Magnetic properties of materials

István Mészáros

BME ATT
2019.

Ancient compass
Nam dynasty, China, ad. 200.

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Examples to hard and soft magnetic materials and
applications

Magnetic properties of materials

Importance (soft: 7.2*106 tons/year, hard: 6000 tons/year)

Ancient China Compass

1880 Martensitic permanent magnet

1900 Fe - Si alloy
1923 Fe - Ni alloy
1935 Magnetic tape
1946 Ferrites (ceramic magnets)

2000- Rear Earth magnets

Nanocrystalline softmagnetic materials 4

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Basic magnetic effects

„Magnetic” and „non magnetic” materials

Magnetic poles (N, S), attraction, repulsion, compass
Magnetic poles can not be separated, pole generation
Magnetisation, thermal demagnetisation

H.C. Oersted: electromagnet (1820)

W. Gilbert: On the magnet

(1600)

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 Magnetic field Û material
interaction
B = µH Vs
µ0 = 4p × 10-7
Am
B = µ0 µ r H = µ0 ( H + M )
é Vs ù
1 Bê 2 = T ú
M = kH = å Pi ëm û
V
é Aù
µr = 1 + k Hê ú
ëmû
Magnetic permeability
Magnetic susceptibility

Origin of solid state magnetism

Orbital and spin moment of electrons.

Only the spin moments of unpaired electrons have contribution.

qh q!
µB = =
4pm 2m

­¯ ­ ­ ­ ­

Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 Þ 4 Bohr magneton
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Classification of magnetic materials
Weak magnetic materials

Dia (closed electron shells) k < 0 (»10-5) Universal prop.

(Si, Cu, Zn, Ag. Cd, Au…)

Para (at least one unpaired electron) k > 0 (10-3 - 10-5)

(Mg, Al, Ti, W…)

Antimagnet

Magnetisation curves

Levitation of nearly ideal

diamagnets.
Meissner-effect
Pirolitic grafite plate
Bizmut cube
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 Ordered magnetic materials
(3d, 4f shell not closed, domain structure)

Ferro ­­­­ (Fe, Co, Ni, Gd), alloys, Heussler (Mn, Cr)
Antiferro ­¯­¯ (Cr, Mn)
Ferri ݯݯ (Fe3O4, CrO2, ErO …)

Domain structure of Fe(001)

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Eexc: exchange energy

Jexc: exchange integral
Jexc > 0 Þ cos Θ = 1 Þ parallel orientation ↑↑ (ferro magnetic)
Jexc < 0 Þ cos Θ = -1 Þ anti-parallel orientation ↑↓ (antiferro magn.)

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 Domain structure
Domain: fully magnetised region (saturated) where each
moments are parallel.
1012-1018 elementary moments, size: 10-2-10-5 cm
Domain wall thickness: 15 - 300 lattice parameter (40-100 nm)

Bitter (1931)
Faraday, Kerr effects (magneto-optical effects)
TEM, SEM techniques

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Exchange energy
Exchange energy
Heisenberg, Dirac (1926)
Exchange energy: Kvantummechanical energy part. Due
to interaction of electrons. Responsible for parallel
orientation of elementary magnetic moments.

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 Magnetic anisotropy
Soft and hard magnetisation directions

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Domain wall
Bloch-wall (bulk)

Easy magnetisation
directions.

In equilibrium: the magnetisation of the domains shows in

one of the easy directions of magnetisation.
Þ Types of domain walls

Fe [100] Þ 90° és 180°

Ni [111] Þ 70,53° és 109,47° 16

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Factors determining domain wall thickness

Domain wall thickness: 15 - 300 lattice parameter

Edomain wall = Eexchange (1/d) + Eanisotropy(d)

Fe Co Ni
Doménfal
Domain vastagság
wall thickness 40 15 100
[nm]
Doménfal vastagság 138 36 285
Domain wall thickness in
rácsállandó egységekben
lattice parameter units

Exchange energy Þ parallel

Anisotropy energy Þ (one of the) easy magnetisation axis
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Orientation of domains
In equilibrium: the magnetisation of the domains shows
in one of the easy directions of magnetisation.
Þ Types of domain walls

Fe [100] Þ 90° és 180°

Ni [111] Þ 70,53° és 109,47°

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Ferromagnetic domains
Preparation: Bitter-technique

Domains in isotripic Fe-Si transformer lamination

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Domain walls in a cube textured FeSi transformer

sheet.
[100]

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 SEM
NbFeB-alloy
domain structure
(University of
Cambridge, UK)

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Magnetization curves (B-H, M-H)

Hysteresis curves

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Parameters derived from hysteresis loop

First magnetization curve, dynamic magnetization curve

M(H) and B(H) hysteresis curves
Internal, minor loops. Saturation loop.
Saturation induction (BM), Remnant induction (BR),
Coercive field (Hc)
Permeabilities (µr): initial, maximal, differential,
incremental (irreversible)
(BH)max, squarness parameter BR//BM
Power loss factor.
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Magnetization loss
(domain wall movement, eddy current, …)

1
w= H ×B
2
1
W = ò HdB
2
1
WHysteresis = ò HdB
2 26

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 BM, BR, HC
composition, technology
Pauling-Slater’s curve BM: only depends on
composition
(number of Bohr
magnetons in a unit
volume)

Plastic
deformation:
HC increases
Maximum ® 70Fe - 30Co (Permendur)
(2,4 Bohr magneton/atom, BM = 2,45 T) BR decreases
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Kinetics of magnetization
Wall movement
reversible
irreversible

Rotation
incoherent
coherent

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 Temperature dependence (ferro)

BS
Reversible
µK
Temperature sensors
HC

T
TC
Ferromagnet Curie-temperature
Antiferro magnet Néel-temperature 29

Magnetic materials in technical

applications

Technological aspects

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 Application fields of soft magnetic
materials

Electromechanical devices (relays, magnetic switces…)

Transformer laminations
Electric motor, generator laminations
Flux conductors
Magnetic shielding materials

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Ideal soft magnetic properties

BM Large
µ Large
HC Small
Resistivity Large
Curie-temperature Large Pure metals and
homogenious solid
Shapeability Large solutions.
Power loss Small
(area of hysteresis loop) Alloys are better.

Mechanical hardness Û Magnetic hardness

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 Fe - Si alloys (sheet metal)
Transformer lamination
Motor lamination
(0,2 - 0,5 mm)
Effect of Si: decreases anisotropy

Optimal: 6-7 % Si hard, brittle

Transformer: 4-4,5 % Si
Motor: 3,2-3,6 % Si

Interstitial aloying: C, O, N, P, Mn, S

Stress state

Goss, cubic texture

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Fe - Ni alloys (Permalloy)
50% Ni - 50% Fe 80% Ni - 20% Fe

Small saturation induction (Fe-2,1 T, Ni-0,6 T)

Large permeability (20.000 - 70.000)
Low loss

Ni3Fe superlattice (75% Ni, 500 °C)

Plastic deformation

Annealing (900-1000 °C, 1h), quenching, stress relaxation

(600 °C), quenching

Heat treatment in magnetic field.

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 Amorphous, nano-crystalline alloys

A amorphous
NC nano-crystalline
MC micro-crystalline
FINIMET mixed

Thin sheets (0,02-0,05 mm) Transformer core:

Eutectic composition Fe-Si-B-(C)
Metallic comp.: (Ni, Co, Fe, Mn) Fe-Co-B-Si
Nonmetallic: (Si, P, N, C, B) Ni40-Fe40-P14-B6
Fast cooling (105 °C/sec) !!! Fe29-Ni49-P14-B6-Si2
Heat treatment → brittle
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Amorphous, nano-crystalline alloys

Finemet
Fe74Cu1Nb3Si15B7
40-50 Vol% nano-crystalline phase

Thin ribbons (0,02-0,05 mm) Fe, Ni, Co based

Eutectic composition amorphous alloys
Transition metal (Ni, Co, Fe, Mn)
Non metallic (Si, P, N, C, B)

Fast cooling (105 °C/sec)

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Nanokristályos állapot „szövetszerkezete”

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Soft ferrites, garnets

Ceramic magnet (Cubic spinel, Ferrimagnetic)
Þ Powder metallurgy
Þ Hard, brittle (only grinding)
Þ Insulator Þ high frequency applications

MOFe2O3 FERRITE
(M: 2 valency metal: Mn, Zn, Ni)
Moments of Fe compensate each other Þ BS low

3M2O35Fe2O3 GARNET
(M: 2 valency rare earth metal: Sm, Eu, Gd)
Ittrium alloying ® YIG

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 Ideal hard magnetic properties

BM Large
BR Large
(BH)max Large
Hiszterézis terület Large
HC > 4kA/m (»50Oe) Large
µ Unimportant

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Application fields of hard

(permanent) magnets
Generating magnetic induction in an air gap.
Expensive, machining difficult.

Loudspeakers, microphones
DC motors, microwave devices
Galvanometers
weight lifting magnets
magnetic tapes, magnetic information holder layers

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ALNICO
Fe - Al - Ni - Co alloys
Spinodal decomposition: a ® a1+ a2
a1 »FeCo (bcc solid solution) ferromagnetic
a2 »Fe2NiAl (bcc solid solution) paramagnetic

a1 domain size
a2 domain wall

Domain sized
ferromagneic phase
separated by
paramagnetic phase as
virtual domain wall.
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ESD magnets
Elongated Single Domain

Elonngated, single domain sized particles

(CuNiFe, MnBi, Fe3O4, Báriumferrit, Stronciumferrit…)
Bonding material (plastic, rubber …)

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 R-Co (Rear earth metal-Co)
RCo5 és R2Co17 intermetallic compounds
R: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb…)
Hexagonal structure Þ large crystal anisotropy
HC = 400 - 700 kA/m
Types: SmCo5 R2Co17 contains less R
and better than RCo5
PrCo5
Pr0,5Sm0,5Co5
Sm2Co17

Hard, brittlem, no corrosion problem, expensive

Max. service temperature: 250oC
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Fe - Nd - B magnets
• Rear earth magnet
• Powder metallurgy (HIP) + heat treatment in
magnetic field
• Cutting with diamond tool, grinding

Corrosion problem (galvanic Ni, Zn, plastic coating)

Very brittle (danger)

Cheaper than SmCo
Max. service temperature: 80-180 °C 46

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 Hard ferrites (hexagonal ferrites)
Ceramic magnets
Bariumferrite BaFe12O19
Stronciumferrite SrFe12O19

BS small (max. 0,46-0,47 T)

HC large (130-250 kA/m) Ü large crystal anisotropy
Hard, brittle (only grinding)
Insulator
Curie temperature low Þ no precision application
Cheap
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