally a small fraction
of the notch radius [17], in this case, approximately 4 ␮m. To deter-
mine the short crack growth curves, the stress intensity factor was
therefore chosen according to Murakami [12], Eq. (2), where  is
the stress range, a is the crack length, and W is the specimen width.
The crack length was measured with the camera system described
 B. Oberwinkler / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992
Fig. 5. Comparison of physically short crack growth (SCG) data and long crack
growth curves.
above.
 a  a 2
√ ever, a fracture surface analysis of the solution-treated V-shaped
KI =   a · 1.12 − 0.231 + 10.55
W W
 a 3  a 4 
−21.72 + 30.39 (2)
W W
The physically short crack propagation results were compared
with the long crack growth curves obtained from single-edge bend-
ing tests; see Fig. 5. It was found that the physically short crack
growth data and long crack growth curves match for all three tested
stress ratios. The physically short cracks do not grow faster than
the long cracks, and no crack propagation was observed beneath
the long crack growth threshold. A higher scatter of crack growth
data was determined for the short cracks. This can be attributed to
the type of crack length measurements employed. The crack length
was measured with the camera system on the surface of the spec-
imens. The local microstructure in the surface region hence affects
the measured crack growth rate, especially in the near-threshold
region, where the stress intensity factor and crack-driving force are
small. Furthermore, it was found that the scatter escalates at the
transition from the mid-growth rate (Stage II) to near-threshold
propagation (Stage I), which will be discussed in detail below.
4. Discussion
The near-threshold region of the SEB long crack growth curves
exhibited distinct differences with respect to the microstructure
(cf. Fig. 4). Regarding Ti-6Al-4V, several authors, e.g., Gray and
Lütjering [2], have assumed that such differences are caused by
roughness-induced crack closure. Some general considerations on
crack closure were discussed by Ritchie and Suresh, cf. [18,19].
They concluded that roughness-induced crack closures in the near-
threshold region result from fatigue crack growth by a single shear
decohesion mechanism (Stage I) with associated Mode II + I crack
tip displacements. The resulting serrated or faceted fracture sur-
faces coupled with Mode II displacements thus induce high closure
loads by wedging the crack at discrete contact points. Pippan et al.
[20] attributed the occurrence of roughness-induced crack closure
far behind the fatigue crack tip to an asymmetric arrangement
of geometrically necessary dislocations in the crack wake, which
induces a mismatch of fracture surfaces.
To determine the influence of fracture surface roughness on the
crack growth behavior, the fracture surfaces were analyzed with
5987
a light optical, a scanning electron, and a laser-scanning micro-
scope.
The influence of roughness-induced crack closure on the near-
threshold region was qualitatively observed by comparing the
different fracture surfaces for a certain stress ratio by light optical
microscopy, cf. Fig. 6 (R = 0, crack propagation direction from left to
right). It was ascertained that those microstructures that led to high
fracture surface roughness also exhibited high crack growth thresh-
olds. It was determined that the highest fracture surface roughness
(darker regions of the fracture surfaces in Fig. 6) generally arises
from crack propagation in the near-threshold region.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to clarify the
observed correlations. The presented images (Figs. 7 and 8) were
taken from the middle of the SEB specimens (plane strain state),
loaded in the near-threshold crack propagation region and at the
beginning of the mid-growth rate regime. The long crack propaga-
tion direction relating to these images was from left to right.
The near-threshold crack growth leads to a higher surface
roughness for both equiaxed- and bimodal-type microstructures
(Fig. 7). Transcrystalline fractures of primary ␣-grains were deter-
mined to be the dominating fracture feature for near-threshold
(Stage I) crack propagation, where the quantity of transcrystalline
fractured ␣-grains decreases with increasing (␣ + ␤)-content. How-
samples revealed that this type of transcrystalline fracture could
also occur in ␣-lamellae of the (␣ + ␤)-phase, if the thickness is large
enough. In this case, these large fracture planes increase both the
fracture surface roughness and the long crack propagation thresh-
old. An anomaly was determined for the feedstock material. Large
fracture features (>200 ␮m) were observed, which was ascribed
to the macrozones in the microstructure discussed previously (cf.
Fig. 2).
Three transcrystalline fracture planes of the recrystallization-
annealed microstructure are shown in Fig. 8. The crack propagation
direction is again from left to right. At first glance, the transcrys-
talline planes seem to exhibit a “river pattern”, typically seen
for cleavage fractures, see, e.g., [21]. However, the observed frac-
ture plane patterns show their division in the opposite direction.
Following again the analogy of a river, the determined fracture
characteristic in Ti-6Al-4V is named a “delta pattern”, much like
a river opening into the ocean.
It was assumed that a crack initiates by a prismatic slip (due to
the easier activation, cf. [22]) near a grain boundary (stress raiser),
forming the “river” of the delta pattern. Then, the crack propagates
along a transcrystalline fracture plane, generating the delta pattern
by a sort of striation formation. Ductile striations are clearly observ-
able in the left image of Fig. 8. With reference to Knobbe et al. [23],
it was assumed that the observed fracture planes are basal planes.
They concluded that alloying elements such as aluminum or inter-
stitial oxygen lead to a reduction in the stacking fault energy on
the basal planes, cf. [24], with resulting dislocation dissociation and
restriction of their movement on the basal planes.
The striation dimensions of the delta pattern shown in Fig. 8 (l)
were measured to determine the local crack growth rate. The crack
growth rate within an ␣-grain, 6 × 10−7 m/cyc, was determined to
be more than a decade higher than the global crack growth rate of
√
1 × 10−8 m/cyc (loading conditions: R = 0.3, K = 9.5 MPa m). This
means that the crack formation within an ␣-grain accounts for
approximately 98% of the time of crack propagation on the scale of
the average grain size. However, it can be assumed that the elon-
gated ␣-grains of the mill-annealed microstructures account for
the same time of crack formation for a crack propagation distance,
and hence a crack growth rate, that is approximately two times
higher. It is believed that this is the reason for the anomalously high
crack growth rates of the mill-annealed microstructures mentioned
previously (cf. Fig. 4).
5988 B. Oberwinkler / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992

Fig. 6. Fracture surfaces of SEB specimens tested with a stress ratio R = 0.

Fig. 7. Differences in fracture surface roughness: equiaxed-type (l) and bimodal-type (r) microstructures (note the different scales for different microstructures).

With respect to the appearance of and change in fracture surface
roughness from near-threshold to Paris-region crack propagation,
it can be assumed that the lower crack-driving force in the near-
threshold region results in crack growth, especially in preferably
oriented grains; see Fig. 9 (l). Starting from an existing crack (1),
the stress field in front of the crack tip causes slip and crack for-
mation in a preferably oriented grain (2). If the stress is high
enough, the non-preferably oriented in-between grain fails (3).
This mechanism continues (4), (5). Therefore, many transcrystalline
(supposably basal) fracture planes (delta patterns) can be iden-
tified in these fracture surfaces. These delta patterns are located
at different heights (with respect to the fracture surface) and are
twisted or tilted against each other, leading to a high fracture
surface roughness. In the near-threshold region, the primary ␣-
grain size plays a major role with respect to roughness-induced
crack closure. Larger primary ␣-grains lead to more crack deflec-
tion, higher fracture surface roughness and slower crack growth.
Therefore, the crack propagation behavior of microstructures
with different primary ␣-grain sizes varies in the near-threshold
region.

Fig. 8. Transcrystalline fracture planes (delta patterns) observed on the fracture surface of pancake RA; near-threshold, R = 0.3.
 B. Oberwinkler / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992
Fig. 9. Crack propagation in the near-threshold region (l) and in the Paris region (r).
Crack propagation in the Paris regime, shown in Fig. 9 (r),
involves a higher crack-driving force and higher crack growth
rates. Therefore, crack growth also occurs in non-preferably ori-
ented grains (2), (4). The near-threshold propagation mechanism
discussed before is too slow and is outrun by “conventional” tran-
scrystalline crack growth (crack extension by alternating shearing
and unzipping along intersecting slip bands, cf. [7]). This leads to a
decreased fracture surface roughness.
The fracture surfaces of the flat specimens showed the same
characteristics as the single-edge bending specimens. The first mil-
limeter of the fracture surface exhibits a higher fracture surface
roughness due to near-threshold crack propagation; see Fig. 10.
The topography of this transition region was analyzed by confo-
cal laser-scanning microscopy. It was found that the center-line
average roughness Ra decreases abruptly from 4.5 ␮m to 3.4 ␮m.
The explanation for this transition in the crack growth mode was
discussed previously.
However, the fracture surface roughness of the physically short
crack growth specimens was significantly reduced at a certain tran-
sition crack length, depending on the stress ratio and independent
of the initial crack length. It was determined that these transition
crack lengths correspond to a certain crack growth rate, namely
7 × 10−8 m/cyc. This finding confirms the approach of the crack
growth rate-dependent mode transition discussed above. Further-
more, it was found that the physically short crack growth curves
for different stress ratios, cf. Fig. 5, exhibit a knee at this transi-
tion crack growth rate, due to a greater decrease in crack growth
rate with a decreasing stress intensity factor in the near-threshold
crack propagation mode. This abrupt decrease in the crack growth
rate can be explained by the findings of Ritchie and Suresh [18]
in combination with the crack growth mode transition discussed
above. At a certain crack growth rate, the near-threshold propaga-
tion mode is activated and leads to the appearance of delta patterns
in the fracture surface. These delta patterns are caused by crack
growth on one primary slip system in the direction of growth and
a tensile component normal to this. The resulting crack tip Mode
II displacements are consequently the reason for the crack growth
Fig. 10. Change in fracture surface roughness of a mill-annealed SCG specimen, R = 0, a0 = 0.4 mm.
5989
rate decrease due to an abrupt introduction of roughness-induced
crack closure.
The roughness transition for near-threshold and mid-growth
rate propagation is sharp for the mill-annealed microstructure,
which was also determined at the fracture surfaces of the single-
edge bending specimens. This can be attributed to the high primary
␣-content of the mill-annealed microstructure because the near-
threshold fracture surface roughness is controlled by the primary
␣-grain size. For microstructures with fewer primary ␣-grains,
this transition is fuzzy, as confirmed by the fracture surfaces
of the single-edge bending specimens for different microstruc-
tures, cf. Fig. 6. The transition from a rough (dark) surface to a
smoother (bright) surface is thereby, for example, sharp for the
mill-annealed pancake (C˛+ˇ = 31%) and fuzzy for the solution-
treated and polymer-quenched V-shaped sample (C˛+ˇ = 61%).
With respect to the crack growth behavior in the Paris region
(da/dN > 7 × 10−8 m/cyc), it was determined that the microstruc-
ture has no significant influence (cf. Fig. 4). It can be assumed
that this is caused by two facts: (1) there is no formation of delta
patterns and hence no significant influence of grain size on the con-
comitantly reduced fracture surface roughness, and (2) there is no
roughness-induced crack closure due to Stage II crack growth and
the omission of Mode II crack tip displacements (cf. [18]). The stress
ratio has also no significant influence on the crack growth behavior
in the Paris region, as long as R ≥ 0. This can be attributed to the
fact that no crack closure occurs, neither roughness-induced nor
plasticity-induced. However, if load-induced crack closure occurs
(R < 0, the minimum stress intensity factor is negative, the load con-
tains a compressive fraction), the crack growth rate is reduced. The
comparison of the crack growth curves for R = −1 and R = 0 shows
that the effective stress intensity factor range for such load cases
equals the mean stress intensity factor plus the stress intensity fac-
tor amplitude. This means that the compressive fraction of the load
(which causes load-induced crack closure) has no crack-driving
effect.
Roughness measurements were performed with a confocal
laser-scanning microscope in the region of near-threshold crack
propagation of the SEB fracture surfaces. It was observed that
the center-line average roughness Ra correlates with the pri-
mary ␣-grain size of the equiaxed and bimodal microstructures,
respectively (Fig. 11, open symbols). The microstructure of the mill-
annealed V-shape samples led to an average roughness lower than
predicted by the linear correlation. In contrast, the solution-treated
V-shape specimens exhibited a higher fracture surface roughness,
which can be ascribed to the contribution of the large (␣ + ␤)-
colonies to the fracture surface roughness.
The average roughness height of the fracture surface can also be
linked to the stress intensity factor threshold (Fig. 11, solid sym-
bols). This linear correlation is especially in accordance with the
5990 B. Oberwinkler / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992

Fig. 11. Correlation between primary ␣-grain size, stress intensity factor threshold,
and center-line average roughness.
Fig. 12. Relationship between the crack growth threshold and stress ratio.

data points for the forged equiaxed and bimodal microstructures;

the maximum deviation is 4%. A higher scatter (10%) was found for
the feedstock billet and the beta-annealed pancake samples. It can
be assumed that the observed macrozones, which produce large
features at the fracture surface, are the reason for the uncommonly
high stress intensity factor threshold of the equiaxed microstruc-
ture of the feedstock billet. These features are so large (>200 ␮m)
that they were not measured as the fracture surface roughness;
instead, they correspond to waviness. However, they contribute to
the roughness-induced crack closure and increase the long crack
growth threshold of the feedstock material.
Finally, it can be concluded that the stress intensity factor
threshold is primarily influenced by roughness-induced crack clo-
sure. Therefore, from the dependence of the fracture surface
roughness on the primary ␣-grain size, there arises a link between
the stress intensity factor threshold and the primary ␣-grain size.
The fatigue crack growth behavior in the near-threshold region
was described with the stress intensity factor range, which is neces-
sary to achieve crack growth rates of 10−9 , 10−8 and 10−7 m/cycle.
It was determined that this stress intensity factor range at a cer-
tain crack growth rate correlates with the stress intensity factor
threshold, independent of the stress ratio; see Fig. 14. A discrepancy
was only found for R = 0.7 for the crack growth rates of 10−8 and
10−7 m/cycle, because these crack growth rates are already located
in the Paris region of the crack growth curves.
The correlations of the stress intensity factor threshold Kth
√ √
[MPa m] and the stress intensity factor range K [MPa m] for
−9 −8 −7
crack growth rates of 10 , 10 and 10 m/cyc are given in Eq.
(4)–(6).
0.89
K1E−9 = 1.57 Kth (4)

1.06
5. Modeling of the crack growth behavior K1E−8 (Kth ≥ 3.8) = 1.82 Kth (5)

1.09
The long crack propagation of all analyzed equiaxed- and K1E−7 (Kth ≥ 4.2) = 3.40 Kth (6)
bimodal-type microstructures exhibited interdependencies on the
primary ␣-grain size due to roughness-induced crack closure.
This grain size effect on the fatigue crack propagation was con-
firmed by fracture surface roughness measurements (cf. Fig. 11).
The feedstock material exhibited anomalously high crack growth
thresholds due to macrozones in the microstructure and was there-
fore excluded from the model.
For a quantitative link between microstructure and crack
growth, the experimental stress intensity factor range thresholds
were plotted as a function of the stress ratio R (Fig. 12). A linear
relationship was chosen to fit the data points. Thereby, a fixed point
was found at a stress ratio of 0.87 and a stress intensity factor range
√
threshold of 1.75 MPa m. Carboni et al. [13] found a similar linear
correlation for the stress ratio and stress intensity factor thresholds
for steel. They reported that the stress intensity factor threshold for
a stress ratio R = −2 matches this relation as well. Therefore, it can
be assumed that the observed linear relation is valid in the region
−2 ≤ R ≤ 0.7.
The slope kth [–] of the fitting lines was linked to the microstruc-
tural parameter primary ␣-grain size ˛p [␮m], cf. Eq. (3) and Fig. 13.
The connectivity of primary ␣-grains does not affect the threshold.
This model leads to a coefficient of determination R2 of 0.97 for the
forged materials.

kth = −0.31 ˛p − 1.4 (3) Fig. 13. Relationship between the slope of the fitting lines and microstructure.
 B. Oberwinkler / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992 5991

Fig. 14. Correlation of the stress intensity at certain growth rates [m/cyc] and the Fig. 15. Comparison of experimental data and the crack growth model.
stress intensity factor threshold.

Eq. (5) is valid down to a stress intensity factor threshold of

√
3.8 MPa m. For lower thresholds, Eq. (7) applies.

K1E−8 (Kth < 3.8) = 7.5 (7)

Eq. (6) is applicable for stress intensity factor thresholds

√
Kth ≥ 4.2 MPa m. For lower stress intensity factor thresholds, Eq.
(8) applies.

K1E−7 (Kth < 4.2) = 16 (8)

The stress ratio plays a major role in fatigue crack propagation.

However, as mentioned above, crack growth in the Paris regime is
not significantly influenced by microstructure (cf. Fig. 4). Only for
a stress ratio R = 0.7 was an effect of microstructure determinable.
Therefore, a rough model was developed for approximation.
The fitting parameters C and m of the Paris-Erdogan equation, Eq.
(9), were averaged for the analyzed microstructures for low stress
ratios (Table 2).
da
= C · K m (9) Fig. 16. Correlation of the Paris coefficient and Paris exponent.
dN
A polynomial equation was used to determine the Paris expo-
incorporated in the model generation) are necessary for verifica-
nent m with respect to the stress ratio R, Eq. (10). With a knowledge
tion.
of the stress intensity factor corresponding to the crack growth rate
Finally, it was found that C and m can be linked for Ti-6Al-
da/dN = 10−7 m/cyc, which results from the near-threshold model
4V with an exponential correlation (Fig. 16); this has also been
described above, it is possible to predict the Paris region of the crack
reported for other structural alloys, cf. [25] or [26].
growth curve for −1 ≤ R ≤ 0.3.

m = 2.26 + 0.11 R − 0.15 R2 (10) 6. Conclusion

For R > 0.3, the near-threshold model already provides enough
information to approximate the Paris region. This is caused by the
fact that the majority of the Paris region of the crack growth curves
is affected (for these stress ratios) by the near-threshold crack prop-
agation mode via delta patterns, which was confirmed by SEM.
The crack growth models described above were applied as
examples for two different microstructures and two stress ratios.
The modeling results were furthermore compared with the exper-
imental data; see Fig. 15. A good accordance was observed.
Further experiments for another microstructure (one that was not
Table 2
Paris-parameters for low stress ratios.
√ rate limit.
R [–] C [m/(Cyc. MPa m)]
−1 4.70E-11
0 1.23E-10
0.3 2.17E-10
It was found that long crack growth thresholds can be linked to
the primary ␣-grain size. This correlation arises from the depen-
dence of fracture surface roughness on ␣-grain size. The long crack
growth threshold is primarily controlled by roughness-induced
crack closure.
A higher fracture surface roughness was determined in the
near-threshold region. This behavior was explained by crack initi-
ation and propagation in ␣-grains causing transcrystalline fracture
features, named “delta patterns”, in the fracture surface. These
delta patterns are the reason for the correlation of fracture sur-
face roughness and primary ␣-grain size. The near-threshold crack
propagation mode occurs solely underneath a certain crack growth
m [–] It was determined that the stress intensity factor range for cer-
2.00 tain crack growth rates in the near-threshold region correlates with
2.26 the stress intensity factor threshold, independent of the stress ratio.
2.28
This correlation was used to estimate the near-threshold crack
5992 B. Oberwinkler / Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 5983–5992
growth behavior based on the modeled thresholds for stress ratios
between −1 and +0.7.
The long crack growth in the Paris regime is almost indepen-
dent of the microstructure. This is due to the missing influence of
roughness-induced crack closure. A rough model was developed
for approximation.
The stress ratio does not affect the crack growth behavior in the
Paris region as long as R ≥ 0. For lower stress ratios, load-induced
crack closure reduces the applied stress intensity factor range by
the compressive fraction of the load.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the Austrian Federal Ministry for
Transport, Innovation and Technology, the Austrian Federal Min-
istry of Economics and Labor, the federal governments of Styria,
Tyrol, Vienna, Upper Austria and Lower Austria and the Austrian
Research Promotion Agency for funding this work, in the frame-
work of the Austrian Aeronautics Research Program and FFG’s
BRIDGE program. The support from Böhler Schmiedetechnik GmbH
& Co KG Kapfenberg is also much appreciated.
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