European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx

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European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ejmsol

Mixed mode fatigue crack growth studies in AISI 316 stainless steel
S. Sajith, S.S. Shukla, K.S.R.K. Murthy *, P.S. Robi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Damage tolerance assessment requires the accurate prediction of fatigue crack growth lives. Numerical simu­
Mixed mode lation techniques using mixed mode Paris’ law and various equivalent stress intensity factor models ðΔKeq Þ are
Fatigue crack growth widely employed for fatigue life prediction. In the present work, mixed mode (I/II) fatigue crack growth ex­
Equivalent stress intensity factor
periments are performed using the compact tension shear specimens made of AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel
Paris law
Numerical modeling
for various loading angles. Finite element fatigue crack growth simulations are carried out, and the effect of ΔKeq
Failure analysis model in fatigue life prediction is studied. To achieve this, a three parameter double exponential type best fit is
Stainless steel 316 proposed for fitting the experimental mixed mode crack length vs fatigue life. The performance and capability of
Fractography various selected models are assessed by comparing the predicted life with the experimental results. Fractographic
studies at different stages of crack propagation for different loading angles are also presented to aid the above
assessments. Based on the overall consistent performance, Irwin’s and Tanaka models are predicting life close to
the experimental data and Richard’s and Yan’s models provide conservative solutions.

1. Introduction
Components in service are mostly subjected to cyclic loading, and in
such cases, fatigue failure is the most dominant mode of failure due to
the presence of the cracks and other defects in the components. Princi­
ples of fracture mechanics and fatigue are widely used for the prediction
of residual life and for the damage tolerance analysis. Due to the
complexity of the externally applied load and the random orientation of
the crack, mixed mode stress field generally persists at crack tip even
under mode I loading (Carpinteri et al., 2017). A substantial amount of
researches have been carried out to correlate the mixed mode (I/II) fa­
tigue crack growth (FCG) rate with various stress, displacement, and
energy based parameters (Rozumek and Macha, 2009). Among the
available laws, the modified form of the Paris law proposed by Tanaka
(1974) is widely used for correlating the experimental mixed mode (I/II)
FCG and for the numerical prediction of fatigue life. This law correlates
the mixed mode FCG rate with the equivalent stress intensity factor
ðΔKeq Þ, which is a function of ΔKI and ΔKII (Fig. 1(a)). Due to resem­
blance of the Paris law proposed by Tanaka (1974) with the mode I FCG,
subsequently, a good number of various ΔKeq models (based on various
criteria and experiments) have been proposed. These ΔKeq models may
be broadly classified into three groups viz., models formulated based on
specific fatigue crack propagation theories (Tanaka, 1974), based on
static mixed mode fracture theories (Hussain et al., 1974; Irwin, 1957;
Yan et al., 1992), and empirical studies (Demir et al., 2018; Richard
et al., 2003).
Indeed, Tanaka (1974) proposed two forms of ΔKeq model by
superimposing the mode I and mode II displacements and considering
the small scale yielding ahead of the crack tip; these models were veri­
fied using the center crack specimen made of aluminum. Later, Biner
(2001) employed another form of ΔKeq model based on the potential
energy release criterion by Irwin (Irwin, 1957) for the experimental FCG
studies using specimens made of AISI 304 stainless steel. Miranda
(Miranda et al., 2003) suggested the use of the ΔKeq model proposed by
Hussain et al. (1974) which is based on the strain energy release rate
under mixed mode loading. Using the maximum tangential stress (MTS)
criteria (Erdogan and Sih, 1963), Yan et al. (1992) proposed another
model which is also a function of the crack propagation angle. Using the
relation between fracture toughness under mode I and mode II obtained
from the MTS criterion, Richard et al. (2003) proposed another form of
ΔKeq . A summary of many currently available models can be found in
Ref. (Demir et al., 2018; Miranda et al., 2007; Qian and Fatemi, 1996a;
Richard et al., 2014, 2005; Rozumek and Macha, 2009; Sajith et al.,
2019; Wang et al., 2017). Apart from the modified Paris law, the other
mixed mode fatigue crack growth laws can be found in (Chen and Keer,
1991; Forman et al., 1967; Newman, 2009; Qian and Fatemi, 1996b;
Walker, 1970).
One major use of all these ΔKeq models is to employ them for nu­
merical prediction (in structural integrity and damage tolerance

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ksrkm@iitg.ac.in (K.S.R.K. Murthy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euromechsol.2019.103898
Received 13 June 2019; Received in revised form 23 October 2019; Accepted 3 November 2019
Available online 9 November 2019
0997-7538/© 2019 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: S. Sajith, European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euromechsol.2019.103898
S. Sajith et al. European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx

Nomenclature Greek alphabets

α Loading angle
Latin characters β The ratio of mode I and mode I fracture toughness
a Crack length Δa Crack increment
a0 Initial crack length ΔKeq Equivalent stress intensity factor range
A0 ; A1 Coefficients of the Generalized Westergaard for opening ΔKeq max Maximum equivalent stress intensity factor range
mode ΔKI Mode I stress intensity factor range
b; c CTS specimen geometry parameters ΔKII Mode II stress intensity factor range
C Paris’ constant Δv Crack opening displacement
C0 ; C1 Coefficients of the Generalized Westergaard for shear Δu Crack sliding displacement
mode θ Polar coordinate component
E Young’s modulus θc Crack propagation angle
G Energy release rate θr Angle the crack makes with x axis
k Double exponential model constant κ Kolosov’s constant
KIC Plane strain fracture toughness υ Poisson’s ratio
KI;max Mode I stress intensity factor corresponding to the σu Ultimate stress
maximum load σy Yield stress
KI;min Mode I stress intensity factor corresponding to the σ θ;c Critical tangential (circumferential) stress
minimum load σ θ;max Maximum tangential (circumferential) stress
KII;max Mode II stress intensity factor corresponding to the μ Shear modulus
maximum load
KII;min Mode II stress intensity factor corresponding to the Abbreviations
minimum load COD Crack opening displacement
KI;th Mode I threshold stress intensity factor CSD Crack sliding displacement
KII;th Mode II threshold stress intensity factor CT Compact tension
L2 Euclidean norm CTS Compact tension shear
m Paris’ exponent DET Displacement extrapolation technique
N Number of loading cycles EDM Electrical discharge machining
p Double exponential model exponents FCG Fatigue crack growth
P Applied load FESEM Field emission scanning electron microscopy
P1 ; P2 ; ​ and P3 Punctual loads MTS Maximum tangential stress
Pmax Maximum applied load Q8 Eight noded quadrilateral
Pmin Minimum applied load QPE Quarter point element
q Double exponential model exponents RMS Root mean square
SED Strain energy density
r2 Goodness of fit
SIF Stress intensity factor
R Load ratio
UTM Universal testing machine
u; v Displacement in x and y directions, respectively
x y Cartesian coordinate system
xi ; yi Crack tip coordinates in i-th step

Fig. 1. (a) Keq as a function of KI and KII (b) KI KII diagram and fracture limit curves.

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S. Sajith et al. European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx

assessments) of the mixed mode fatigue life for any given extent of the where
crack growth using Tanaka’s Paris law as
ΔKI ¼ KI;max KI;min
da �m (3)
¼ C ΔKeq (1) ΔKII ¼ KII;max KII;min
aN
Fig. 1 (b) shows the fracture limit curve for mixed mode (I/II)
where C and m are the material dependent Paris constant and Paris loading. The Paris law is applicable in the stable crack growth region.
exponent, respectively, obtained from the mode I FCG experiments. It When the ΔKeq exceeds the threshold limit, the onset of fatigue crack
appears from the literature that various models employed in Eq. (1) for growth occurs (Reimers, 1991; Richard et al., 2014)
prediction of life are carried out without being meticulously verified or
assessed the capabilities of these models. The works on experimental ΔKeq � KI;th (4)
and numerical verification of the effect of these ΔKeq models on the fa­
and unstable fracture occurs if the maximum equivalent SIF ðΔKeq max Þ
tigue life prediction are scarce. Clearly, the fatigue life predictions
exceeds the fracture toughness KIC
without knowing such capabilities do not provide any reliable infor­
mation. Therefore, capability assessment of available ΔKeq models on a ΔKeq max � KIC (5)
common experimental and numerical platform is essential for obtaining
For a finite crack increment Δa, the fatigue life can be estimated by
the useful life prediction data in structural integrity and damage toler­
integrating Eq. (1)
ance approaches. To the best of authors’ knowledge, only the works of
Z Δa Z ΔN
Sajith et al. (2019) using the numerical simulation and Demir et al. da
(2018) using experimental and numerical studies are available in this
�m ¼ dN ¼ ΔN (6)
0 C ΔKeq 0
direction. However, these studies are insufficient to provide definitive
information about the performance of the ΔKeq models. The approach in which the crack increment Δa is predefined and the
In view of the above gap, the main objective of the present investi­ fatigue life ΔN is estimated as a function of Δa is termed as an incre­
gation is to understand the effectiveness of various ΔKeq models in mixed mental crack extension method. In ith crack growth step, the number of
mode fatigue life prediction with the support of fatigue crack growth cycles ΔNi required for the crack to grow by Δai ð ¼ aiþ1 ai Þ can be
experiments and the numerical simulation, assisted by fractographic estimated as follows:
studies. In order to achieve this aim successfully, a three-parameter Δa
double-exponential best-fit model is also proposed here to deal with � i �m ¼ ΔNi (7)
C ΔK ieq
the scatter in the experimental data. A a matter of fact, digital micro­
scopes are more suitable for measurement of growing crack in mixed In this work, using Eq. (7), the fatigue life of the growing crack is
mode experiments than the COD gauge. The proposed model is used to predicted for each Δa crack increment. In the present investigation, the
fit the experimental crack length ðaÞ versus the fatigue life cycles ðNÞ mixed mode SIFs for an ith step are calculated at a crack length of ai using
data in mixed mode (I/II) loading conditions. a recently proposed crack flank displacement method (Sajith et al.,
In the present work, mixed mode fatigue crack growth experiments
2018), and the corresponding ΔKieq is computed (Ma et al., 2006). For the
for loading angle ðαÞ equal to 30� , 45� , and 60� have been carried out
numerical estimation of mixed mode (I/II) fatigue life, the material
using compact tension shear (CTS) specimens (Richard et al., 2008;
dependent constants C and m obtained from the mode I fatigue crack
Richard and Benitz, 1983; Sander and Richard, 2006) made of AISI 316
growth experiments are used. (Bla�zi�c et al., 2014; Demir et al., 2018;
stainless steel (SS316) and Richard’s loading device (Richard and Benitz,
Kim and Lee, 2007; Portela et al., 1993; Reimers, 1991; Sajith et al.,
1983). Finite element simulation of the mixed mode (I/II) fatigue crack
2019; Yan et al., 1992).
growth is performed, and the SIFs are estimated using the recently
proposed crack flank displacement based technique (Sajith et al., 2018).
2.2. ΔKeq models selected for this study
For obtaining the material dependent constants, mode I fatigue crack
growth experiment is also conducted. The fatigue crack path is esti­
This section briefly describes the background of various ΔKeq models
mated using the MTS criterion, and the fatigue life is estimated using
selected in this study.
seven ΔKeq models. The predicted life is compared with the experimental
fatigue life along with the fractography of the growing crack at different
2.2.1. Tanaka’s models
stages of crack growth. These comparisons are also aided using the
Based on the Lardner’s (1968) postulation (the fatigue crack growth
point-wise and global error indicators. The results of the present
is equal to the reverse component of displacement at the crack tip) and
investigation clearly demonstrate the life prediction capabilities of the
Weertman’s (1966) dislocation based fatigue crack propagation theory,
selected ΔKeq models for practical applications.
Tanaka (1974) proposed two forms of ΔKeq models, respectively as
follows:
2. Theories for mixed mode (I/II) fatigue crack growth
�1=2
ΔKeq ¼ ΔK 2I þ 2ΔK 2II (8)
This section discusses the mixed mode Paris’ law, various ΔKeq
models, crack path estimation, SIF estimation technique used, and the �1=4
ΔKeq ¼ ΔK 4I þ 8ΔK 4II (9)
numerical estimation of the fatigue life.
These forms of ΔKeq have been widely employed for numerical fa­
2.1. Tanaka’s Paris law for mixed mode (I/II) loading tigue crack growth studies (Boljanovi�c and Maksimovi�c, 2011; Ingraffea
et al., 1983; Ma et al., 2006).
Tanaka (1974) proposed a modified form of the Paris law (Paris
et al., 1961) to correlate the fatigue crack growth rate da= dN with the 2.2.2. Irwin’s model
mixed mode SIFs. Under mixed mode (I/II) loading conditions, the crack Using the definition of Irwin, (1957) potential energy release rate
growth rate is given by Eq. (1). Gð¼ GI þGII Þ in mixed mode (I/II) loading conditions and its relation to
The equivalent stress intensity factor ΔKeq is given by: the SIFs KI and KII under plane stress conditions, an equivalent SIF ΔKeq
can be derived:
ΔKeq ¼ f ðΔKI ; ΔKII Þ (2)

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Fig. 2. The direction of KII and crack growth angle (a) positive θc (b) negative θc .

The above expression is suggested to be used in the modified Paris’

law by Miranda et al. (2007) but it is not employed in the experimental
studies till date. However, the above ΔKeq is employed in numerical
simulations by Sajith et al. (2019).

2.2.5. Richard’s model

Richard et al. (2003, 1991) have also proposed a form of ΔKeq which
is comparable to the equivalent stress in the classical stress hypothesis:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ΔKI 1
ΔKeq ¼ þ ΔK 2I þ 4ðβΔKII Þ2 (13)
2 2

where β ¼ 1:155 is a constant (Richard et al., 2005). This model is also

widely employed in experiments and numerical simulations of fatigue
crack growth (Borrego et al., 2006; Richard et al., 2014; Sander and
Fig. 3. Crack tip coordinate system and associated displacements. Richard, 2006).

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2.2.6. Demir’s model

ΔKeq ¼ ΔK 2I þ ΔK 2II (10)
Recently, Demir et al. (2018) proposed another model for ΔKeq using
Biner (2001) employed this model for mixed mode (I/II) fatigue the nonlinear regression analysis of the numerical and experimental
crack growth studies. An extended form of this expression is used by results of the CTS specimen. This model is proposed for use at higher
Nikfam et al. (2019) for studies using welded samples. load mixity levels. The model is verified using a T-type mixed mode
specimen. Their model is given by
2.2.3. Yan’s model �1=4
ΔKeq ¼ 1:0519ΔK 4I 0:035ΔK 4II þ 2:3056ΔK 2I ΔK 2II (14)
Based on the equation of hoop stress under mixed mode loading
conditions (Erdogan and Sih, 1963), Yan et al. (1992) proposed another Apart from the above expressions (Eqs. (8)–(14)), many others can be
expression for equivalent SIF: found in review papers (Qian and Fatemi, 1996b; Rozumek and Macha,
1 θc 2009) and articles (Miranda et al., 2007; Richard et al., 2005; Wang
ΔKeq ¼ cos ½ΔKI ð1 þ cosθc Þ 3ΔKII sinθc � (11) et al., 2017).
2 2

vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi"
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi#
ffiffiffi
u � �θ =π �
u 4 1 θc =π c 1 þ 3 cos2 θc ΔK 2I þ 4 sin 2θc ΔKI ΔKII þ
ΔKeq ¼ t � (12)
ð3 þ cos2 θc Þ2 1 þ θc =π 9 5 cos2 θc ΔK 2II

where θc is the crack propagation direction (Fig. 1). This form of ΔKeq is 2.3. Prediction of fatigue crack path
widely employed by many researchers (Bla�zi�c et al., 2014; K.S. Kim and
Lee, 2007; Kumar et al., 2015; Portela et al., 1993; Yan et al., 1992) in The accurate prediction of fatigue crack path has a significant effect
their experimental and numerical studies. on the accuracy of fatigue life predictions. Most of the existing criteria
for fatigue crack path prediction are developed for elastostatic cases
2.2.4. Hussain’s model (Mro�z and Mro �z, 2010; Qian and Fatemi, 1996b; Rozumek and Macha,
Based on Griffith’s maximum fracture energy release rate principle 2009; Sajjadi et al., 2015; Torabi and Pirhadi, 2015). The maximum
�
(Griffith, 1921; Sanders, 1960), an equivalent SIF ΔKeq model is pro­ tangential stress (MTS) criterion proposed by Erdogan and Sih (1963) is
posed by Hussain et al. (1974) using variable mapping function: widely in use for mixed mode (I/II) crack path prediction, and is
employed in the present numerical studies. According to this criterion,

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S. Sajith et al. European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1 deficiencies; it formulates the crack opening displacement (COD) and

Tensile properties of SS 316. crack sliding displacement (CSD) using a combination of singular and
Material σy ðMPaÞ σu ðMPaÞ E ðGPaÞ υ % Elongation higher order terms for the estimation of mixed mode (I/II) SIFs.
Fig. 3 shows a typical crack tip mesh pattern with quarter-point el­
SS 316 295 582 192 0.27 47
ements around the crack tip. The crack flank opening and sliding dis­
placements can be written as (Sajith et al., 2018)
the crack propagates in a radial direction ðθc Þ from the crack tip in which A0 ðκ þ 1Þ 1=2 A1 ðκ þ 1Þ 3=2
the tangential stress becomes maximum ðσ θ;max Þ, and as soon as the σ θ;max Δv ¼ v180∘ v 180∘ ¼
μ
r
3μ
r
exceeds the material limiting value σ θ;c , unstable fracture takes place (17)
C0 ðκ þ 1Þ 1=2 C1 ðκ þ 1Þ 3=2
(Richard et al., 2005). The crack deflection angle ðθc Þ can be obtained by Δu ¼ u180∘ u 180∘ ¼ r r
μ 3μ
maximizing the tangential stress component ð∂σθ;max =∂θ ¼ 0Þ,

KI sinθc þ KII ð3 cosθc 1Þ ¼ 0 (15) where Δv and Δu are COD and CSD, respectively. κ ¼ ð3 υÞ=ð1 þυÞ for
plane stress and κ ¼ ð3 4υÞ for plane strain. υ is the Poisson’s ratio and
The solution of the above equation can be expressed as (Alegre et al.,
μ is the shear modulus. The Δv and Δu can be obtained from the finite
2007; Chen et al., 2019; Sajith et al., 2019) element analysis at two different radial locations on the crack flank (at
2 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3
sffi�
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�
2 nodes 1, 2 and 3, 4 as is shown in Fig. 3). And unknown coefficients A0
1 41 KI 1 KI
and C0 can be solved using Eq. (17). Using this, the mixed mode SIFs can
θc ¼ 2 tan þ 8 5 for KII > 0
4 KII 4 KII
be written as follows:
2 sffi� ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi� (16) pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
1 41 KI 1 KI
2
KI ¼ 2π A0 ​ and ​ KII ¼ 2πC0 (18)
θc ¼ 2 tan þ þ 8 5 for KII < 0
4 KII 4 KII Using this approach, the mixed mode SIFs, as well as the sign, can be
estimated directly by comparing the analytical expressions of COD and
where positive θc is defined as the angle measured in the anticlockwise CSD with the numerically estimated nodal displacements. The accuracy
direction with respect to the initial crack orientation direction (Fig. 2). of the proposed technique is on the same order as that of the path-
Fig. 2 (a) and (b) indicates the change in the direction of the crack independent integrals even when using the coarse meshes.
growth with the sign (direction) of KII .

2.4. Determination of mixed mode SIFs

Displacement-based techniques such as displacement extrapolation

technique (DET) are widely employed in the commercial finite element
packages such as ANSYS® for the estimation of mixed mode (I/II) SIFs.
This technique offers reasonably accurate SIFs as that of J-integral and
the interaction-integral techniques. However, the DET cannot provide
the sign of the mode II SIF, thus is not convenient for fatigue crack
growth simulations as the sign of the mode II influences the direction of
the crack growth (Fig. 2). The above path independent integral tech­
niques have the highest accuracy. However, for that, the SIF evaluation
has to be performed along multiple contours around the crack tip, and
more computational time and efforts are required. The SIF estimation
technique proposed by Sajith et al., (2018) overcomes all these

Fig. 4. Geometry and sizes of the CT specimen used for mode I fatigue crack Fig. 5. (a) Dimensions of CTS specimen (b) sizes of Richard’s fixture and (c)
growth tests. assembled view of CTS specimen-Richard’s fixture.

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S. Sajith et al. European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 6. Experimental setup for mixed mode fatigue tests.

Fig. 7. (a) Digital microscope arrangement for crack length monitoring (b) a typical image captured by the microscope.

3. Experimental procedure machine. Initially, for obtaining the material properties, the tensile test
is carried out according to ASTM E8 standards using rectangular test
3.1. Material, loading and specimens’ geometries coupons, and tensile test properties of AISI 316 stainless steel are pre­
sented in Table 1. All specimens used for the present investigation were
This section discusses the mode I and mixed mode (I/II) specimen cut in L-T orientation, and the material is in as received condition. For
and Richard’s fixture preparation. Specimens made of AISI 316 stainless the preparation of mode I specimen and for the fatigue crack growth
steel are used for the fatigue crack growth experiments. Mixed mode experiments, ASTM E399-17 and E647-15e1 standard guidelines are
experiments were performed using three different loading angles, viz, followed. Due to nonstandardization of the mixed mode (I/II) FCG ex­
30� , 45� , and 60� . The fatigue tests were performed on BiSS-ITW make, periments, the mode I standards are followed for mixed mode (I/II)
250 kN capacity (Model: Median 250) servohydraulic universal testing specimen preparation as well as testing. The FCG specimens are cut
using the wire EDM process with a wire of diameter 0.25 mm. In mode I
Table 2 FCG tests, Compact Tension (CT) specimen (shown in Fig. 4) is used to
Paris constant and exponent of AISI 316 stainless steel. obtain the Paris’ constants C and m in Eq. (1). A CT specimen of width
pffiffiffiffi 60 mm and thickness 22 mm is employed in this study, and all other sizes
Material C ​ ððmm=cycleÞ=ðMPa m Þm Þ m
are as per ASTM E399-17 and ASTM E647-15e1 standards. For mixed
8
SS 316 4.051 � 10 2.348 mode I/II fatigue tests, Compact Tension Shear (CTS) specimen (Fig. 5

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S. Sajith et al. European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 8. Mode I fatigue crack growth curves (a) crack growth rate ðda=dN ΔKÞ (b) crack length versus the number of cycles ða ​ vs ​ NÞ.

Fig. 9. Broken mixed mode specimens for loading angles (a) 30� , (b) 45� , and (c) 60� .

Fig. 10. Fatigue crack growth angle measurement for (a) 30� (b) 45� and (c) 60� mixed mode (I/II) specimens.

(a)) is used which is widely employed for the mixed mode (I/II) FCG
studies (Ayatollahi and Sedighiani, 2012; Biner, 2001; Demir et al.,
2018, 2017; Kim and Kim, 2002; Ma et al., 2006; Miao et al., 2018;
Richard and Benitz, 1983; Rozumek et al., 2018).
In order to create different mode mixities in a planar specimen
employing the uniaxial testing machine, Richard’s loading device
(Richard and Benitz, 1983) is used (shown in Fig. 5 (b)). The thickness of
the CTS specimen and Richard’s loading device is equal to 15 mm. The
loading device is made of AISI 4340 alloy steel, as is shown in Fig. 5 (b).
The pins for connecting Richard’s fixture to the CTS specimen is made
using the H13 steel. A fine notch of length 40 mm, width 3 mm, and
notch angle 30� is machined in CTS specimen using the wire EDM pro­
cess (Fig. 5 (a)). Precracking of mixed mode (I/II) specimen is done by
loading through 0� holes (Fig. 5(c)); the length of the pre-crack created
is 5 mm. The crack growth is observed and recorded using the digital
microscope, to facilitate the crack length measurement; the grid lines
were made on the mirror-polished surfaces of the specimen. Fig. 5 (c)
shows the CTS specimen and Richard’s fixture arrangement for mixed
mode (I/II) fatigue testing. By choosing the proper pair of holes for
loading, a variety of loading angles can be obtained (Fig. 5(c)). The
overall view of the mixed mode (I/II) experimental setup is shown in
Fig. 6.

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Fig. 11. Experimental data and the fitted double exponential model for (a) 30� (b) 45� and (c) 60� loading angles.

Table 3
Best fit parameters of the proposed double exponential model.
Loading angle ðαÞ p k q r2

30� 1:64 � 10 6
1:69 � 10 1
6:51 � 10 5 0.9987
45� 1:20 � 10 6
1:95 � 10 1
3:87 � 10 5 0.9968
60� 2:15 � 10 6
8:36 � 10 3
9:32 � 10 5 0.9993

3.2. Crack length measurement process

The COD gauges are not suitable for crack length measurement under
mixed mode loading due to the non-self-similar crack growth, and the
most widely used apparatus for this purpose is the optical/digital mi­
croscope. In the present study, to facilitate the hassle-free movement of
the digital microscope along the growing crack, the digital microscope is
mounted on the base of the traveling optical microscope, as is shown in
Fig. 7(a). Fig. 7 (b) shows a sample image captured by the digital mi­
croscope. The crack tip images, as well as the corresponding loading
cycles, are recorded at every 5-sec interval. The crack length is measured
from the images recorded by the digital microscope by considering the
intersection with the gridlines as reference points using DinoCapture
software. The measured crack length is correlated to the recorded
number of loading cycles, and the crack length versus loading cycles
ða NÞ curve is obtained.

3.3. Proposed double exponential best-fit method

Fig. 12. Boundary conditions and force decomposition used in numerical
In all commercial testing systems, mode I FCG test software provides modeling of mixed mode fatigue crack growth.
best-fitted and smoothened experimental crack growth curve, i.e., a
versus N graph due to the standardization of mode I tests. However, the

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S. Sajith et al. European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 13. Typical finite element meshes used for fatigue crack growth simulation using CTS specimen for loading angle 45� (a) initial step mesh, (b) initial step crack
tip, (c) 5th step crack tip mesh, and (d) 10th step crack tip mesh.

mixed mode FCG tests are not yet standardized, and thus, a variety of Various curve fitting methods are in use for mode I loading, some of
crack length measurements are in use. The non-self-similar nature of the which are polynomial curve fitting (Davies, Kent B; Feddersen, 1973),
crack growth in mixed mode loading makes the COD gauges unsuitable orthogonal polynomial approach (Munro, 1973), multi-segment three
for crack length measurement. In view of these issues and due to the parameter equations (Smith, 1973), cubic spline and smoothing spline
growth of the crack in a curvilinear manner, the crack length is widely techniques (Polak, J.; Knesl, 1975). As in case of the law of growth in
measured from the surfaces using an optical microscope. biological studies, Mohanty et al. (2010) used an exponential model for
The crack length measurements in this study were carried out using representing the crack length as a function of the number of loading
the digital microscope. At the microscopic level, the crack growth is cycles for the whole range of fatigue crack. This model is an extension of
considered to be a smooth process, but the actual fatigue crack growth use of the exponential functions in biological studies to the fatigue crack
data ða NÞ exhibits a significant amount of scattering (Demir et al., growth. Various complications were encountered by the authors while
2018; Rozumek et al., 2018). When using an optical microscope, human using the above techniques in the present experimental test data. The
errors can also incur in the crack length measurements (Clark and spline techniques (Polak, J.; Knesl, 1975) and the three-parameter
Hudak, 1975). Also, the variability in the testing procedure and the model (Smith, 1973) result into piecewise equations, and thus for the
material microstructure irregularity can induce scattering (Virkler, D.A.; representation of the whole range of crack growth data, multiple
Hilberry, B.M.; Goel, 1978). As a consequence, curve fitting and equations are required. The polynomial fitting techniques (Davies, Kent
smoothening techniques are essential for practical use of the measured B; Feddersen, 1973; Munro, 1973) provide a single equation for the
data. entire range, but the fitted curve can have multiple inflection points and
thus undesirable for fatigue crack growth studies. No satisfactory best-fit
and smoothened data have also been noticed in the present study after
Table 4
the use of the single term exponential model proposed by Mohanty et al.
List of ΔKeq models used in the present study.
(2010).
Model Tanaka Tanaka Irwin Yan Hussain Richard Demir However, as was suggested by Mohanty et al. (2010), exponential
1 2
functions may be suitable as the FCG rate considerably increases due to
Eq. Eq. (8) Eq. (9) Eq. Eq. Eq. Eq. Eq. the growth of the crack uncontrollably at the final stages of the crack
No. (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)
propagation. In line with this suggestion, a three-parameter double

9
S. Sajith et al.
Fig. 14. (a) FCG crack initiation angle predicted by MTS and SED criterion against experimental values (b) experimental and predicted fatigue crack paths using
MTS criterion.
exponential model for fitting the whole range of a N data obtained
from both the mode I and mixed mode (I/II) fatigue experiments has
been proposed here as
ai ¼ ða0 kÞexpðpNi Þ þ k expðqNi Þ (19)
where ai is the ith step crack length and Ni is the corresponding number
of loading cycles, a0 is the initial length of the crack, k is a constant, and
p and q are exponents to be determined. The primary requirement of
intersecting the point ð0; a0 Þ is adequately met using this function. Thus,
theoretically, the proposed model passes through the point ð0;a0 Þ. It will
be shown later that the constant k is very small quantity as compared to
a0 , and it can be neglected. Unlike the widely used polynomial models,
this model utilizes only three parameters ðk; ​ p ​ and ​ qÞ and can easily
be fitted. Further, the proposed function is continuous and differentiable
over the range a0 af where af is the final or the required crack length.
In the present study, for fitting the experimental a N data, the pro­
posed three parameter model (Eq. (19)) is used.
Fig. 15. Experimental and predicted fatigue life using CTS specimen of 30�
loading angle.
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European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx
4. Experimental results and discussion
4.1. Mode I fatigue crack growth tests using CT specimen
As a prerequisite for numerical mixed mode FCG simulations, mode I
FCG experiments are performed to obtain the Paris’ constant C and
Paris’ exponent m. Compact tension (CT) specimen of width 60 mm and
thickness 22 mm is used for performing the test, and all other specimen
sizes are as per ASTM E399-17 and ASTM E647-15e1 standards. The
tests were carried out at maximum load Pmax ¼ 28 ​ kN, load ratio R ¼
0:1ðR ¼ Pmin =Pmax Þ, and loading frequency is set at 10 Hz from pre-
cracking to the final rupture. COD gauges mounted on the front face
of the CT sample are used for measuring the instantaneous crack lengths,
and the crack growth rates are estimated using the variable amplitude
fatigue crack propagation (VAFCP) module of the universal testing
machine. The fatigue tests were continued from the initial notch length
of 9 mm until the final rupture of the specimen. Initial 5 mm of crack
Fig. 16. Experimental and predicted fatigue life using CTS specimen of 45�
loading angle.
S. Sajith et al.
Fig. 17. Experimental and predicted fatigue life using CTS specimen of 60�
loading angle.
growth is considered as the pre-crack, and the effective crack length
considered for the estimation of the Paris’ constants are from a ¼
14 mm ​ to ​ 32 mm, such constants are presented in Table 2. The da=
dN ΔK curve and a N curve obtained from the mode I fatigue tests
are shown in Fig. 8 (a) and (b), respectively. The Paris constants eval­
uated from the mode I fatigue tests are used for the mixed mode fatigue
crack growth simulations discussed in the succeeding sections.
4.2. Mixed mode fatigue crack growth tests using CTS specimen
Mixed mode (I/II) fatigue crack growth experiments are performed
using the CTS specimen (Fig. 5 (a)) loaded at angles 30� , 45� , and 60�
with the help of Richard’s loading device (Fig. 5 (b)). Since the mixed
mode fatigue crack growth tests are not yet standardized, the standards
for mode I fatigue test (ASTM E647-15e1) is followed in this study.
Initially, the pre-cracking of all CTS specimens are carried out at a
constant load of Pmax ¼ 36 ​ kN, R ¼ 0:1 and a frequency of 10 Hz.
Following the pre-cracking, the specimen is loaded at a desired loading
angle, and the fatigue crack growth test is performed. The loads applied
during the mixed fatigue testing are Pmax ¼
40 ​ kN; ​ 38 ​ kN; ​ and ​ 47 ​ kN for loading angles 30� , 45� , and 60� ,
Fig. 18. The percentage relative error in fatigue life prediction for CTS spec­
imen of 30� loading angle.
11
European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 19. The percentage relative error in fatigue life prediction for CTS spec­
imen of 45� loading angle.
respectively. The load ratio and frequency were maintained the same as
that of pre-cracking. The crack lengths were monitored at an equal time
interval using the digital microscope. The fatigue test is continued until
the final rupture of the specimen.
The photographs of the fractured mixed mode specimens are shown
in Fig. 9. Fig. 10 shows the crack initiation angles measured using the
digital microscope. The crack length vs. the number of loading cycles
ða NÞ curve obtained from experiments for three different loading
angles along with the best fit curve using the proposed double expo­
nential approach (Eq. (19)) are shown in Fig. 11. The best fitting pa­
rameters (Eq. (19)) and corresponding goodness of fit ðr2 Þ are presented
in Table 3. The suitability of the proposed best-fit model in representing
the scattered experimental a N data can be assessed from Fig. 11 and
Table 3.
5. Numerical simulations, results and discussion
In this section, the numerical simulation of the FCG using the CTS
specimen geometry used in the experiments is discussed. Numerical
modeling and simulations are carried out in ANSYS® APDL environ­
ment. Eight noded isoparametric quadrilateral (Q8) elements are used
Fig. 20. The percentage relative error in fatigue life prediction for CTS spec­
imen of 60� loading angle.
S. Sajith et al. European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 5
RMS error and L2 norm of percentage relative error.
Error α ΔKeq model

Tanaka 1 Tanaka 2 Irwin Yan Hussain Richard Demir

RMS 30� 1171 1392 1195 1321 4483 1262 1366
45� 2153 1373 1271 2968 14319 2704 1622
60� 2251 1283 765 2926 8400 2673 827

L2 30� 2.32 2.68 2.26 2.76 9.63 2.60 3.02

45� 3.60 2.30 2.13 4.97 23.97 4.53 2.72
60� 6.10 3.48 2.07 7.93 22.76 7.24 2.24

Fig. 21. SEM images of the fatigue fractured mode I specimen at (a) a ¼ 14:5mm and (b) a ¼ 17:2mm.

Fig. 22. SEM images of the fatigue fractured mixed mode 30� specimen at (a) a ¼ 45:5mm and (b) a ¼ 49:1mm.

for meshing the geometry and 24 number of quarter-point elements
(QPEs) are used at the crack tip in a spider web pattern to model the
inverse square root singularity. The length of crack tip QPE is main­
tained at 0.08 mm in all numerical simulations.
Fig. 12 shows the loading and boundary conditions used in the
present finite element studies. The bottom end holes are constrained in
x ​ and ​ y directions. The applied load P is decomposed into punctual
loads P1 ; P2 ; ​ and P3 and applied at the respective holes near the top end
of CTS specimen, as is shown in Fig. 12. The distribution of the loads
P1 to P3 on to the specimen due to the applied load P is given as
(Borrego et al., 2006; Sander and Richard, 2006)
P1 ¼ Pð0:5 cos α þ ðc=bÞsin αÞ
P2 ¼ P sin α (20)
P3 ¼ Pð0:5 cos α ðc=bÞsin αÞ
where α is the loading angle (Fig. 12), c and b are specimen geometry
factors as given in Fig. 12. The punctual loads P1 to P3 were calculated
for different loading angles (30� , 45� , and 60� ).
Fig. 13 shows typical finite element meshes used for loading angle
45� , and similar meshes are used for all loading angles. Fig. 13 (a) shows
the initial finite element mesh employed for FCG simulation CTS spec­
imen loaded at 45� . The crack tip meshes in the initial step, 5th step and
10th step are shown in Fig. 13(b–d), respectively. Seven ΔKeq models are
selected in this study for fatigue life evaluation, which is outlined in
Table 4.
At each step of the crack growth, the finite element meshes are
remeshed completely and the mixed mode SIFs, KI and KII , are calcu­
lated using the recently proposed crack flank displacement technique
(Sajith et al., 2018) discussed in section 2.4. The direction of crack
growth ðθc Þ is estimated using the MTS criterion (Eq. (16)). Fig. 14(a)

12
S. Sajith et al.
Fig. 23. SEM images of the fatigue fractured mixed mode 45� specimen at (a) a ¼ 45:8mm and (b) a ¼ 49:4mm.
Fig. 24. SEM images of the fatigue fractured mixed mode 60� specimen at (a) a ¼ 45:4mm and (b) a ¼ 51:3mm.
shows the initial crack growth direction obtained from the experiment
against the crack growth directions predicted by MTS and SED (strain
energy density) criterion for all the three loading angles. Fig. 14(a)
shows a good agreement between the predicted crack initiation direc­
tion using the MTS criterion and experimental crack initiation direction.
In all the simulations of the present study, a crack increment of Δa ¼ 0:5
mm is maintained, and crack path simulation is performed as follows.
After i 1th step of crack growth, the crack tip is advanced to the next
position ðxi ; yi Þ such that
xi ¼ xi þ Δa cosðθr i Þ
1
(21)
yi ¼ yi þ Δa sinðθr i Þ
1
where θr i is the angle i 1th step crack increment with the reference
x-axis. The ðxi ; yi Þ vector represents the crack path, and Fig. 14(b) shows
the experimental crack growth and the predicted path using MTS cri­
terion for all three loading angles. The crack advancing process is
continued until the critical or predefined crack length (60 mm) is
reached. Then the fatigue lives are calculated using Eq. (7) and the ΔKeq
models are given in Table 4 at each step of the crack growth. The post-
processing tasks for fatigue life estimation are performed using
MATLAB®.
5.1. Assessment of ΔKeq models using experimental and numerical results
This section discusses the predicted fatigue life using selected ΔKeq
models and its comparison with the experimental results. Following the
procedure discussed in section 5, the fatigue life of the CTS specimen for
loading angles 30� , 45� , and 60� is estimated. Figs. 15–17 show the
13
European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx
estimated fatigue life using seven selected ΔKeq models (Table 4) as well
as the experimental fatigue life for loading angles 30� ,45� , and 60� ,
respectively. The FCG path obtained from the experiments is plotted
against the path predicted using MTS criterion, (Fig. 14 (b)). It can be
observed from Fig. 14(b) that the MTS criterion is predicting the fatigue
crack path accurately for AISI 316 stainless steel. The predictability of
various ΔKeq models (Table 4) for different loading angles is assessed by
comparing with the experimental fatigue life (obtained in section 3.2) as
is shown in Figs. 15–17.
Figs. 18–20 show the plots of percentage relative error in predicted
life (with respect to the experimental life) for each of the seven models
for all three loading angles considered in this study, estimated using Eq.
(22).
Experimental ​ life ​ ​ Predicted ​ life
Percentage ​ relative ​ error ​ ¼ ​
Experimental ​ life
� 100
(22)
Percentage relative error provides the error in predicted fatigue life
with respect to the experimental fatigue life for each step of crack
growth. In order to have an overall and conclusive view of error in life
prediction, global error estimators such as the root mean square (RMS)
error and the L2 norm of error in predicted fatigue life w.r.t the exper­
imental life is calculated and presented in Table 5.
The percentage relative errors in fatigue life prediction (calculated
using Eq. (22)) using ΔKeq models at different crack lengths are shown in
Figs. 18–20. The percentage relative error plots (Figs. 18–20) indicate
that some models exhibit relatively smaller error at the initial stages and
however, at the later stages, the error is large and vice versa. It is evident
S. Sajith et al.
from Figs. 18–20, taking into account the overall performance of models
for the entire range of crack propagation, the ΔKeq models viz., Irwin,
and Tanaka 2 (see Table 4) are predicting fatigue life close to the
experimental data. On overall, the Irwin model is predicting results
consistently close to the experimental data as compared to other ΔKeq
models for all three loading angles examined in this study. This can also
be clearly seen by the results in Table 5. Although the Demir model is
expected to provide higher accuracy for higher mode mixity cases, it can
be noticed from Table 5 that its prediction is close to the experimental
data even for the case of loading angle equal to both 30� and 45� . As was
expected, predictions made by the Demir model is as close as Irwin
model for 60� . Results presented in Table 5 also show that the RMS and
L2 norm values are least for Irwin and Tanaka 2 models, which further
substantiate the observations from error plots (Figs. 18–20). It is also
observed from Figs. 18–20 and Table 5 that, on overall, the ΔKeq models
proposed by Richard and Yan are providing conservative estimates of
the fatigue life. Similar observations are also made in the previous
studies using the different mixed mode (I/II) experimental data (Sajith
et al., 2019).
6. Fractographic studies
Fatigue fractographic studies of the SS 316 steel for mode I and
mixed mode specimens at different crack lengths are carried out using
JEOL field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM). Figs. 21–24
show images obtained for different loading angles and crack lengths at a
magnification of 1000�. In general, the fractured surfaces consist of flat
facets surrounded by some irregular regions (Fig. 21(a)). The flat facets
indicate the failure mechanism, such as intergranular separation and
grain boundary cracking (Gao et al., 1992; Gao and Wei, 1992). The
presence of secondary cracks are also observed in this study (Fig. 21(a
and b), 22(a-b), 23(b)).
The fractured surfaces also contain fatigue striations (Figs. 21(b), 22
(b) and 23(b), 24(b)). For mixed mode (I/II) fatigue fractured speci­
mens, the surfaces are rough at the initial stages of the crack growth due
to the presence of mode II component of loading (which causes rubbing
of cracked surfaces), and are relatively smooth at the later stages of
crack growth. Further, a significant difference in surface roughness is
observed between the mode I (Fig. 21) and mixed mode (I/II)
(Figs. 22–24) fractured surfaces.
7. Conclusions
In the present investigation, numerical and experimental mixed
mode (I/II) fatigue crack growth studies using CTS specimen made of
AISI 316 stainless steel are performed for various loading angles. Using
the mixed mode Paris law and the material dependent constants ob­
tained from mode I fatigue tests, the efficacy of various ΔKeq models in
fatigue life prediction is assessed. A new non-linear regression-based
double-exponential function for the representation of the experimental
a N data is also proposed, and its adequacy and necessity in fatigue life
prediction is discussed. The quality of the proposed model in repre­
senting the fatigue crack growth curve is also demonstrated. Based on
the performance throughout the fatigue crack propagation, the results of
the present study clearly show that using the ΔKeq models, Irwin and
Tanaka 2 predict fatigue life close to the experimental data. Further, on
overall, predictions made by the Irwin model are consistently more close
to the experimental data than Tanaka 2. The ΔKeq models by Richard and
Yan are offering consistently conservative estimates of mixed mode fa­
tigue life.
Acknowledgments
Authors sincerely thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable
suggestions. Authors acknowledges Dr. H.N. Bar (Scientist, National
14
European Journal of Mechanics / A Solids xxx (xxxx) xxx
Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur, India) and Mr. Venkata Reddy
(Service Engineer, BiSS, Bangalore, India) for their help in understand­
ing the fatigue crack growth experiments. The authors are thankful to
Central Instrumentation Facility and Center for Nano Technology, In­
dian Institute of Technology Guwahati for providing UTM and FESEM
facility for this work.
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