5
TRANSFER OF SOLIDS
I
n contrast to fluids which are transferred almost
exclusively through pipelines with pumps or blowers, a
greater variety of equipment is employed for moving
solids to and from storage and between process
5.1. SLURRY TRANSPORT
In short process lines slurries are readily handled by centrifugal
pumps with large clearances. When there is a distribution of sizes,
the fine particles effectively form a homogeneous mixture of high
density in which the settling velocities of larger particles are less
than in clear liquid. Turbulence in the line also helps to keep
particles in suspension. It is essential, however, to avoid dead
spaces in which solids could accumulate and also to make provisions
for periodic cleaning of the line. A coal-oil slurry used as fuel and
acid waste neutralization with lime slurry are two examples of
process applications.
Many of the studies of slurry transfer have been made in
connection with long distance movement of coal, limestone, ores,
and others. A few dozen such installations have been made, in
length from several miles to several hundred miles.
Coal-water slurry transport has been most thoroughly
investigated and implemented. One of the earliest lines was 108
miles long, 10 in. dia, 50-60 wt % solids up to 14 mesh, at velocities
of 4.5-5.25 ft/sec, with positive displacement pumps at 30-mile
intervals. The longest line in the United States is 273 miles, 18 in.
dia and handles 4.8-6.0 million tons/yr of coal; it is described in
detail by Jacques and Montfort (1977). Other slurry pipeline
literature is by Wasp, Thompson, and Snoek (1971), Bain and
Bonnington (1970), Ewing (1978), and Zandi (1971).
Principally, investigations have been conducted of suitable
linear velocities and power requirements. Slurries of 40-50 vol %
solids can be handled satisfactorily, with particle sizes less than
24-48 mesh or so (0.7-0.3mm). At low line velocities, particles
settle out and impede the flow of the slurry, and at high velocities
the frictional drag likewise increases. An intermediate condition
exists at which the pressure drop per unit distance is a minimum.
The velocity at this condition is called a critical velocity of which
one correlation is
uz = 34.6CUD u , v m d , consistent units, (5.1)
where
u, = critical flow velocity,
ut = terminal settling velocity of the particle, given by Figure
5.1,
C, = volume fraction of solids,
D = pipe diameter,
d = particle diameter,
s = ratio of densities of solid and liquid,
g =acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2, or consistent units.
The numerical coeficient is due to Hayden and Stelson (1971).
Another criterion for selection of a flow rate is based on
considerations of the extent of sedimentation of particles of various
sizes under flow conditions. This relation is developed by Wasp,
69
equipment. Most commonly, solids are carried on or pushed
along by some kind of conveyor. Solids in granular form also
are transported in pipelines as slurries in inert liquids or as
suspensions in air or other gases.
Aude, Seiter, and Thompson (1971),
C
-= exp(-2.55ur/ku*, (5.2)
CO
where
C=concentration of a particular size at a level 92% of the
vertical diameter,
C, = concentration at the center of the pipe, assumed to be the
same as the average in the pipe,
f = Fanning friction factor for pipe flow
AP L u 2
=0.25- -- (5.3)
P ID%,
At high Reynolds numbers, for example, Blasius’ equation is
f = O.O791/flk2’, NRe 2 10’ (5.4)
k in Eq. (5.2) is a constant whose value is given in this paper as
0.35, but the value 0.85 is shown in a computer output in a paper by
Wasp, Thompson, and Snoek (1971, Fig. 9). With the latter value,
Eq. (5.2) becomes
C/C, = exp(-3.00u,/u*. (5.5)
The latter paper also states that satisfactory flow conditions prevail
when C/Coz0.7 for the largest particle size. On this basis, the
minimum line velocity becomes
where u, is the settling velocity of the largest particle present.
As Example 5.1 shows, the velocities predicted by Eqs. (5.1)
and (5.6) do not agree closely. Possibly an argument in favor of Eq.
(5.6) is that it is proposed by the organization that designed the
successful 18 in., 273 mi Black Mesa coal slurry line.
Pressure drop in flow of aqueous suspensions sometimes has
been approximated by multiplying the pressure drop of clear liquid
at the same velocity by the specific gravity of the slurry. This is not
borne out by experiment, however, and the multiplier has been
correlated by other relations of which Eq. (5.7) is typical:
(5.7)
This equation is a modification by Hayden and Stelson (1971) of a
series of earlier ones. The meanings of the symbols are
C, = volume fraction occupied by the solids in the slurry,
d = particle diameter,
D = pipe diameter,
s = ratio of specific gravities of solid and liquid.
70 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS

EXAMPLE 5.1
Conditions of a Coal Slurry Pipeline
Data of a pulverized coal slurry are

C,, = 0.4,
D = 0.333 ft ,
f = 0.0045 (Blasius' eq. at N,, = lo5),
s = 1.5.

Mesh size 24 48 100 Mixture

dmm) 0.707 0.297 0.125 0.321
Weight fraction 0.1 0.8 0.1 1
ut (ftlsec) 0.164 0.050 0.010 0.0574

The terminal velocities are read off Figure 5.1, and the values of the
mixture are weight averages.
The following results are found with the indicated equations:

Item Eq. 24 48 100 Mixture

"c 5.1 7.94 5.45 3.02

k
APSlW
5.6 20.6 6.27
5.8
5.1 1
1.36 2.89
1.25
9.38 3.39
1.539
AP,IW 5.13 1.296

Eq. (5.1): uf = 3 4 . 6 ( 0 . 4 ) ( 0 . 3 3 3 ) v ~ y ; i - u ~ 3 0 4 . 8
mm

Eq. (5.6): u =--

4 32.2(1.5 - 1) d,, - 0.0704dm,
Eq. (5.8): cg=-
3 304.8- u: '
Eq. (5.11): -- 1 +-
A
AP,
4 -
u:
0.69
-
1
0.4°.3 0.0574
[ 1d"-
304.8(3.39)' Sphere diameter, cm
= 1.5391, Figure 5.1. Settling velocities of spheres as a function of the ratio ot
densities of the two phases. Stokes law applies at diameters below
APS - 1 + 0.272(0.4)[ 0.0045(0.333)32.2(0.5)
Eq. (5.13): --
A PL.
= 1.296.
(0.0574)*(3.39) 1
1.3
approximately 0.01 cm (based on a chart of Lapple et ai., Chemical
Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984, p . 5.67).

With coal of spgr = 1.5, a slurry of 40vol'% has a sp gr = 1.2.

Accordingly the rule, APs/AP, = sp gr, is not confirmed accurately
by these results. For particles of one size, Eqs. (5.7) and (5.8) combine to

APs/APL= 1+ 1 0 0 C , , [ ( ~ , D / u ~ ) ~ ~ ~ * ~ ~ ,
consistent units. (5.10)

The drag coefficient is The pressure drop relation at the critical velocity given by Eq. (5.1)
is found by substitution into Eq. (5.7) with the result
CD = 1.333gd(~- l ) / ~ : . (5.8) 0 69
A&/AP, = 1+ [(l/u,)dgd(S - 1)/cD]1.3. (5.11)
U
For mixtures, a number of rules has been proposed for evaluating
the drag coefficient, of which a weighted average seems to be With Eq. (5.10) the result is
favored,
A P J A P ~= 1 + 1/c:3. (5.12)

With the velocity from Eq. (5.6), Eq. (5.7) becomes

where the w, are the weight fractions of particles with diameters d,. A&/APL= 1+O.272Cu[fgD(s - l)/t~;G]'.~(5.13)
 5.2.PNEUMATIC CONVEYING 71

)b3
IO' . I I I I I 1 I

-
lo3 I I I

-
al 100
m
L
0
v) -

i10-1 - -
m
n
IO2 -
.-
4-
v)
ui
v)

8 E!
v)
5 I IO' -
Z -
10-2 -

IO-' I I I I I I I IO0 1 I I

Shear rate, I/sec Shear rate, I/sec

(a) (bl
Figure 5.2. Non-Newtonian behavior of suspensions: (a) viscosity as a function of shear rate, 0.4 wt % polyacrylamide in water at room
temperature; (b) shear stress as a function of shear rate for suspensions of TiO, at the indicated vol % in a 47.1 wt % sucrose solution whose
viscosity is 0.017 Pa sec (Denn, Process Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980).

and, for one-sized particles, 5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING

These several pressure drop relations hardly appear consistent, and
the numerical results of Example 5.1 based on them are only
roughly in agreement.
From statements in the literature, it appears that existing slurry
lines were designed on the basis of some direct pilot plant studies.
Nonsettling slurries are formed with fine particles or plastics or
fibers. Although their essentially homogeneous nature would
appear to make their flow behavior simpler than that of settling
slurries, they often possess nowNewtonian characteristics which
complicate their flow patterns. In Newtonian flow, the shear stress
is proportional to the shear strain,
stress = p(strain),
but in other cases the relation between these two quantities is more
complex. Several classes of non-Newtonian behavior are recognized
for suspensions. Pseudoplastic or power-law behavior is represented
by
Granular solids of free-flowing natures may be conveyed through
ducts in any direction with high velocity air streams. In the normal
plant, such lines may be several hundred feet long, but dusty
materials such as fly ash and cement have been moved over a mile
in this way. Materials that are being air-veyed include chemicals,
plastic pellets, grains, and powders of all kinds. The transfer of
catalysts between regenerator and reactor under fluidized conditions
is a common operation. Stoess (1983) has a list of recommendations
for about 150 different materials, of which Table 5.1 is a selection.
Basic equipment arrangements are represented in Figure 5.3.
The performance of pneumatic conveyors is sensitive to several
characteristics of the solids, of which the most pertinent ones are
1. bulk density, as poured and as aerated,
2. true density,
3. coefficient of sliding friction (=tangent of the angle of repose),
4. particle size distribution,
5. particle roughness and shape,
6. moisture content and hygroscopicity, and
7. characteristics such as friability, abrasiveness, flammability, etc.

stress = k(strain)", n < 1,
where k is called the consistency index. Plastic or Bingham behavior
is represented by
stress = k , + q(strain),
where q is called the plastic viscosity. Data for some suspensions
are given on Figure 5.2.
The constants of such equations must be found experimentally
over a range of conditions for each particular case, and related to
the friction factor with which pressure drops and power
requirements can be evaluated. The topic of nonsettling slurries is
treated by Bain and Bonnington (1970) and Clift (1980). Friction
factors of power-law systems are treated by Dodge and Metzner
(1959) and of fiber suspensions by Bobkowitz and Gauvin (1967).
Sulfur, for example, builds up an electrostatic charge and may
introduce explosive risks.
In comparison with mechanical conveyors, pneumatic types
must be designed with greater care. They demand more power
input per unit weight transferred, but their cost may be less for
complicated paths, when exposure to the atmosphere is undesirable
and when operator safety is a problem. Although in the final
analysis the design and operation of pneumatic conveyors demands
the attention of experienced engineers, a design for orientation
purposes can be made by the inexpert on the basis of general
knowledge and rules of thumb that appear in the literature. An
article by Soh (1980) is devoted entirely to preventive trouble-
shooting.
Some basic design features are the avoidance of sharp bends, a
minimum of line fittings, provision for cleanout, and possibly
electrical grounding. In many cases equipment suppliers may wish
to do pilot plant work before making final recommendations. Figure
72 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS
TABLE 5.1. Flow Rates and Power Requirements of Vacuum and Low Pressure Pneumatic Conveying Systems"

Vacuum Systern(8-9 psia) Low Pressure System(6-12 p s i g )

Conve)ing Distance

Alum 50 3.6 4.5 3.9 5.0 4.3 57 4.7 6.3 I10 40 16 2.7 20 34 2.2 3.8 65
Alumina 60 2.4 4.0 2.8 4.7 3.4 5.7 4.0 6.4 105 50 1.1 2.4 16 3.4 1.9 3.9 60
Carbonate. 25-30 3.1 4.2 3.t 5.0 3.9 5.5 4.2 6.0 I 10 15 1.4 2.5 1.8 3.3 2.0 3.6 65
calcium
Cellulose acetate 22 3.2 4.7 3.5 5. I 3.8 5.7 4.1 6.0 1uO 3.0 1.4 2.8 1.7 3.4 1.9 3.6 55
Clay,airfloated 30 3.3 4.5 3.5 5.0 3.9 5.5 4.2 6.0 105 4.0 1.5 2.7 1.8 3.3 1.9 3.6 50
Clay.water 40-50 3.5 5.0 3.8 5.6 4.2 6.5 4.5 7.2 115 4.5 1.6 3.0 1.9 3.9 2.1 4.4 60
washed
Clay.spraydried 60 3.4 4.7 3.6 5.2 4.0 6.2 4.4 7.1 I --
10 4.3 1.5 2.8 1.8 3.7 2.04.3 55
Coffee beans 42 1.2 20 1.6 ; 0 2.1 3.5 2.4 4.2 I > 5.0 0.6 1.2 0.9 2.1 1.12.5 45
Corn, shellcd 45 19 2.5 2.1 2.(J 2.4 3.6 2.8 4.3 105 5.0 0.9 1.5 1.1 2.2 1.32.6 55
Flour. wheat 40 1.5 3.0 1.7 3.3 2.0 3.7 2.5 4.4 90 2.5 0.7 1 8 0.9 2.2 1.12.7 35
Grits, corn 33 1.7 25 2.2 3 0 2.9 4.0 3.5 4.8 IO0 3.5 0.,8 1.5 1.3 2.4 1.6 2.9 70
Lime, pebble 56 2.h 38 3.0 4.0 3.4 4.7 3.9 5.4 IUi 5.0 1.7 2.3 1.6 2.8 1.8 3.3 70
Lime, hydrated 30 2.1 3.3 2.4 3.9 2.8 4.7 3.4 6.0 90 4.0 0.6 1.8 0 8 2.2 0.9 2.6 40
hlalt 28 1.8 2.5 2.0 2.8 23 3.4 2.8 4.2 loo 5.0 0.6 1.5 1 . 1 2.0 1.3 2.5 55
Oats 25 2.3 3.0 2.h 3.5 3.0 4.4 3.4 5.2 100 5.0 1.0 1.8. 1.4 2.6 1.6 3.1 55
Phosphate, 65 3.1 4.2 3.6 5.0 3.9 5.5 4.2 6.0 110 4 5 1.4 2.5 1.8 3.3 1.9 3.6 75
trisodium
Polyethylene 30 1.2 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.1 3.5 2.4 4.2 80 5.0 0.55 1.2 0.9 2.1 1.1 2.5 70
pellets
Ilubberpellets 40 2.9 4.2 3.5 5.0 4.0 6.0 4.5 7.2 110
Salt cake 90 40 6.5 4.2 0.8 4.6 7.5 5.0 8.5 120 5.0 2.9 3.9 35 4.5 4.0 5.1 b3
Sodaash,light 35 3.1 4.2 3.6 50 3.9 5.5 4.2 60 110 5.0 1.4 2.F 1.S 3.3 1.9 3.6 65
Soft fceds 20-40 i.0 42 34 4.5 1.7 5.0 4.2 5.5 I 10 3.8 1.3 2.5 1.7 3.1 19 3.7 70
Starch. 40 1.7 3.0 2.0 3.4 2.6 4.0 3.4 50 90 i0 0.8 17 1.1 2.4 1.5 3.0 5)
pulverized
Sugar, 50 3.0 3.7 3.2 4.0 i.4 5.2 30 6.0 I10 5.0 1.4 2.2 1.6 3.1 1.7 3.6 flo
granulated
Wheat 48 1.9 2.5 2.1 2.9 2.4 3.6 2.8 1.3 105 5.1) 0.9 1.5 1.1 2.1 1.3 2.6 55
Wood flour 12-20 2.5 3.5 28 4.0 3.4 4.9 4.4 6.5 100

a HP/ton = (pressurefactor)(hp/T)(sat.).
The units of sat. are standard cuft of air/lb of solid transferred),and those of hp/T are
horsepower/(tons/hrof solid transferred).
(Stoess, 1983).

5.4 shows a typical pilot plant arrangement. A preliminary design
procedure is given by Raymus (1984). Many details of design and
operation are given in books by Stoess (1983) and Kraus (1980) and
in articles by Gerchow (1980), and Perkins and Wood (1974). Some
of that information will be restated here. Pressure drop and power
requirements can be figured largely on the basis of general
knowledge.
EQUIPMENT
The basic equipment consists of a solids feeding device, the transfer
line proper, a receiver, a solid-air separator, and either a blower at
the inlet or a vacuum pump at the receiver. Four common kinds of
arrangements are shown on Figure 5.3. Vacuum systems are
favored for shorter distances and when conveying from several
sources to one destination. Appropriate switching valves make it
possible to service several sources and destinations with either a
vacuum or pressure system. Normally the vacuum system is favored
for single destinations and the pressure for several destinations or
over long distances. Figure 5.3(b) shows a rotary valve feeder and
Figure 5.3(c) a Venturi feeder which has a particularly gentle action
suitable for friable materials. Figure 5.3(d) utilizes a fan to suck the
solids from a source and to deliver them under positive pressure.
Friable materials also may be handled effectively by the equipment
of Figure 5.5 in which alternate pulses of granular material and air
are transported.
Typical auxiliary equipment is shown on Figure 5.6. The most
used blower in pneumatic conveying is the rotary positive dis-
placement type; they can achieve vacua 6-8 psi below atmos-
pheric or positive pressures up to 15psig at efficiencies of about
65%. Axial positive displacement blowers also are used, as
well as centrifugals for large capacities. Rotary feeders of many
proprietary designs are available; Stoess (1983) and Kraus (1980)
illustrate several types. Receivers may be equipped with fabric
filters to prevent escape of fine particles; a dacron fabric suitable for
up to 275°F is popular. Cyclone receivers are used primarily for
entirely nondusting services or ahead of a filter. A two-stage design
is shown in Figure 5.6(d). Typical dimensions are cited by Stoess
(1983), for example:
line diameter (in.) 3 5 0
primary diameter (ft) 3.5 4.5 6.75
secondary diameter (ft) 2.75 3.5 5.0
 5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING 73

&
Pickup (a)

Collector Bins

Blower
and Motor

Process Machine

Figure 5.3. Basic equipment arrangements of pneumatic conveying systems. (a) Vacuum system
with several sources and one destination, multiple pickup; (b) pressure system with rotary valve
feeder, one source and several destinations, multiple discharge; (c) pressure system with Venturi
feed for friable materials; (d) pull-push system in which the fan both picks up the solids and
delivers them [after F. J . Gerchow, Chem. Eng. (17Feb. 1975,p. 88)].

Piping usually is standard steel, Schedule 40 for 3-7 in. IPS and
Schedule 30 for 8-12 in. IPS. In order to minimize pressure loss and
abrasion, bends are made long radius, usually with radii equal to 12
times the nominal pipe size, with a maximum of 8ft. Special
reinforcing may be needed for abrasive conditions.
OPERATING CONDITIONS
Vacuum systems usually operate with at most a 6 psi differential; at
lower pressures the carrying power suffers. With rotary air lock
feeders, positive pressure systems are limited to about 12 psig.
Other feeding arrangements may be made for long distance transfer
with 90-125psig air. The dense phase pulse system of Figure 5.4
may operate at 10-30 psig.
Linear velocities, carrying capacity as cuft of free air per Ib of
solid and power input as HP/tons per hour (tph) are listed in Table
5.1 as a general guide for a number of substances. These data are
for 4-, 5-, and 6-in. lines; for 8-in. lines, both Sat. and HP/tph are
reduced by 15%, and for 10-in. by 25%. Roughly, air velocities in
low positive pressure systems are 2000ft/rnin for light materials,
 74 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS

and bulk density is due to Gerchow (1980) and is

ft/min
Line length
(ft) 551b/cuft 55-85 85-115
200 4000 5000 6000
500 5000 6000 7000
1000 6000 7000 8000

Conveying capacity expressed as vol % of solids in the stream

usually is well under 5 vol %. From Table 5.1, for example, it is
about 1.5% for alumina and 6.0% for polystyrene pellets, figured at
atmospheric pressure; at 12 psig these percentages will be roughly
doubled, and at subatmospheric pressures they will be lower.

POWER CONSUMPTION AND PRESSURE DROP

The power consumption is made up of the work of compression of
the air and the frictional losses due to the flows of air and solid
through the line. The work of compression of air at a flow rate rn;
and CJC, = 1.4 is given by

Figure 5.4. Sketch of pilot plant arrangement for testing pneumatic
conveying under positive pressure (Kruus, Pneumatic Conveying of
Bulk Materials, McGruw-Hill, New York, 1980).
3000-4000 ft/min for medium densities such as those of grains, and
5000ft/min and above for dense materials such as fly ash and
cement; all of these velocities are of free air, at atmospheric
pressure.
Another set of rules for air velocity as a function of line length
w, = 3.5(53.3)(T + 460)rn:[(P2/P1)0.285' - 11 (ft lbf/sec)
(5.15)
with the flow rate in lb/sec.
Frictional losses are evaluated separately for the air and the
solid. To each of these, contributions are made by the line itself, the
elbows and other fittings, and the receiving equipment. It is
conservative to assume that the linear velocities of the air and solid
are the same. Since the air flow normally is at a high Reynolds
number, the friction factor may be taken constant at f, = 0.015.
Accordingly the frictional power loss of the air is given by

Material w l = A P l r n ~ / p , = ( u 2 / 2 g )l + 2 n c + 4 n f + ( 0 . 0 1 5 / D ) ( L + ~Li)]rn:
inlet

1
m To receivin,
(ft lbf/sec). (5.16)

The unity in the bracket accounts for the entrance loss, n, is the
Air to number of cyclones, nf is the number of filters, L is the line length,
pressurize vessel and Li is the equivalent length of an elbow or fitting. For long
radius bends one rule is that the equivalent length is 1.6 times the
actual length of the bend. Another rule is that the long bend radius
is 12 times the nominal size of the pipe. Accordingly,

Li = 1.6(nRi/2)= 2.5Ri = 2.5D;ft, with 0;in inches.

(5.17)

The value of g is 32.2 ft lb m/(lbf sec2).

The work being done on the solid at the rate of mi Ib/sec is
made up of the kinetic gain at the entrance (wz),the lift (w3)
through an elevation Az, friction in the line (w4),and friction in the
elbow (w5). Accordingly,

U2
w --mi (ftIbf/sec). (5.18)
2-2g

The lift work is

w, = A z -g mi = Azrnj (ft Ibf/sec). (5.19)

Figure 5.5. Concept of dense phase transfer of friable materials, by gc
intermittent injection of material and air pulses, air pressures
normally 10-30 psig and up to 90 psig (Sturrevunr Engineering Co., The coefficient of sliding friction f, of the solid equals the tangent of
Boston, M A ) . the angle of repose. For most substances this angle is 30-45" and
 5.2. PNEUMATIC CONVEYING 75

ISPRING LOADED1

Air
Thimble

I T 0 rtoroqe
-Secondary
discharge lock
or processing

-
1.
Material
Dust

(4

I ,
I 1 ‘ A ~ R JETS

PP

(e)
Figure 5.6. Components of pneumatic conveying systems. (a) Rotary positive displacement blower for pressure or vacuum. (b) A rotary
airlock feeder for fine materials (Detroit Stoker Co.). (c) A four-compartment receiver-filter (Fuller Co., Bethlehem, PA). (d) A two-stage
cyclone receiver. (e) The Fuller-Kinyon pump for cement and other fine powders. Powder is fed into the aeration chamber with a screw and
is fluidized with compressed air (Fuller Co., Bethlehem, P A ) .
76 TRANSFER OF SOLIDS
the value off, is 0.58-1.00. The sliding friction in the line is
w, =f,Lmi (ft Ibf/sec), (5.20)
where L is the line length.
Friction in the curved elbows is enhanced because of
centrifugal force so that
w, =f,s
u2 ( 2nR
7 ) m i = 0.0488f,uZm~(ft Ibf/sec). (5.21)
The total frictional power is
Wf = w1 + w, + w, + w, + w,, (5.22)
and the total power consumption is
(5.23)
where is the blower efficiency. Pressure drop in the line is
obtained from the frictional power, the total flow rate, and the
density of the mixture:
AP = Wf
(5.24)
144(mA + m i ) pm (psi)’
The specific air rate, or saturation, is
saturation = 0.7854(60)D2
(cuft/min of air)/(lb/min of solid)], (5.25)
where the velocity of the air is evaluated at atmospheric pressure.
Example 5.2 makes the calculations described here for power
and pressure drop, and compares the result with the guidelines of
Table 5.1.
5.3. MECHANICAL CONVEYORS AND ELEVATORS
Granular solids are transported mechanically by being pushed along
or dragged along or carried. Movement may be horizontal or
vertical or both. In the process plant distances may be under a
hundred feet or several hundred feet. Distances of several miles
may be covered by belts servicing construction sites or mines or
power plants. Capacities range up to several hundred tons/hr. The
principal kinds of mechanical conveyors are illustrated in Figures
5.7-5.13 and will be described. Many construction features of these
machines are arbitrary. Thus manufacturers’ catalogs are the
ultimate source of information about suitability for particular
services, sizes, capacities, power requirements and auxiliaries.
Much of the equipment has been made in essentially the present
form for about 100 years by a number of manufacturers so that a
body of standard practice has developed.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS HANDLED
The physical properties of granular materials that bear particularly
on their conveying characteristics include size distribution, true and
bulk densities, and angle of repose or coefficient of sliding friction,
but other less precisely measured or described properties are also of
concern. A list of pertinent properties appears in Table 5.2. The
elaborate classification given there is applied to about 500 materials
in the FMC Corporation Catalog 100 (1983, pp. B.27-B.35) but is
too extensive for reproduction here. For each material the table
also identifies the most suitable design of screw conveyor of this
company’s manufacture and a factor for determining the power
requirement. An abbreviated table of about 150 substances appears
in the Chemical Engineers Handbook (1984, p. 7.5). Hudson (1954,
pp. 6-9), describes the characteristics of about 100 substances in
relation to their behavior in conveyors. Table 5.3 lists bulk
densities, angles of respose at rest, and allowable angles of
inclination which are angles of repose when a conveyor is in motion;
references to more extensive listings of such data are given in this
table.
The angle of repose is a measure of the incline at which
conveyors such as screws or belts can carry the material. The
tangent of the angle of repose is the coefficient of sliding friction.
This property is a factor in the power needed to transfer the
material by pushing or dragging as in pneumatic, screw, flight, and
Redler equipment.
Special provisions need to be made for materials that tend to
form bridges; Figure 5.13(a) is an example of a method of breaking
up bridges in a storage bin so as to ensure smooth flow out.
Materials that tend to pack need to be fluffed up as they are pushed
along by a screw; adjustable paddles as in Figure 5.7(d) may be
sufficient.
SCREW CONVEYORS
These were invented by Archimedes and assumed essentially their
present commercial form a hundred years or so ago. Although the
equipment is simple in concept and relatively inexpensive, a body of
experience has accumulated whereby the loading, speed, diameter,
and length can be tailored to the characteristics of the materials to
be handled. Table 5.4, for example, recognizes four classes of
materials, ranging from light, freeflowing, and nonabrasive
materials such as grains, to those that are abrasive and have poor
flowability such as bauxite, cinders, and sand. Only a portion of the
available data are reproduced in this table.
Lengths of screw conveyors usually are limited to less than
about 150 ft; when the conveying distance is greater than this, a belt
or some other kind of machine should be chosen. The limitation of
length is due to structural strength of the shaft and coupling. It is
expressed in terms of the maximum torque that is allowable.
Formulas for torque and power of screw conveyors are given in
Table 5.4 and are applied to selection of a conveyor in Example 5.3.
Several designs of screws are shown in Figure 5.7. The basic
design is one in which the pitch equals the diameter. Closer spacing
is needed for carrying up steep inclines, and in fact very fine pitch
screws operating at the relatively high speeds of 350 rpm are used to
convey vertically. The capacity of a standard pitch screws drops off
sharply with the inclination, for example:
Angle (degrees) <8 20 30 45
Percent of capacity 100 55 30 0
Allowable loadings as a percentage of the vertical cross section
depend on the kind of material being processed; examples are
shown in Table 5.4.
BELT CONVEYORS
These are high capacity, relatively low power units for primarily
horizontal travel and small inclines. The maximum allowable
inclination usually is 5-15” less than the angle of repose; it is shown
as “recommended maximum inclination” in Table 5.3 for some
substances, and is the effective angle of repose under moving
conditions.
The majority of conveyor belts are constructed of fabric,
rubber, and wire beads similarly to automobile tires, but they are
made also of wire screen or even sheet metal for high temperature