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A Comprehensive Guide Book For The Ham Radio Enthusiasts PDF
A Comprehensive Guide Book For The Ham Radio Enthusiasts PDF
Vigyan Prasar
file:///C|/HAM_STUDY_MATERIAL/final/HAMSTUDYMAT1.htm (1 of 111) [5/3/2000 8:24:05 PM]
A Comprehensive Study Material for the Ham Radio Enthusiasts
E-mail: vigyan@hub.nic.in
FOREWORD
Considering the utility and potential of ham radio not only in emergency, but also as a means of
triggering and promoting interest in science and technology, National Council for Science and
Technology Communication (NCSTC) and Vigyan Prasar have been putting in efforts to popularize
ham radio in India. This hobby has the potential to involve a vast majority of the young and energetic
citizens of our country in a process of "Learning by Doing" in the field of electronics as well as wireless
communication technology.
Vigyan Prasar is in the process of building up a nationwide science club movement under which a
science club network has already been functioning (called the VIgyan Prasar NETwork of Science
Clubs-VIPNET). These "Science Clubs" for the kids, if hooked through a network of ham radio
stations, will enhance the interaction among the kids and other science enthusiasts. It will also provide
an opportunity to the club members to do on-the-air voice communication without any cost. It may be
recalled that ham radio operators played an important role during the Bharat Jan Vigyan Jatha (1987)
in coordinating and monitoring the movements of Jatha, besides organising demonstrations of ham
radio for the public. Vigyan Prasar runs the amateur radio station VU2NCT which is located in the
Technology Bhawan, New Delhi. Few years back, Vigyan Prasar also developed a low cost 7 MHz
QRP transceiver. Vigyan Prasar runs a VHF Ham Repeater Station (VU2DLR) for the mobile
operators in Delhi.
It may be mentioned that Dr. Narender K. Sehgal, Head of NCSTC & Director, Vigyan Prasar
himself is a ham radio operator (Call-sign: VU3NKS). He is also a winner of the highest International
award ("Kalinga Award") in science popularization offered by UNESCO. Dr. V.B. Kamble, Director,
NCSTC, DST is the founder custodian of ham radio station VU2NCT.
"Catch them young" is a phrase very popular with all educationists. The present education system
provides ample scope for organizations like ours to contribute towards strengthening and
supplementing the learning experiences of children by designing well focused programmes, especially
in electronics, that encourage self-learning via electronic kits and toys; initiation into hobbies like
amateur radio etc. Efforts in this direction are underway at Vigyan Prasar. This study material is
compiled to help the ham radio enthusiasts in their preparation for the Amateur Station Operator's
Certificate (ASOC) examination conducted by the Ministry of Communications for awarding of amateur
radio operator's licence. Readers may also refer to the ham radio section of the Vigyan Prasar
homepage (URL: www.vigyanprasar.com) for more information.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
While preparing the radio and electronics theory portion of the study material, various books were
consulted and the some portions of the compiled material were heavily drawn from the following
books:
1. Electronic Communication
by Robert L. Shrader, W6BNB (McGraw Hill, Inc.)
CONTENT
Part-I: Introduction to ham radio PAGE
. What is Ham Radio?1
B. Why an Amateur Radio Operator is called a ham?2
C. What is the minimum qualification to become a ham?3
D. What is an amateur radio call-sign?3
Part-II: Amateur Radio Rules & Regulation
. Detailed procedures related to application for a ham radio licence. 4
B. Different grades of licencing examinations and licences.5
C. Question and answer section on amateur radio rules & regulations.6
D. Radio telephony operating procedure.13
Part-I
Introduction to ham radio
. What is Ham Radio?
Ham radio operators are a group of people nurturing a special interest in wireless communication
technology. People from all the spheres of life are found among the ham radio operators. They operate their
wireless transceivers (a combined unit of radio transmitter and receiver) during their pastime for the sheer joy,
thrill and excitement involved in doing a worldwide radio communication. Unlike the broadcast radio stations (to
whom we usually tune our radio receivers to listen to), ham radio is a two-way communication system. Ham
radio operators can put their voice on-the-air to be listened into and at the same time replied back by their fellow
radio operators around the world.
Despite the existence of other communication facilities, ham radio operators run their own wireless
communication network with entirely personal effort out of the love for this medium of communication. There
are some hams who, build their own wireless transceivers (a combined unit of transmitter and receiver)
and transmit their voice signals throughout the world to be replied back by their fellow hams. These are the
experiment oriented hams who try to achieve some sort of a perfection in developing electronic circuits for radio
frequency work, or at a lower level, they may like to assemble a piece of wireless equipment designed by
their fellow experts, modify it in their own way to improve its performance till they are satisfied with its
performance. Hams located in the other parts of the world reply back exchanging information about the quality
and strength of their radio signals.
They exchange personal as well as technical information, which are not related to business or commerce, politics
and religion. Though a ham cannot use his radio station for any pecuniary gain, a creative mind can still find
numerous utility of ham radio. It is a pursuit, which attracts people from all the spheres of life. There are hundred
and thousands of people who are laymen so far as their knowledge of electronics is concerned, yet, they are
expert ham radio operators. It is an exciting way to discover new friends and disseminate knowledge
on-the-air. One interesting fact about ham radio communication is that hams don’t have to pay any money
to the authority for their on-the-air conversation
With the availability of low cost easily replicable circuits of radio transmitters and receivers, the
number of ham radio operators increased to millions. The growth of electronics communication technology is
also considered to be going hand in hand with the progress of ham radio. The advancement in the field of
electronics and the flourishing growth of electronics industry in countries like Japan has been very often
attributed to the presence of large group of dedicated ham radio operators (to the tune of 13,50,127).
Though ham radio is a highly specialized technical hobby, it requires no special qualification (except that the
person going to be a ham has attained 12 years of age). However, it demands immense interest in radio
communication and sufficient enthusiasm to find reason to operate a radio station of your own, because ham
radio, also known as "Amateur Radio" does not provide you pecuniary gain. What you gain from being a
ham is more than what money can give and for that you got to be imaginative! Many of the foremost radio and
electronics engineers and technicians operate as amateurs during times when they are not occupied
professionally. Seeing the growth of ham radio population around the world, many professional companies
started manufacturing ham radio equipment to meet the needs of the vast group of ham radio operators who
prefer readymade professionally built equipment instead of homemade ones. So, what had once been a hobby for
somebody, turned out to be a profitable profession. Hams never accept money for their on-the-air
communication.
Young students can learn the principles of electronics through practical experimentation by assembling wireless
transmitter and receiver kits in the ham radio clubs established in their schools. Without a valid ham licence, it is
illegal to operate wireless equipment. In India, The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has also
taken some initiative to include 'ham radio' in their course curriculum under the scheme of Work Experience.
The Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme has also included 'Ham Radio' as one of its
projects and as per the direction of the Ministry of Programme Implementation, a Member of Parliament
(MP) can spend money to establish ham radio stations in the schools located in his area. If these schemes
are fruitfully utilised, many youngsters would be able to take interest in ham radio which they may also make
into career. There are many activities people perform out of their scientific curiosity or to satisfy their
inquisitive mind. Many people are attracted towards ham radio for this reason also.
the crowded committee room that if the BILL went through they would have to close down the station because
they could not afford the license fee and all the other requirements which the BILL imposed on amateur stations.
Congressional debate began on the WIRELESS REGULATION BILL and little station "HAM" became
the symbol for all the little amateur stations in the country crying to be saved from the menace and greed
of the big commercial stations who didn't want them around. The BILL finally got to the floor of Congress
and every speaker talked about the "....poor little station HAM." That's how it all started. You can find the
whole story in the US Congressional Record. Nation-wide publicity associated the station "HAM" with other
amateur radio operators. From that day to this, and probably until the end of time in radio; and amateur is a
"HAM." (Source: Florida Skip Magazine-1959)
(1) Restricted Grade Amateur Station Operator’s Licence (if you pass Restricted Grade ASOC Examination):
Permits line-of-sight short distance terrestrial communication using a power output of 10 Watts (dc input
power) in the Very High Frequency (VHF) band. The frequencies allocated in this band ranges from 144 to 146
MHz. Modes of communication allowed are: Radio Telephony(Voice) using Amplitude Modulation (AM),
Single Side Band (SSB), SSB Suppressed Carrier, SSB reduced carrier and Frequency Modulation (FM). It is
advisable not to go for this Grade of licence because communication is limited to a very short distance (a
typical possible range may be 35 km only depending on the height of the antenna or the type of terrain). This
type of licence is useful in a place where there are large number of ham radio operators.
(2) Grade II Licence (if you pass Grade-II ASOC examination): Permits worldwide long distance
communication in AM, SSB, FM using a power output of 50 watts in different allotted short wave bands
(high frequency-HF bands) including the VHF band mentioned above. But entitlement for authorization of
voice communication (radio telephony) is on the basis of providing proof of having made 100 contacts with
other amateur radio stations using Morse Code (Called Continuous Wave-CW communication). This
means that you have to send back your original licence to the WPC wing for "Voice endorsement" along with
the photocopies of your log book (see Rules & Regulation Section).
(3) Grade-I: (if you pass Grade-I ASOC examination): Power output is 150 watts in short waves (in the allotted
HF bands), 25 watts in VHF & UHF (Ultra High Frequency-for satellite communication). With this licence
you can directly use voice including Morse Code. Other advanced modes like Radio Tele-Typing (RTTY),
Amateur Radio Teleprinting Over Radio (AMTOR), PAcket Radio (-an advanced techniques of digital
data communication through computer connected to a wireless transceiver), Amateur Television (ATV
using Slow Scan Telecast: SSTV). You are also permitted to work amateur radio communication satellites with
this licence.
(4) Advanced Grade: Same as Grade-I licence but allowed to use 400 watts of power in selected sub-bands.
This is the highest grade licence in India. Every ham radio enthusiast in India aspires to get it.
Practical Test
There is a practical test on Morse Code sending and receiving (except for Restricted Grade Licence where this
test is not required). This is a 10 minutes duration test to examine the candidates proficiency in sending and
receiving Morse Code. To learn Morse code, a Morse Code Practice Oscillator can be assembled along with a
Morse Key and a Morse Code learning Cassette can be found useful (See Morse Code learning Section of this
book).
related to tests, remarks of personal character which are not related to business affairs or transactions. He is
forbidden to transmit:
i. Messages like the reproduction of broadcast programmes or tape recordings or transmissions of
entertainment value or music.
ii. False or misleading calls, or signals, news, advertisements, communications of business, statements on
topics of political or industrial controversy.
iii. Superfluous signals or any matter which is indecent or of obscene character or of a seditious tendency or
which is grossly offensive or such as is likely to arouse racial, religious, or communal animosity; and
iv. Messages for pecuniary reward or any messages for, or on behalf of third parties.
Q. Is third party communication allowed in India in 'Amateur Radio Service'?
Third party communication is not allowed in India, except in case of failure of normal telecommunication
facilities during earthquake, flood, cyclones, widespread fires or during any other disasters. Under such
circumstances, a ham radio operator can handle third party messages pertaining to disasters. Such message
should originate from and addressed to a competent civil authority namely, (a) district magistrates or deputy
commissioners or collectors of the district and (b) any other officer authorized by the authorities mentioned at (a)
above.
Q. What is 'Secrecy of Correspondence'?
If any message which the ham radio operator is not entitled to receive is, nevertheless received, the ham radio
operator shall not make known or allow to be known its contents, its origin or destination, its existence or the fact
of its receipt to any person (other than duly authorized officer of the central government or a competent legal
tribunal) and shall not reproduce in writing, copy or make any use of such message or allow the same to be
reproduced in writing, copied or made use of.
Q. What is a 'Ham Radio Net'?
A ham radio net is a voluntary radio communication network formed under the initiative of a few hams which is
maintained at scheduled time/times of the day (everyday or at scheduled days). The heart of the net is the 'net
controller', who takes messages from the hams joining the net and pass it on to its respective destination.
Different nets may have different objectives. For example 'Air NET India' is the National Emergency Traffic
(NET) net run by the Amateur Radio Societies of India (ARSI). This net is conducted everyday from 7:00 PM to
7:30 PM (approximate ending time) on 14.150 MHz ± QRM to handle any emergency medical traffic, other
emergency traffic and to check the radio wave propagation condition. But one of the main objectives of this net is
to provide the facility to the Indian hams to establish contact between two hams. A ham 'X' can pass on the
request to the 'net controller' regarding his willingness to contact a ham 'Y'. The 'net controller' then helps both
the station to make the contact in a mutually decided frequency. So every active hams should have the habit of
checking this kind of net regularly.
Q. What is a distress call?
A distress call is a call given from a ship, aircraft or vehicle indicating that the caller is threatened by grave and
imminent danger, which requires immediate assistance. In radiotelephony transmission, the distress signal
consists of the word MAYDAY (pronounced as the French expression 'm'aider') spoken three times followed by
the words THIS IS and the identification of the station seeking assistance. A distress message should be followed
by the distress call.
It contains-name of the ship, aircraft or vehicle, position, type of distress and the type of assistance asked for
including any other relevant information to facilitate rescue operation.
In radiotelegraphy, the distress signal consists of the letters SOS sent in Morse Code characters . . . _ _ _ . . .
(SOS). All these characters should be transmitted three times as a single signal where dashes are to be
emphasized to enable distinguish them clearly from the dots. A typical distress message may look like: S0S SOS
SOS CQ CQ CQ DE followed by the call-sign. When the distress traffic is over, the distress station should end
its transmission with the Q-Code. It looks like: SOS CQ CQ CQ DE 'call-sign' QUM SK.
Q. What action should you take if you receive a distress call?
The distress call has absolute priority over all other transmissions. Hence it would be my utmost duty to
● listen to the distress call and stop my transmissions if I was previously occupying that frequency;
● acknowledge receipt of the distress message if the station in distress can copy my signal.
● At the same time, it would be my duty to ensure that my transmission does not interfere with transmissions
of other stations, which may be better situated to render assistance.
● Even if I cannot render assistance, I should direct the attention of other stations in the nearby frequencies,
because they might be in a position to render immediate assistance.
● I shall also try to inform the appropriate authorities, who might be able to conduct a rescue operation.
in India! Each country has its own prefix. The knowledge of prefix helps us identifying the country of origin of a
particular amateur radio transmission.
Q.What do you understand by the word 'phonetics' in amateur radio communication?
If we listen to a two-way amateur wireless conversation for the first time in our life, we would come across
certain words, which perhaps we never heard before! There is every possibility that we mistake these words for
some kind of secret codes! These words in fact are internationally used to do plain language (conversation in
secret code language is not allowed in amateur radio communication) conversation and known as phonetics.
A ham radio operator has to face different types of hurdles during an ongoing communication. There may be
static noise, signal fading, interference from other station operating at close frequencies, local noises in the radio
room, unusual voice accents of the other operator, improper pronunciation of words. During these and many
other difficulties, it has been found that use of phonetics improves the intelligibility in communication. For
example, the letter 'D' in represented by the word 'Delta' in phonetics while the letter 'B' is represented by
'Bravo'. To distinguish 'M' from 'N', hams use the words 'Mike' and 'Nancy' respectively.
Phonetic alphabet is useful when calling distant station or when the band is crowded, or when for any reason the
station called is expected to have difficulty in copying voice signals. For example, the word 'Solstice' can be spelt
using phonetic alphabet as Sierra Oscar Lima Sierra Tango India Charlie Echo. A person conversant in
listening to such phonetics gets habituated in spontaneously writing down the exact word out of these phonetics!
He feels more comfortable at writing down a message spelt out in phonetics rather than simple mentioning of
each letters.
Phonetics are to avoid confusion and not to create confusion! Many letters of the alphabet sound similar unless
very clearly heard. B may be heard as G or D or V. The word 'bed' may be heard as 'bet' or 'pet'. So, if we spell it
out with phonetics like Bravo Echo Delta, the confusion easily gets eliminated! Good operating procedures
include using the standard phonetic alphabet to help communicate more clearly. The recommended phonetics are
those also in use by aviation (internationally by ICAO treaty) and some militaries (in most English-speaking
countries.) The numbers are spelled differently to suggest a particular pronunciation. Also, nine was changed to
"niner" to avoid confusion with the German word "nein" for "no". When first making contact with another Ham,
it is a good idea to say call signs in phonetics to give the other side a better chance of understanding them
correctly.
A Alpha AL FAH
E Echo ECK OH
G Golf GOLF
I India IN DEE AH
M Mike MIKE
R Romeo ROW ME OH
T Tango TAN GO
0 NADAZERO NAH-DAH-ZAY-ROH
1 UNAONE OO-NAH-WUN
2 BASSOTWO BESS-SOH-TOO
3 TERRATHREE TAY-RAH-TREE
4 KARTEFOUR KAY-TAY-FOWER
5 PANTAFIVE PAN-TAH-FIVE
6 SOXISIX SOK-SEE-SIX
7 SETTENSEVEN SAY-TAY-SEVEN
8 OKTOEIGHT OK-TOH-AIT
9 NOVENINE N0-VAY-NINER
duty of the ham to check whether the frequency he is going to use is already in use by other ham/s or not. Even
though a particular frequency seems to be idle, it may not be so. Because, there may still be a ham sending his
message whose signals are in skip with us (see questions & answers related to radio wave propagation) and
another ham at a different location is listening to him. Giving a transmission in the same frequency in such a
situation may interfere with the ongoing communication. So, prior to our transmission, it should be ascertained
by sending the message-"Is the frequency in use?". This should be repeated two more times and if no reply has
been received, then we can occupy the frequency. After occupying a frequency, we can give a ‘General Call’ or
a ‘Directional Call’. A ‘General Call’ is a call given to all the stations. This means that you will reply to
anybody from any part of the world. The message sounds like –"CQ CQ CQ this is Victor Uniform Two….
(your call-sign suffix in phonetics) calling CQ on 20 metre and standing by". The ‘CQ’ message may be
repeated for three time before giving the ‘standing by’ message. As you ‘stand by’, listen carefully for any
possible reply. If no reply is received, you can continue giving your CQ call. There is also a ‘Directional Call’
which is directed to a particular country or a particular station. A call directed to a particular country is
like-"CQ Japan CQ Japan CQ Japan this is Victor Uniform Two …….". This means that you will reply to
stations from Japan only. A call may be directed to a particular station also. In this case, the country name is to
be replaced with the intended station ‘call-sign’. A person with the true ham spirit does not adhere strictly to
his directional call, and as such should not deny reply to a ham from another country replying to his
directional call (in the above example) until and unless he is in real emergency. Also there is nothing
official about a ham radio operation. Too much of formalities should be avoided as it may dishearten another
fellow ham, also it is against the code devised by Paul M. Segal. Ham radio operators also form net. When a net
is going on, you can also join the net once somebody in the net ‘pulls you’ into the net. To indicate that you want
to join the net, a short ‘BREAK’ call may be given.
After establishing contact and offering the initial greetings, a signal report should be given to the other station.
Your name (Handle) and location (QTH) should then be spelled out clearly in internationally accepted
phonetics. If the other ham finds difficulty in copying your voice signal due to poor propagation condition or due
to the difference in pronunciation, you should not loose patience and the message should be repeated if
requested. You can also give the weather report (WX report) with mentioning of the temperature in degrees
Centigrade. After this, discussion regarding the antenna system and equipment (called-"Working condition")
begins. Before closing the conversation with a particular station, 73 message (meaning ‘Best of Regards’)
should be conveyed to the ham and his family and indication should be given whether you are closing down
(going QRT) your station, you are changing your frequency (QSYing) or you are still occupying the frequency.
This will help other stations to follow you in case they want to make a contact with you. If the conversation takes
long time, both the stations should mention their call-sign at least at ten minutes interval.
Signal Report in Radio Telephony
When on-the-air contact between amateur radio stations is established, both the stations exchange signal reports.
This gives the idea about how strongly the ham radio stations are receiving each other. For telephony (voice),
Readability and Signal strength scale is devised.
Readability Scale Signal Strength Scale
R6 Good signals
R8 Strong signals
A 59 (5 and 9) report is the best report in radiotelephony. You should be honest in giving a signal report. Don’t
give a good report just to please your friend! There may be some problem in the antenna system of your friend’s
station due to which you are receiving him poorly. Or there may be some problem in the audio quality of your
friend’s transmission. Under such a situation, giving a false report will just misguide your friend and your friend
may not be able to detect/rectify the fault in his system.
When you finally close your conversation with a particular station, indication should be given, i.e. the message
should be ended with 'VA' (meaning 'over and out with ……). A typical closing message may look
like-…………. VU2ABC DE VU2XYZ VA. This means that VU2XYZ is now free to communicate with other
stations.
HRD Heard
HV Have
KCS Kilocycles
LID Bad operator
MNI Many
MO Master Oscillator
MCS Megacycles
ND Nothing doing
NW Now
OB Old Boy (Young male operator:a novice)
OM Old Man (Male operator: not a novice)
OP Operator
PSE Please
PX Press
QRP Very low power
QSL Received
OK R All received correctly
RCVD Received
RCVR Receiver
RPRT Report
RPT Repeat the message
RX Receiver
SA Say
SED Said
SIGS Signals
SWL Short Wave Listener
TKS Thanks
TNX Thanks
TX Transmitter
U You
HARMONIC- Daughter or Son of the ham radio operator (just as the harmonic frequency
generated out of the fundamental frequency!)
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
MINISTRY OF COMMUNICATIONS
(WPC Wing)
Notification
The Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service) Rules, 1978
G.S.R No. 1499/78- In exercise of the powers conferred by section 4 and section 7 of the Indian Telegraph Act,
1885 (13 of 1885), the Central Government hereby makes the following rules for the conduct of wireless
telegraphs in the amateur service, established, maintained, and worked by persons licenced under the said Act.
20. Loss and Issue of Duplicate of Licence and Document showing the Renewal of Licence
(1) A person whose Licence or the document showing the renewal of licence has been lost, mutilated or
destroyed shall notify the same to the central government. An application in Annexure VII of these rules
for the duplicate shall be made to the central government embodying a statement of the circumstances
involved in the loss, mutilation or destruction of the licence or the document showing the renewal of
licence for which a duplicate is required. If the licence or the document showing the renewal of licence has
been lost, the applicant must state the circumstances in which it was lost and that reasonable search has
been made for it, and further that in the event it be found, either the original or the duplicate shall be
returned for cancellation. The mutilated licence or the document showing the renewal of licence for which
the duplicate is required should be forwarded along with the application for cancellation.
(2) The central government may issue duplicate copy of any licence or the document showing the renewal
of the licence and the following charges shall be levied for such issue:
(i) For duplicate of licence - Rs. 10
(ii) For duplicate of the document showing the renewal of licence- Rs. 5
21. Revocation of licence
(1) The central government may, at any time, revoke the licence-
(i) On the breach of any of the conditions of licence contained in
Annexure I; or
(ii) In default of payment of any fees payable under these rules;
Provided that, before revoking a licence, the licensee shall be given a reasonable opportunity of making a
representation against the action proposed to be taken.
(2) The licensee shall not be entitled to any compensation arising out of revocation of his licence nor will
any part of the fees paid for the licence shall be refunded for the period a licence stands revoked.
22. Transfer of licence
A licence shall not be transferable:
Provided that the central government may permit the transfer of a licence granted to an authorized official of an
amateur radio society or club or a school, college or an institute or an university in India in favour of his
successor if such successor holds a category of licence appropriate to the transmissions to be conducted by the
amateur station.
23. Operation of licenced amateur station
No person other than the licensee shall be permitted to operate the licensed amateur station:
Provided that -
(a) In the presence of the licensee himself, the station may be operated by another person holding a valid
licence of comparable or higher category. The licensee, however, shall be personally responsible for the
observance of these rules as if he operates the station.
(b) In case of a licence issued to an authorized official of an amateur radio society, club, school, college,
institute or university in India, the station may be operated by-
(i) a person who holds a licence equivalent or of higher category;
(ii) a person who holds a lower category of licence, where he operates the station on the frequency bands,
emissions and power allocated to his category.In each of the cases aforesaid the licensee shall be responsible for
the observance of this rule.
24. Surrender of licence
A licence which is revoked or which has become invalid and licensee does not desire to renew it shall be
surrendered to the central government for cancellation and record.
25. Dual holding of licence
No person shall be granted more than one licence at the same time: Provided that the central government may
exempt a person, holding a licence is his name for amateur radio society or a school, college or an institute or an
university in India, from the operation of this rule.
26. Admission of foreign nationals in examination and grant of licence
(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in these rules the central government may, subject to such terms
and conditions as it may impose from time to time, admit a person, who is not a citizen of India, to an
examination for the grant of a licence or grant him a licence if otherwise qualified.
(2) The conditions under sub-section (1) shall, among others, include the following, namely:
(i) The country of which the applicant is citizen, grants reciprocal facilities to Indian nationals:
Provided that it shall not apply where the central government considers that reciprocal facilities are not
necessary;
(ii) The applicant is above the age of 18 years.
(iii) The applicant is holder of an appropriate category of amateur station operator's certificate or licence issued
by a competent authority in any other country and recognised by the central government.
(iv) The licence under this rule shall be initially granted for a period of one year or for the period of validity of
visa, for which the applicant's passport is endorsed, whichever is less, on payment of a proportionate licence fee
as prescribed in Rule 12 subject to a minimum of fees payable of one year.
Annexure I
CONDITIONS
FOR
THE CONDUCT OF
AMATEUR WIRELESS TELEGRAPH STATION
[See rules 5 & 10]
1. Use of the Amateur Station
(1) The amateur station shall be used as part of self-training, intercommunication and technical
investigations in radio techniques solely with a personal aim and without pecuniary interest:
Provided that when the station is licensed to an amateur radio society or club, or a school, college or an
institute or a University, the use of the station shall be confined to technical investigations and training in
radio communication techniques without pecuniary interest.
(2) The station may also be used for the purpose of receiving transmissions in the standard frequency
service to facilitate operation of the station within the authorized frequency bands.
(3) Except as provided in these rules, the licensee shall not assign, under-let or otherwise dispose of or
admit any person to participate in the benefits of the licence.
II. Messages
(1) (a) Radio communications may be exchanged with other stations similarly authorized. The amateur
stations are forbidden to communicate with amateur stations of countries whose administrations have
notified the International Telecommunication Union of their objection to such radio communication.
(b) Transmissions shall be made in plain language and limited to messages of a technical nature relating to
tests and to remarks of personal character (excluding business affairs or transactions) in which the
licensee, or the person with whom he is in communication, are directly concerned and for which, by reason
of their unimportance, recourse to the public telecommunication service is not justified.
(c) Special recordings for reproducing sinusoidal tone or tones within the audio frequency spectrum that
may be either constant or steadily changing in frequency may be used.
(2) The licensee is forbidden to transmit-
(a) Messages like the reproduction of broadcast programmes or tape recordings or transmissions of
entertainment value or music;
(b) False or misleading calls, or signals, news, advertisements, communications of business, statements on
topics of political or industrial controversy;
(c) Superfluous signals or any matter which is indecent or of obscene character or of a seditious tendency
or which is grossly offensive or such as is likely to arouse racial, religious, or communal animosity; and
(d) Messages for pecuniary reward or any messages for, or on behalf of third parties;
(3) Notwithstanding clause (a), sub-condition (1) and clause (d), sub-condition (2) the licensees in case of
failure of normal telecommunication facilities, are permitted to handle third party messages, pertaining to
natural calamities such as earthquake, flood, cyclones and wide spread fires, originating from and
addressed to a competent civil authority namely, (a) district magistrates or deputy commissioners or
collectors of the district and (b) any other officer authorized by authorities mentioned at (a) above. The
licensee shall inform by letter addressed to the licensing authority regarding the use of his amateur station
for such purposes on each such occasion.
III. Frequencies, Emission and Power
The amateur station shall be operated on frequencies that are within the frequency bands authorized to respective
categories of licences under rule 13 and on such classes of emissions and power not exceeding that specified in
the said rule.
IV. Frequency control and measurement
(1) The transmitting apparatus shall be tuned as accurately as possible to ensure that no energy is radiated
on any frequency outside the limits of the authorized frequency bands.
(2) The licensee shall have at the licensed amateur station a reliable frequency measuring equipment to
verify, each time the frequency of the transmitter is changed and whenever it is necessary to check the
transmitted frequency that emissions are within the authorized frequency bands. The licensee shall take all
steps necessary to maintain the accuracy of the frequency measuring equipment.
V. Non-Interference
(1) The amateur station shall be so designed, constructed, erected, maintained and worked as not to cause
interference with any wireless telegraph service functioning, within or without India, in accordance with
the provisions of the convention or the wireless signaling between any fixed, land or mobile stations of
Indian land, naval or air force or between such stations and any station abroad:
Provided that in the event of interference being caused by the station the licensee shall discontinue or restrict
transmissions, pending adjustment of the equipment, on request from-
(a) The Central Government; or
(b) Any land station.
(2) The licensee shall deploy all necessary means to ensure that the radiated frequency in free from
harmonics, key clicks, hum and other forms of spurious emissions.
(3) The licensee shall ensure that the transmitter is not over modulated.
(4) The use of class B emissions (damped waves) is forbidden.
VI. Log (Diary of the radio service)
(1) A chronological record of all transmissions emanating from or received at the amateur station shall be
kept in bound book (not loose leaf) showing the following:
(a) Date and time of each transmission;
(b) A summary of the communications exchanged;
(c) A brief description of the experiments and tests undertaken;
(d) The call-sign of station or stations with which messages have been exchanged, times of establishing
and terminating communication with each station and the frequency and type of emission employed in
each case:
(e) Time of opening and closing down the amateur station;
(f) In case of portable or mobile amateur station the particulars of temporary location.
(2) All times in the log shall be stated in the Indian Standard Time.
(3) No gaps shall be left between entries in the long and they shall be made and initialed at the time of
receiving and transmitting.
(4) In case the station is operated by a person other than the licensee (see rule 23), the licence shall ensure
that log is signed by that person indicating his name, call-sign and licence number.
(5) Licensee shall preserve the log for a period of one year from the date of last entry therein before it is
destroyed:
Provided that no log shall be destroyed for such further period as the Central Government may direct.
(6) The form of log is shown in the Table attached to these conditions.
VII. Wireless Telegraphy Apparatus
(1) The amateur station shall be equipped for reception as well as transmission except in the case of Short
Wave Listeners Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence when it shall be equipped for the former
only.
(2) The wireless telegraphy apparatus and other accessory equipment used or intended to be used by the
licencee shall be so arranged as not to endanger the safety of licensee or other persons.
(3) The wireless telegraph apparatus shall be kept in a safe condition and housed in such manner as to
preclude access to unauthorized persons.
(4) The transmitter shall be of a type that has frequency stability comparable to that of a crystal control.
(5) Meters of standard accuracy shall be installed to measure the D.C. power input to the anode circuit of
the final radio frequency stage of the transmitter.
(6) The aerial used or intended to be used shall be so erected, fixed, or placed a not to cross above or fall
on to any power, telegraph or telephone line. If required, the licensee shall take necessary steps to guard, to
the satisfaction of the owner or owners concerned, so as to prevent any damage being done in the event of
a break occurring in the aerial. The aerial installation shall not cause hazard to flight of aircraft and their
heights shall be within the limits specified by the Director General of Civil Aviation in India from time to
time. The licensee shall, if so directed, install and maintain beacon lights on and paint the mast of the
station at his own cost.
VIII. Secrecy of Correspondence
If any message which the licensee is not entitled to receive is, nevertheless received, the licencee shall not make
known or allow to be made known its contents, its origin or destination, its existence or the fact of its receipt to
any person (Other than duly authorized officer of the Central Government or a competent of legal tribunal) and
shall not reproduce in writing, copy or make any use of such message or allow the same to be reproduced in
writing, copied or made use of.
IX. (1) General Radiotelegraph and Radiotelephone Procedure
(a) Before transmitting, the station shall take precautions to ensure that its emissions will not interfere with
transmissions already in progress. If such interference is likely the transmission shall not commence till
there is an appropriate break in the communications in progress.
(b) The call sign endorsed in the licence shall be sent for identification at the beginning and at the end of
each period of transmission. When the period of transmission exceeds 10 minutes the call sign shall be
repeated. Licencee shall not make transmission without identification or with false identification.
(c) Prolonged calls and transmissions shall be avoided.
(d) When it is necessary to spell out call sign, certain expressions, difficult words, abbreviations, figures
etc., the phonetic alphabet and figure code given in the Convention shall be used.
(2) Call and Reply Procedure
(a) The call shall consist of The call sign of the station called not more than three times; The word DE (in
case of radiotelegraphy) and the words ‘This is’ (in case of radiotelephony) and the call sign of the calling
station, not more than three times.
(b) The reply to call shall consist of the call sign of the calling station, not more than three times; The word
DE (in case of a radiotelegraphy) and the words ‘This is’ (in case of radiotelephony) the call sign of the
station called, not more than three times.
(c) The call may be sent three times at intervals of two minutes; thereafter it shall not be repeated until an
interval of 10 minutes during which the operator shall list in the frequency band in which the call has been
made.
(d) In case of general call to all stations the signal ‘CQ’ (in case of radiotelegraphy) and the words ‘Hello
all stations’ or the signal ‘CQ’ (in case of radiotelephony) shall replace the call sign of the station called in
the calling procedure.
(3) End of Transmission and Work
(a) Transmissions of a message shall be terminated by the signal AR (in case of radio, telegraphy) and by
the word ‘Over’ (in case of radiotelephony).
(b) The end of work between two stations shall be indicated by each of them by means of the signal VA (in
case of radiotelegraph) and by the word ‘OUT’ (or VA spoken as Victor Alfa) in case of radiotelephony.
(4) Tests:
(a) When it is necessary to make test signals either for the adjustment of a transmitter or a receiver or for
any experiment, such signals shall not be continued for more than 3 seconds and shall be composed of
series of VVV followed by the call-sign of the station emitting the test signals. In case of radiotelephony
series of VVV shall be replaced by the figures 1,2,3,4... spoken in the figure code.
(b) For tests exceeding 30 seconds an artificial aerial shall be used.
(c) Emission of carrier wave is forbidden unless such wave is subjected to intelligible modulation.
X. Inspection
(1) Any officer authorized by the Central Government in that behalf in writing by them, may at all
reasonable times enter the station solely or jointly with any other person or persons for the purpose of
inspecting and may inspect, examine or test any apparatus conduct of such inspections and tests and make
available the licence, the station log or other records for examination by the inspecting officer.
(2) The licencee when called upon to do so by the Central Government shall arrange to forward the
licence, the logbook, or any other record or date for examination by that Government.
XI. Powers to take possession of the Amateur Station and to order interception of message:
(1) On the occurrence of any public emergency, or in the interest of the public safety, the Central
Government or a State Government or any officer specially authorized in this behalf by the Central
Government or a State Government may, if satisfied that it is necessary or expedient so to do, take
temporary possession (for so long as the public emergency exists or the interest of the public safety
requires the taking of such action) of the Amateur Station.
(2) On the occurrence of any public emergency or in the interest of the public safety, the central
government or a State Government or any officer specifically authorized in this behalf by the Central
Government or a State Government may, if satisfied that it is necessary or expedient so to do in the
interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign
states or public order or for preventing incitement to the commission of an offence, for reasons to be
recorded in writing, by order, direct that any message of class of messages relating to any particular
subject, shall not be transmitted or received or shall be intercepted by the station or shall be disclosed to
the Government making the order or an officer thereof mentioned in the disclosed to the Government
making the order or an officer thereof mentioned in the order.
(3) The licencee shall not be entitled to any compensation in respect of the exercise of the powers
conferred by sub condition (1) and (2) of this condition.
XII. The licencee shall indemnify the Central Government against all actions, claims and demands which
may be brought or made by any person, body corporate or company in respect of any injury arising from
Sl. No. of Date Time Frequency Station Station Report Time of Time of Record QSL Card Initials
Contact & Type of Called heard or Received Termi-nating Experiment & (Sent/
Emission & by worked (RST) QSO tests
power input (RST) received)
to final stage /summary of
(FEP) communication
ANNEXURE II
Under the above rules, a licence may be granted, subject to certain conditions to a person, who is a citizen of
India and not less than 18 years of age (subject to relaxation indicated at para 1 below) and who qualifies
Amateur Station Operators's Examination Certificate of Proficiency issued by this Ministry i.e. (I) Radio
Communication operator's GeneraLl Certificate; (ii) First or Second Class Radio Telegraph Operator's
Certificate; (iii) The holder of a special radio telegraph Operator's Certificate may also be considered eligible for
the award of Grade II licence.
The following categories of licences are issued:
The fees for examination are shown alongside:
(i) Advance Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence Rs. 25/-
(ii) Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station licence Grade I Rs. 20/-
(iii) Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence Grade II Rs. 10/-
(iv) Restricted Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence Rs. 10/-
(v) Shortwave Listeners Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence Nil
The central government may grant to bonafide experimenters between the agees of 14 and 18 years, Amateur
Wireless Telegraph Station Licenc Grade I and to those between the ages of 12 and 18 years, Amateur Wireless
Telegraph Station Licence Grade II, Restricted Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence or Shortwave
Listeners Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence.
The examination for the award of various categories of Amateur Wireless Telegraph Statoin Licence are held at
various Monitoring Stations of this ministry, as per the syllabus contained in the above mentioned rules. A
person desiring to appear in these examinations should apply on the prescribed application form
(enclosed) to the nearest monitoring station along with the prescribed examination fee. In no case the
application may be forwarded to WPC, Ministry of Communications, New Delhi.
The examination fee varies from Rs. 10/- to Rs.25/- depending upon the category of examination. After a
decision is taken to grant the licence, an additional fee of Rs. 25/- to Rs.50/- as the case may be, will be required
towards the grant of licence. The fees are required to be paid in the form of bank draft obtainable from any
branch of the State Bank of India and drawn in favour of Pay & Accounts Officer (Headquarters),
Department of Telecommunications, New Delhi 110001 (code 0691).
The particulars of the venue and date, etc. of the examination will be communicated to the candidates by the
officer-in-charge of the concerned monitoring station on receipt of the complete application form with requisite
fee.
Following should accompany the application:
1. Nationality Certificate/Character Certificate in the prescribed proforma enclosed.
2. 2 copies of photograph duly signed on front side. The size of the photograph must be 3x4 cms.
3. Examination fees, in the form of bank draft, of the appropriate amount. The draft should be obtained from
any branch of State bank of India and drawn in favour of 'Pay & Accounts Officer (Headquarters),
Department of Telecommunications'. It should be payable at State Bank of India, New Delhi Main
Branch (Code No. 0691).
4. Result Sheet, duly filled in (in duplicate).
5. Personal particulars (in quadriplicate) in the prescribed proforma.
5. (a) Category of Licence applied for (b) exact location of the Station
6. (a) If you are exempted from appearing in any part of the examination, give details of your
qualifications
(b) If you wish to appear for the qualifying examination, give the preferred centre and date of
examination
Centre Month of Examination
(Duly filled in application form should be submitted to the concerned Wireless Monitoring Station only)
DECLARATION
I hereby solemnly declare that the foregoing facts are true and correct and nothing is false therein and nothing
material has been concealed therefrom. I also agree that in case any information given by me herein before is
found false at a later date, the licence, if granted, will be cancelled.
I further solemnly give an undertaking that I will not either directly or indirectly divulge to any person, except
when lawful authorized or directed to do so, the purport of any message which I may transmit or receive by
means of any wireless apparatus operated by me or which may come to my knowledge in connection with the
operation of said apparatus.
I have carefully read and understood the rules contained n the Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service)
Rules, 1978 and undertake to abide by them and observe the conditions of the licence. The licensed station shall
not be made accessible to any unauthorized person at any time.
Note :
1. An attested copy of birth certificate or school leaving certificate must be accompanied along-with the
application.
2. Enclose a certificate in support of nationality in the prescribed Performa, indicated in Appendix III from
one of the officers listed therein.
2. Particulars of authorized official of the Society/Club/School etc. in whose favour licence is desired
Name Designation
Date of Birth Place of Birth Nationality Occupation
3. (a) Category of licence applied for (b) exact location of the station
4. Particulars of Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence held by the authorized official
Receiver :
Frequency Measuring Device :
DECLARATION
I hereby solemnly declare that the foregoing facts are true and correct and nothing is false therein and nothing
material has been concealed therefrom. I also agree that in case any information given by me herein before is
found false at a later date, the licence, if granted, will be cancelled.
I further solemnly give an undertaking that I will not either directly or indirectly divulge to any person, except
when lawful authorized or directed to do so, the purport of any message which I may transmit or receive by
means of any wireless apparatus operated by me or which may come to my knowledge in connection with the
operation of said apparatus.
I have carefully read and understood the rules contained n the Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service)
Rules, 1978 and undertake to abide by them and observe the conditions of the licence. The licensed station shall
not be made accessible to any unauthorized person at any time.
Signature of witness: Signature of applicant
Name (in block letters) Name (in block letters)
Address:
Date: Date:
Place:
Note :
1. An attested copy of birth certificate or school leaving certificate must be accompanied along with the
application.
2. Enclose a certificate in support of nationality in the prescribed Performa, indicated in Appendix III from
one of the officers listed therein.
3. Attach a copy of the rules and regulations or constitution.
4. Attach the minutes of the relevant meeting.
___________________________________
9. Permanent home address: ___________________________________
___________________________________
10. Nationality: ___________________________________
11. Occupation (Major work ___________________________________
or profession for which you ___________________________________
receive money or activity ___________________________________
which occupies the ___________________________________
majority of your time)
12. Father's name and home address ___________________________________
(if dead, give last address)Aliases ___________________________________
if any: ___________________________________
13. Type of license applied for: ___________________________________
14. Proposed location of station: ___________________________________
(Details of house No., Street ___________________________________
No., Road No.) ___________________________________
Dated:____________
Signature of the applicant
(Full name giving expansion of initials)
ANNEXURE III
Nationality Certificate
Certified that I have known Shri/Smt./Km.___________________________,
Son/Daughter of Shri_________________________for the last___________
Years and that to the best of my knowledge and belief he/she bears a good moral character. He/She is of
_______________nationality.
He/She is not related to me.
Address: Signature
NOTE:
This certificate should be from one of the officers listed below:
1. Gazetted Officers of Central or State Governments.
2. Members of Parliament or State Legislatures.
3. Sub-divisional Magistrate/Officer.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
MINISTRY OF COMMUNICAITON
LICENCE TO ESTABLISH, MAINTAIN AND WORK AN AMATEUR WIRELESS TELEGRAPH
STATION IN INDIA.
Having satisfied, by examination or otherwise, that Shri .................................... possesses the requisite technical
qualifications as prescribed under the Indian, Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service) Rules, 1978, the Central
Government in exercise of the powers conferred under the authority of section 4 of the Indian Telegraph Act,
1885 (13 of 1885), hereby grant to him an ................................................... to establish, maintain and work a
wireless telegraph transmitting and receiving station, detailed below, during the term of period commencing on
the day of the date hereof and terminating on the .......................19 ................. when this licence becomes invalid
unless renewed further by way of a document showing the renewal of Licence.
The licence is governed by the Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service) Rules, 1978, Particulars of the
Station :
Location Call-sign
prescribed in the Annexure-V to the above said rules in pursuance to Notification No, R-11014/14/82-L.R. dated
23rd May, 1983.
ANNEXURE V
Frequency bands, emission and power
1820-1860 kHz*
(d) Advanced 3500-3700 kHz
Amateur
Telegraph 3890-3900 kHz A1A, A2A, A3E,
Station H3E, R3E, J3E,
7000-7100 kHz F1B, F2A, F3E,
Licence.
14000-14350 kHz F3C, A3C, A3F
See Note (i)
below 18068-18168 kHz $
21000-21450 kHz 50 Watts for
terrestrial service.
24890-24990 kHz $ Amateur Satellite
28000-29700 kHz Service is permitted
in the appropriate
144-146 MHz
sub-bands in
-do- accordance with
434-438 MHz @
Radio Regulations
1260-1300 MHz @ & and in those cases
3300-3400 MHz @ the maximum output
RF power (e.i.r.p.) is
5725-5840 MHz @ 30 dbw.
ii. For A3F emission, the transmission shall be restricted to call-sign of the station, location and other
particular of the amateur station. They shall be limited to point to point test transmission employing a
standard interlace and scanning with a bandwidth not more than 4 kHz.
iii. DC input power is the total direct current power input to the final stage of the transmitter.
iv. In case of Short Wave Listener’s Amateur Licence, the holders are permitted to listen to all the bands
authorised to Amateur Service.
v. The syllabus for the examination of the Restricted Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence shall be
same as per Part I of Amateur Station Operator’s Grade II examination.
(vi)The holder of Amateur Wireless Telegraph Station Licence, Grade II shall be entitled for
authorisation of radio telephony emission on his providing proof of having made 100 contacts
Syllabus
Part-I
Section I
Radio Theory and Practice (Applicants holding degree in telecommunication, or electronics and electrical
communication, or a degree recognized by the central government as equivalent to the above degree shall
Detailed syllabus
Part-I
Section I : Radio Theory and Practice
Elementary electricity and magnetism
Elementary theory of electricity, conductors and insulators, units, Ohm's law, resistance in-series and parallel,
conductance, power and energy, permanent magnets and electromagnets and their use in radio work; self and
mutual inductance; types of inductors used in receiving and transmitting circuits, capacitance; construction of
various types of capacitors and their arrangements in series and/or parallel.
Elementary theory of alternating currents
Sinusoidal alternating quantities-peak, instantaneous, RMS, average values, phase; reactance, impedance; series
and parallel circuits containing resistance, inductance, capacitance; power factor, resonance in series and parallel
circuits; coupled circuits; transformers for audio and radio frequencies.
Thermionic Valves
Construction of valves; thermionic emission, characteristic curves, diodes, triodes and multi-electrode valves; use
of valves as rectifiers, oscillators, amplifiers, detectors and frequency changers, power packs, stabilization and
smoothing.
Elementary theory and construction of semiconductor devices
Diodes and Transistors.
Radio receivers
Principles and operation of TRF and superheterodyne receivers, CW reception, receiver
characteristics-sensitivity, selectivity, fidelity; adjacent channel and image interference; AVC and squelch
circuits; signal to noise ratio.
Transmitter
Principles and operation of low power transmitter; crystal oscillators, stability of oscillators.
Radio propagation
Wavelength, frequency, nature and propagation of radio waves; ground and sky waves; skip distance; fading.
Aerials
Common types of transmitting and receiving aerials.
Frequency measurement
Measurement of frequency and use of simple frequency meters.
SECTION II : Radio Regulations
(a) Knowledge of :
(i) the Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules, 1973; and
(ii) the Indian Wireless Telegraphs (Amateur Service) Rules, 1978.
(b) Knowledge of International Radio Regulations as relating to the operation of amateur stations with particular
emphasis on the following:
Designation of Emission,
Nomenclature of the frequency and wavelength,
Frequency allocation to amateur radio service,
Measures against Interference,
Interference and tests, Identification of stations,
distress and urgency transmissions,
Amateur Stations,
Phonetic alphabets and figure code.
(c) Standard frequency and time signal services in the world.
(d) The following 'Q' codes and abbreviations which shall have meaning as assigned to them in the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) convention :
QRA, QRG, QRH, QRI, QRK, QRL, QRM, QRN, QRQ, QRS, QRT, QRU, QRV, QRW, QRX, QRZ, QSA,
QSB, QSL, QSL, QSO, QSU, QSV, QSW, QSX, QSY, QSZ, QTC, QTH, QTR and QUM.
Telegraphic (Morse code) abbreviations: AA, AB, AR, AS, BT, C, CFM, CL, CQ, DE, K, KN, NIL, OK, R, TU,
examination.
A candidate is required to pass both in Part I and Part II simultaneously.
Advanced Amateur Station Operators' Examination
Part I-Written Test
(a) Section 1: Radio Theory and Practice
In addition to the syllabus prescribed for Grade II Examination, following items shall be included in the syllabus
of Advanced Amateur Station Operators' Examinations :-
(i) Motors and generators: Elementary principles and construction of alternators, motors and generators.
(ii) Alternating current: Construction of transformers, transformer losses, transformer as a matching device.
(iii) Measuring instruments: Moving coil and moving iron meters, frequency meters.
(iv) Semiconductor devices and transistors: Elementary principles of conduction and construction, symbols,
biasing methods.
(v) Power supplies: Halfwave and fullwave rectifiers, smoothing and regulation, bridge rectifier.
(vi) Modulation: Principles of frequency modulation.
(vii) Transmitters and receivers: Elementary principles of transmission and reception of facsimile and
television signals, elementary principles of transmitters and receivers employing single side band.
(viii) Propagation: Characteristics of ionosphere and troposphere. Properties of different reflecting layers,
optimum working frequency, day and night frequencies.
(ix) Aerials: Principles of radiation, aerials for different frequency bands including aerials for microwave.
(x) Space communications: Elementary principles of communication via satellite.
(b) Section 2: Radio Regulations
Syllabus is same as prescribed for Grade II Examination. The test is of 3 hours duration. The maximum number
of marks is 100 and candidate must secure at least 50 per cent in each section and 60 per cent in aggregate for a
pass.
Part II- Morse Code
Syllabus is same as prescribed for Grade I Examination.
Part-III
What is electronics?
Electronics is the field of manipulating electrical currents and voltages using passive and active components that
are connected together to create circuits. Electronic circuits range from a simple load resistor that converts a
current to a voltage, to computer central processing units (CPUs) that can contain millions of transistors.
Electronic devices operate by the movement of electrons through conductors, e.g. wires, and electronic
components.
What are passive components?
Resistors, inductors, transformers and capacitors are called passive devices. They don’t alter their resistance,
impedance or reactance when alternating currents (ac) are applied to them.
What are active components?
Vacuum tubes, diodes, transistors etc. are called active devices. They change their resistance or impedance when
varying voltages are applied to them and as a result can amplify, rectify, modify or distort ac waveforms. Passive
devices normally don’t distort waveforms.
Matter and electricity
Before going to discuss the different theories related to electricity and magnetism, we would like to give a brief
idea about matter. All matter consist of molecules. A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle, which
shows all the characteristics of a particular matter. For example, molecule of water is obtained by dividing a drop
of water again and again until it can be divided and still be water. Further division of this water molecule will
yield three particles which are not water. Molecule of water contains two atoms of hydrogen (H) and one atom of
oxygen (O). Chemical combination of different atoms makes a molecule. An atom can be further divided into
three particles known as protons and electrons and neutrons. Protons and electrons are the particles possessing
electrical properties whereas neutron is electrically neutral. These particles can't be divided further.
Electrons are the negatively charged particles, which revolve around the positively charged protons (which
constitute the nucleus of an atom along with neutrons). Proton is about 1800 times heavier than electron.
There is always attraction between unlike charges. Because electron is much lighter than proton, hence it is
pulled towards the proton. If the force of attraction is enough, then the electron comes too closer to the proton
and both the particles together form a neutral particle to be known as neutron. Atoms, of all matters, except
hydrogen contains one or more neutron in their nucleus.
The electrical charge of an electron can be explained with the help of an imagination that there exist lines of
forces, which are outward pointing. Though the size & weight of electron and proton varies significantly, the
negative field of an electron is just as strong negatively as the positive field of a proton is positive. Small though
it is physically, the field near the electron is quite strong. The strength of the field varies inversely with the
distance squared.
Though electrons and protons have different kind of charge in them, both have charges of equal magnitude. An
electron (negatively charged) repels another electron, while a proton (positively charged) repels another proton.
So the basic physical law states:
"Like charges repel; unlike charges attract".
What is charge?
Charge is an amount of electrons. Its unit is coulomb (C) and symbol is ‘q’. One coulomb is equivalent to 6 x
1018 electrons.
What is current?
Atoms of a metal form a crystal lattice, and in the spaces between the lattice points free electrons move
chaotically, wandering aimlessly here and there. But it is enough to connect a metal plate to the two poles of a
voltage source for the electrons immediately to acquire an aim. They will move towards the positive pole of the
battery, and an electric current will begin to flow in the metal. An electric current can also flow in a gas. A
voltage applied across a gas-filled tube causes ionization of the gas: free electrons stream towards the plate with
the positive potential, colliding with the atoms in their way and detaching electrons from their orbits. The
positive ions move toward the opposite end of the tube. Current is the rate of flow of charge, i.e., the number
of coulombs flowing past a point per second. Its unit is ampere (A) or amp. One amp is equal to one
coulomb per second.
What is voltage?
Voltage is also called potential (Potential is defined as the work required from some energy source in moving a
unit positive charge between two points in an electric field), potential difference, potential drop, or electromotive
force-EMF. It is the electronic potential energy between two points, and is the driving force that causes charge to
flow. Its unit is volt (V). One volt is defined as the potential difference that requires one joule of energy to move
one coulomb of charge. Voltage is always measured relative to some other point in a circuit, e.g. the potential
across a resistor. Voltage measurement made at a single point in a circuit are made relative to the earth (ground),
which is assigned an "absolute" voltage of zero.
Types of electricity
Direct Current (DC)
The current, which flows in one direction in a circuit. DC voltage has a fixed polarity (e.g. a battery or an
electrical cell) and the magnitude of the current remains constant. In an electrical circuit, the flow of electric
current is indicated by an arrow mark originating from the positive terminal of the battery towards the negative
terminal of the battery. This is the conventional method of showing the direction of current flow. But the real
direction of electron flow is from the negative terminal of the battery to the positive terminal.
represent the frequency of the source. The wave-form of the household ac is known as the ‘sine’ wave. The
magnitude of the A.C. voltage changes with time. AC is obtained from A.C. generators.
Advantage of AC
Heat is developed in all type of electrical circuits due to the flow of electric current. The magnitude of the D.C.
being constant produces more heat in a circuit compared to the heat produced by an A.C. In long distance
transmission lines, large amount of power will be dissipated in the form of heat if D.C. is used which can be
reduced by the use of A.C.
A.C. Voltage can be measured in four different ways.
Peak Voltage
The value or amplitude of an A.C. voltage never remains constant. With an initial voltage of zero, the amplitude
rises to a peak value, after which it again falls back to zero. After reaching zero, the direction of the current
changes and the voltage rises to its negative peak. Peak voltage measurement is necessary to ensure or know that
the amplitude of the A.C. voltage does not exceed a limit.
Instantaneous Voltage
It is also called the average voltage. The voltages if can be measured at different points of the half cycle of the
sine wave will be the instantaneous voltages. But practically it is not possible. So one way to denote
instantaneous voltage is to take the average voltage. In a sine wave A.C. voltage, the average voltage can be
found out by multiplying the ‘peak voltage’ by a constant (value of the constant can be worked out to be equal to
0.367).
Root-Mean-Square Voltage
Measuring an A.C. voltage involves the use of a meter which measures AC Voltage in terms of how much DC
voltage it would take to have the same effect in a circuit. Since during most of the cycle the AC has a value less
than the value at its peak, or for that matter, than that of a constant DC voltage, it will not be able to produce as
much heat (in a heating element) as produced by the same amount of DC voltage. Power being proportional to
either E2 or I2 (P=E2/R=I2R), if all the instantaneous values of a half cycle of sine-wave current (or voltage) are
squared and then the average, or mean, of all the squared values is found, the square root of this mean value will
be 0.707 of the peak value. This root-mean-square, or rms, value represents how effective a sinusoidal AC will
be in comparison with its peak value.
To determine a peak value of AC that will be as effective as a given DC, it is necessary to multiply the effective
value given by the reciprocal of 0.707 (1/0.707), which is 1.414.
In a domestic AC supply, 230 volts is actually the effective voltage, Veff, which is 230 x 1.414, or nearly 325
Volts peak.
Magnetism
What is a magnet?
A piece of iron, nickel, cobalt, steel, alloy (e.g. alloy made from non-magnetic copper, manganese and
aluminum) etc. usually in the form of a bar having properties of attracting or repelling iron is called a magnet.
But what gives it its force is not completely known. One of the theories to describe magnetism is the-"Theory of
Domains". It says that materials that can be made into magnets have many tiny crystal like structures called
domains. Each domain is made up of many atoms. Each domain has a small magnetic force of its own. When the
material is not magnetized, the domains are haphazardly arranged-pointing in all directions-so that their tiny
forces cancel each other. To make the material into a magnet, the domains need to be lined up so that their
individual magnetic forces all help each other pull the same way. When most of the domains line up, the magnet
becomes strong. When all of the domains line up in one direction, the magnet is saturated. It cannot be made any
stronger regardless of how much you try to magnetise it. In a magnetic bar, there are two poles: North and South.
They are marked as ‘North’ and ‘South’ poles because, when the magnetic bar is suspended horizontally, one of
the ends will always point towards the Earth’s geographical north and the other pole towards the Earth’s
geographical south. This is because of the fact that the Earth itself behaves like a huge magnet. In a magnet, the
like poles repel and the unlike poles attract-a reason for the specific alignment of the magnetic bar. The magnetic
bar is surrounded by the invisible lines of forces which originate from the ‘North’ pole and terminate in the
‘South’ pole.
Ferro-magnet
Iron, nickel and cobalt (including the alloy mentioned above) are considered ferromagnetic. Ferro-magnetic
materials are difficult to be converted to magnet but once magnetized under the influence of another magnetic
field, they cannot be completely demagnetized. Ferromagnetic materials are used to make permanent magnets.
One of the strongest permanent magnets is a combination of iron, aluminum, nickel and cobalt called
"Alnico".
Paramagnet
Materials which get demagnetized once the external magnetic field is removed are paramagnetic.
Use of Permanent magnets in Electronics
Permanent magnets are used in electronics to make electric meters, headphones, loudspeakers, radar transmitting
tubes etc.
Resistors
What are resistors?
Resistors are load elements that dissipate current into heat. They are used in circuits to adjust voltages.
Resistance (R) is the retarding force in a material that impedes the flow of current. The potential (E) needed to
achieve a current (I) through a material that behaves linearly, e.g. conductors and resistors, is given by Ohm’s
law:
E=IR
Where E=emf (in volts, V)
I=intensity of current (in amperes, A)
R=Resistance (in ohms, Ω )
So, if we know any two values, we can find out the other value. The above formula can rearranged as shown
below:
From this formula, it is evident that-"Current varies directly as the voltage and inversely as the resistance".
The formula can also be arranged to find out the resistance in a circuit if the voltage and current are known.
Practical Resistors
The resistance of a material depends on four physical factors:
(1) The type of material from which it is made. For example copper and silver are very good conductors
of electric current, but iron is six times lesser in its conductivity than them.
(2) The length (greater the length greater is the resistance).
(3) Cross-sectional area (greater the cross-sectional area larger the amount of free electron implying
lesser resistance).
(4) Temperature (except for carbon and other semiconductor materials).
So each material has a specific resistance inherent in them. The specific resistance of a material is the
number of ohms in a 1 foot long 0.001 inch diameter round wire of that material at room temperature.
Silver has the least specific resistance, i.e. 9.75 Ω and nichrome is an alloy, which has specific resistance
as high as 660 Ω .
Wire-wound resistor
Nicrome or german silver wires are wound on a tubular ceramic form to make wire-wound resistor.
Carbon resistor
Powedered carbon is mixed with a binding material and baked into small, hard tubes with wire attached to each
end to make carbon resistors. The percentage of carbon in the mixture determines the resistance value in ohms.
Colour codes of resistors
Carbon resistors are colour coded to indicate their values. Each resistor has four colour bands on its body. The
first band (the band which is nearest to the end of the resistor) is the first number. The second band is the second
number. The third band is the multiplier, i.e. number of zeros following the second number.
Black 0 0
Brown 1 1 0
Red 2 2 00
Orange 3 3 000
Yellow 4 4 0000
Green 5 5 00000
Blue 6 6 000000
Violet 7 7 0000000
Gray 8 8 00000000
White 9 9 000000000
Resistors having values lower than 10 Ω have three colour bands. The third band is either golden or silver in
colour. A golden band indicates that the first two numbers are to be multiplied by 0.1. A silver band indicates
multiplication by 0.01. The tolerance of three band resistors is 20%. If the golden or silver band is the fourth
band respectively, then they indicate a tolerance of 5% and 10% respectively.
Questions:
1. A circuit has a resistance of 100 ohms and voltage applied across the circuit is 20 volts. What is the
amount of current flowing through it?
Questions:
1. Find out the heat dissipated by a 50 Ω resistor when 0.25 A of current flow pass through it.
We have, P=I2R or P=0.252 x 50=0.0625 x 50=3.125 W
2. Find out the power dissipated by a 10,000 Ω resistor connected across a voltage source of 250 V.
We have P=E2/R=2502/10,000=6.25 W
3. Find out the maximum voltage that may be connected across a 20 W, 2000 Ω resistor.
We have, P= E2/R
Or , E2=PR
Or,
Or,
E=632.46 V
4. Find out the maximum current that can flow through a 100 Ω 1 W resistor.
We have,
Or,
The circuit shown in Fig.2 is a series circuit where three resistors are connected one after another and as
evident from the diagram, there is only path through which current flows.
The circuit shown in Fig 3 is a parallel circuit where each resistor has its independent path for the flow of
The circuit shown in Fig 4 consists of two batteries and three resistors in series. In a series circuit the same
amount of current flows through all parts of each circuit. The resistors are connected in series to obtain a
greater resistance and it is equal to the sum of the values of each resistor, i.e. 40 Ω . Two batteries are
connected in series in this circuit to obtain the highest possible voltage which is the sum of the values of
each battery, i.e. 20 V.
From the Ohm’s law, the current flowing through this circuit will be:
I=E/R or I=20/40=0.5 A
We should be careful while connecting batteries in series, because, the maximum current possible through
the circuit is no greater than the greatest current that the weakest battery can deliver. If one of the batteries
in the above example is weaker than the other and capable of passing only, say, 0.2 A, it will be
overworked, may overheat and the voltage across the terminal will drop.
In this type of circuit, the voltage that can be obtained across each resistor is called the ‘Voltage drop’.
From the Ohm’s law, the voltage across each resistor can be calculated. The voltage drop across the 30Ω
resistor is 15 V (0.5 x 30) and the voltage drop across the 5Ω resistor (each) is 2.5 V. Thus the sum of the
voltage-drops is equal to the source voltage (2.5+2.5+15=20V).
The circuit shown above is a circuit where two resistors are connected in parallel across the voltage source.
Obviously, there are two paths for the flow of current. One part of the current flows through R1 and the
other part flows through R2. Since total conductance St of a circuit is equal to the sum of all the
conductances connected in parallel, the formula can be expressed as: St=S1+S2
Or St=1/R1+1/R2
Or 1/Rt=1/R1+1/R2
The above equation is made into a pair of fractions by placing a 1 over both sides,
The circuit shown above seems to be a complex circuit. By looking at the arrangement of the resistors,
their values can be computed in simple steps. As indicated above, calculate as per the steps shown [e.g.
step (a), step (b)…..]
Step (a): 15Ω & 5Ω resistors are arranged in parallel imparting a value equivalent to 3.5Ω
Step (b): 3.5Ω + 20Ω =23.5 Ω (arranged in series)
Step (c): 6.67 Ω (arranged in parallel)
Step (d): 23.5Ω & 6.67Ω are arranged in parallel or the equivalent value
Inductors
Self Inductance
Self inductance is the property of a circuit whereby a change in current causes a change in voltage.
Self-inductance is also more simply known as inductance. If ‘L’ is the inductance, then increasing the
value of ‘L’ increases the amount of voltage that is induced in response to a change in current. Decreasing
the value of ‘L’ decreases the amount of voltage that is induced in response to a change in current.
Inductance is measured in units of Henries (H). Commonly used engineering units for inductance are-
henry (1 H), millihenry (1mH=1 x 10-3 H) and microhenry (1 µ H=1x 10-6 H).
One henry is the amount of inductance that is required for generating one volt of induced voltage
when the current is changing at the rate of one ampere per second.
Inductance is the property of a coil when it is subjected to AC voltage. It results from the fluctuation of the
current flowing through the circuit. When the current through the coil builds up, an expanding magnetic
field also builds up cutting the turns of the coil resulting in the formation of a counter voltage in the coil
which opposes the flow of the original current. This property of the coil is known as inductance. Since DC
voltage remains constant (except for the instant when the circuit is closed, i.e. the instant when the switch
is made on), there is no fluctuation in the magnetic lines of force produced across the turns of the coil and
counter voltage is not generated. So a coil offers very negligible resistance (that due to the physical
resistance) to the flow of DC current.
Inductive reactance
Inductive reactance is the opposition to AC current flow that is caused by the presence of an inductor in
the circuit. The symbol for inductive reactance is XL. The unit of measure for inductive reactance is ohms
(Ω ). The amount of inductive reactance in a circuit is proportional to the applied frequency (f) and the
value of the inductor(L).
Inductive reactance is an AC version of resistance. In fact, Ohm’s Law can be used by substituting XL for
R.
VL=ILXL
Where VL is the voltage across the inductor in volts, IL is the current through the inductor in amperes, XL
is the amount of inductive reactance in ohms.
The equation for calculating the amount of inductive reactance in an ac circuit is given by:
XL=2π fL
The total inductive reactance of a series XL circuit is equal to the sum of the individual reactances.
XLT=XL1+XL2+XL3+…XLn
Where XLT is the total inductive reactance and XL1, XL2,…. XLn etc. are the values of individual reactance.
XLT=1/( 1/XL1+1/XL2+1/XL3+1/XLn)
Inductive reactance is an AC version of resistance. In fact, you can use Ohm's Law by substituting XL for
R:
VL = ILXLs
where:
VL is the voltage across the inductor in volts
The amount of inductive reactance (XL) changes proportionally with the applied frequency (f):
The amount of inductive reactance (XL) changes proportionally with the value of inductance (L):
Ans: 628 W
Use the basic equation: XL=2π fL
2. What value inductor is required for producing an inductive reactance of 10 W at 1.8 kHz?
Ans: 88.5 mH.
Use this form of the basic equation: L = 1 / (2 fXL )
3. At what frequency will a 150 mH inductor have an inductive reactance of
150 W?
Ans: 159 Hz
Use this form of the basic equation:
f = 1 / (2 LXL )
4. What is the total inductive reactance of this circuit when XL1 = 150 W and XL2 = 75 W?
Ans: 225 W
Equation to find out inductive reactance in a circuit with a number of inductors in parallel
Use one of these inverse equations to determine the total inductive reactance of a parallel inductor circuit:
where:
XLT = total inductive reactance
The procedure for finding the total inductive reactance of a parallel inductor circuit is identical to finding the
total resistance of a parallel resistor circuit.
The total reactance of two inductors in parallel can be found by applying the product-over-sum formula:
Capacitor
Capacitor is a device used to store electrical energy and then release it as current into the circuit. Its property is
just the reverse of an inductor. The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in Farad.
A capacitor has a capacitance of 1 Farad if a 1 Volt difference in potential results in the storage of 1 coulomb of
charge.
1 coulomb = 6.28 x 1018 electrons
The capacitance is, C=Q/E,
Where C is capacitance in farads,
Q is the charge in coulombs,
E is the voltage in volts.
Practically farad is a large unit. The smaller units are micro farads (µF) and Pico farads (PF).
When two metallic plates or conductors are separated by an insulator, also known as a dielectric, they behave like
a capacitor. The conductors can be long or short piece of metal plate or any other conducting material. The
insulator between the two conductors which is known as dielectric can be air, mica, wax-impregnated paper
ceramic etc. The properties of a capacitor:
1. It stores energy in the form of electrical field
2. Capacitance is the property of an electric circuit that tends to oppose a change in voltage.
3. It passes A.C. and blocks D.C.
Functioning of a capacitor
A capacitor when connected across a voltage source, an electrostatic field builds up between the metallic plates.
The field builds up due to the accumulation of electrons on the negative plate and release of electrons from the
positive plate until the capacitor voltage reaches its maximum. The capacitor will be in this charged state as long
as it is connected to the voltage source. After removal of the voltage source, the capacitor can not loose its charge
(theoretically, a perfect capacitor would hold the charge forever, but in practical, some of the charges leak out),
unless, both the plates are not connected with the help of a conducting path. When there is a conducting path,
electrons from the negatively charged plate flows to the positive plate until both the plates are neutralized.
Capacitor in a DC Circuit
In DC circuits, the capacitor will allow current to flow till it becomes fully charged, however since no current can
flow through the dielectric material of the capacitor, no current flows after the capacitor gets fully charged.
Capacitor in an AC Circuit
The AC Voltage or current is fluctuating in nature. It is not only fluctuating but also changing the direction of
flow, i.e. the polarity of the AC voltage source keeps on changing resulting in a charging and discharging of the
capacitor. Unlike a DC circuit, here, current will continue to flow in the circuit (though the electrons don’t cross
the dielectric material of the capacitor).
Capacitor in a varying DC circuit
If the voltage source is a varying DC, then also there is continual charging and partial discharging of the
capacitor resulting in an AC current flowing through the circuit. In fact, the capacitor blocks the DC, but pass the
AC component.
Factors that affect capacitance
1. Area of plates : The larger the plates, the higher its capacity to store charges, i.e. capacitance is directly
proportional to the plate areas.
2. Space between the plates: The closer the plates, higher is the capacity to hold charges, because, the
electrostatic pull on the electrons collected at the negative side of the voltage source will be more.
Capacitance is inversely proportional to the spacing between plates.
3. Type of dielectric used: Some materials are more dielectric than the others. Vacuum is the basic dielectric
with which other materials are compared. It is said to be having a dielectric constant of 1. The dielectric
constant of air is slightly more than this (1.0006). Dielectric constant is the ability of a material to permit
the establishment of electric lines of force between oppositely charged plates. A dielectric (other than air)
makes the positively charged surface of a capacitor repel more free electrons and negatively charged
surface accept more electrons than when air is dielectric, thus increasing the capacitance. The dielectric
constant of mica ranges from 5 to 9. Dielectric constant of glass is 4.2.Capacitance is directly
proportional to the dielectric constant.
A formula to determine the capacitance of a two-plate capacitor is:
Where
C= Capacitance in pF
K= dielectric constant
A= area of one of the plates, in inch2
S= spacing between plates, in inches
The above formula is valid for a two plate capacitor. For a multiplate capacitor, the formula is:
It is seen that a 3-plate capacitor has twice the plate area exposed and thus twice the capacitance.
Capacitive Reactance
Capacitive reactance is the resistance offered by a capacitor to the flow of AC through it. It is measured in ohms
(O). The formula to calculate capacitive reactance in a circuit is:
Capacitors in parallel
Capacitors can be connected in parallel to obtain a greater value. The formula is:
Total capacitance of capacitors in parallel, Ct= C1+C2+C3+…..Cn
While connecting the capacitors in parallel, it should be noticed that the voltage applied on them does not exceed
the voltage rating of the capacitor with the minimum voltage rating.
Capacitors in series
As shown above, when two capacitors are connected in series, the bottom & top plates of the respective
capacitors are ignored and consequently combined effect of two capacitors of equal value is to simulate a single
capacitor with half the value of a single capacitor, i.e. if two 10 µF capacitors are connected in series as shown
above, we will get an effective capacitance of 5 µF. This is because the circuit sees only two plates (plate a & b)
with a dielectric distance of twice that of a single capacitor (capacitance decreases when distance between plate
increases). It is to be noted that when capacitors of different voltage ratings are connected in series, the voltage
that can be applied to them can be equal or less than the total voltage obtained by adding voltages of each
capacitor, alternatively, we can say that when capacitors in series are connected across voltage source, the sum of
the voltage-drops across each of them will always equal the source voltage.
The formula to calculate the total capacitance of a number of capacitors connected in series is:
Types of capacitors
There are fixed value capacitor as well as variable value capacitors available for electronics work. Paper, mica,
ceramic and polyester capacitors have fixed values.
Paper capacitor
Paper capacitors are made by rolling two metal foils with a strip of paper and then impregnating with a dielectric
between them. For high voltage applications, several layers of papers are used to separate the metallic foils.
Mica capacitor
Mica is used as a dielectric between the metallic plates in this type of capacitors.
Ceramic capacitor
In this type of capacitor, ceramic is used as a dielectric which has a high dielectric constant. Ceramic capacitors
have good stability with regards to temperature and voltage changes.
Polyester capacitor
In this type of capacitors polyester is used as a dielectric to impart a high breakdown voltage.
foil is placed in the solution. To prevent the two foils from touching each other, a piece of gauze is placed
between them. The +ve foil is are surrounded by a thin oxidized film formed due to application of a particular
voltage which acts as the dielectric. Electrolytic capacitors can not be used in AC circuits.
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are widely used in radio frequency work where it is required to change the value of the
capacitor in order tune the circuit to a particular frequency. Usually, air is used as a dielectric in this type of
capacitor. The capacitance is made to vary either by changing the distance between the plates or by changing the
plate area exposed. This type of capacitor may consist of two plate or more than two plates. Metallic gang
capacitors and button trimmers are the most common example of variable capacitors. In a trimmer the two
metallic plates are made to vary in their distance with the use of a screw.
Impedance
Impedance is the total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit. It takes into account all sources of opposition.
Since it is the total opposition, impedance is measured in ohms, just as resistance and reactances are. If an
inductor and resistance are connected in series with a source of A.C., the impedance of the circuit is:
Therefore,
=5 Ohms
The impedance of a series R-L circuit can never be equal to or as great as the sum of XL and R, nor can it be
equal to or less than either XL or R.
capacitor has the capacitive reactance, XC. The net resistance present in the circuit is negligible.
If the circuit has an inductance L of 1 henry in series with a capacitor C of 10 MFd and the applied voltage E is
100 volts and frequency is 50 Hertz.
Then,
Inductive reactance XL=2π fL= 6.28 x 50 x 1 = 314 Ohms
Capacitive reactance,
The impedance of such circuit is the difference of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance.
Z=XC-XL=318.5-314 = 4.5 Ohms
Resonant frequency
Resonant circuits make it possible to select one frequency from all others. For example, there are hundreds of
radio stations that broadcast signals strong enough to be received by your radio receiver. The tuning circuit of the
radio receiver accomplishes the task of discarding all other signals but to allow only the desired signal to be
processed. The single frequency at which the circuit responds best is called the resonant frequency of the circuit.
Resonance occurs when the inductive reactance becomes equal to capacitive reactance or XL = XC.
It can be achieved by either varying capacitance or inductance. In a radio receiver, it is achieved by varying the
value of the variable capacitor. A series resonant circuit offers very little resistance when the circuit operates at
the resonant frequency. High current is permitted to flow through the circuit.
Parallel Resonant Circuit
In the circuit diagram shown below, the part of the circuit between the points ‘a’ and ‘b’ is called a ‘tank’
because the resonant frequency will be captured and held there while all other frequencies are allowed to flow
through it. So if the Ac source is producing AC current at the resonant frequency, that current is blocked by the
tank. The current is not permitted to travel from ‘a’ to ‘b’ through the tank. But when the AC source is producing
current at any other frequency, the current can flow from ‘a’ to ‘b’ with little opposition.
Tuning Circuit
In a radio receiver, the selection of the desired frequency out of hundreds of other frequencies is achieved by the
use of resonant circuit. The resonant circuit basically consists of an inductor and a capacitor. The frequency of
resonance is usually achieved by changing the capacitance of the variable capacitor.
In the tuning circuit shown above, all the frequencies captured by the antenna are passed to ground through the
primary coil L1. They will try to cause current flow in the tank circuit, but only the resonant frequency will be
successful in creating a current flow. The information it carries will be sent to the other radio circuits while the
non-resonant frequencies are practically ignored.
In the circuit shown above, the condition of series resonance is present but is not apparent. In this circuit the
transformer secondary coil has a capacitor across it with a reactance of the secondary, forming a resonant circuit.
At first glance it appears to be a parallel-resonant circuit. The primary coil, however, is inducing an AC voltage
into each turn of the secondary coil. Theoretically, the secondary may be considered to have a source of AC
inserted in series with its turns.
Filtering
Resonant circuits are used to filter out the desired frequency. A series resonant circuit allows to pass its resonant
frequency while the parallel resonant circuit (called the tank circuit) blocks the flow of its resonant frequency
‘Q’ of a circuit
The term ‘Q’ is applied to AC circuits in which inductance and capacitance are involved. It in fact express the
‘quality’ of the inductor or capacitor and since lesser the ohmic resistance of the coil (inductor), more perfect
inductor the coil is, with little loss. ‘Q’ can be found from the formula:
Q = Xi / R (in case of coil); where Xi = inductive reactance, R = Ohmic resistance.
Therefore, Q = 2pfL / R ; this shown that the same coil or inductor possesses high ‘Q’ at higher frequency.
Skin effect
A phenomenon called ‘Skin effect’ also causes a less efficient coil or inductor. It is observed that at higher
frequencies, electrons flow nearer to the surface of the conducting wire; since the usable cross-sectional area
lessens, the ohmic resistance increases resulting in a lower ‘Q’.
Prevention of ‘Skin effect’
i. By using large diameter wire.
ii. By silver-plating of the wire used.
iii. Using fewer turns while making the coil, but increasing the core permeability; e.g. using powdered iron
core.
iv. By using ‘Litzendraht wire’, an insulated multistrand wire. Several thin strands have more surface for a
given wire diameter than does a solid wire (Litz wire is effective only up to about 1 MHz)
through a glass bead sealed into an eyelet. The electrodes in a vacuum tube are supported by insulators such as
mica and a variety of ceramics. The electrodes themselves are commonly made from metals such as nickel,
copper, aluminum, molybdenum, and tungsten.
In thermionic valves the electrons move in a vacuum. An example of such a device is the diode. The envelope of
a diode houses two main parts which are also called the anode and the cathode. Near the cathode there is a
filament or miniature electric heater which heats the cathode. Most tubes employ heater-cathodes. A heater
cathode consists of a metal cylinder coated with special oxides that liberate great quantities of electrons when
heated to a relatively low temperature. In this case an "electron liquid", consisting of electrons that move
chaotically the very body of the cathode, between its atoms, begin to "boil". This phenomenon is known as
'electronic emission’. As a result of this emission, a cloud of "electron gas" is formed round the cathode. If the
cathode is now connected to the negative terminal of a voltage source and the anode, to the positive terminal, the
anode will begin attracting electrons from the cloud, "drawing" them away from the cathode, and a current will
flow inside the diode. Freedom for the electron proves very short-lived: no sooner does it escape from the
cathode than it is immediately attracted by the anode.
A diode is in fact a one-way valve. When the negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode
and the positive terminal to the cathode, the electrons will not be able to escape the cathode, because it attracts
them. But even those that do escape have nowhere to fly in particular: previously they were attracted by the
anode, now it forces them back to the cathode. With such a connection no current flows through the diode (this
property of the diode is employed for converting the alternating current to direct current which is called
rectification)The current flowing through a diode is called the plate (anode is also known as plate) current. The
flow of plate current can be controlled by two ways: by varying cathode temperature; and by changing the
amount of voltage applied (called the plate voltage). But cathodes are designed to operate most efficiently at one
particular temperature. An increase in plate voltage results in an increase in plate current. But after a certain
point, further increase in plate voltage will not cause any more increase in the plate current. This point is called
the saturation point.
Diode valve as a rectifier
As shown in the circuit given below, the source of plate voltage in the plate circuit is a transformer providing an
alternating voltage to the plate. During one half cycle the plate end of the transformer-secondary winding may be
positive and the cathode end negative. On the next half cycle the plate end will be negative and the cathode end
positive. As described above, the diode allows only one half cycle of the emf to produce current in the circuit.
With ac plate voltage the plate current is pulsating dc. This one-way-gate effect is a main use of diodes. A diode
is also called a rectifier.
Triode Valve
The introduction of a third electrode (control grid) between the cathode and the anode of a diode makes it a
triode. In the triode, current is controlled by means of a voltage applied between the cathode and the grid. With a
high negative grid potential (with respect to the cathode), the grid becomes a barrier for the electrons. They will
"crowd" in the space between the cathode and the grid; the valve will be cut off, since no current will flow from
the cathode to the anode. With a positive grid potential, the grid will help the anode, since its positive potential
will be added to that of the anode. A heavy current will flow through the valve. However, with too high a
positive grid potential the grid may turn from a helper of the anode into its competitor: some electrons will be
drawn to it and will not reach the anode. In this case a harmful grid current appears in the valve. That is why in
normal operation the grid is made to vary only more or less negatively.
Amplification factor of a triode valve
In the circuit shown below, the voltage (-Eg) in the grid circuit is –8 V. Plate voltage is 200 V. Plate current is
3mA. By increasing Ep by 40 V it is found that plate current increases from 3 to 7 mA. Returning to the original
values, Grid voltage (-Eg) is –8 V, Ep=200 V, and Ip=3mA, it is found that if the –Eg value is reduced by 2 V,
from –8 to –6 V, the Ip will again rise from 3 to 7 mA. This indicates that the same Ip change can be produced
either by changing the Ep by 40 V or by changing the –Eg by 2 V. This controlling ratio of 40:2 is equal to 20.
The tube is said to have a µ (mu) or amplification factor of 20. Thus the grid is found to be 20 times more
effective in changing plate current than the plate voltage is.
Triode as an amplifier
In a theoretical circuit comprising a microphone, a transformer, a triode valve with a load resistance, the
microphone induces a small ac voltage into the secondary of the transformer and between grid and cathode. With
no signal applied to the grid and with 100 V from the plate supply, the dc voltage-drop across the load resistor Rl
might be 75 V. As the input signal reaches a peak of 1V negative, the current in the plate circuit will decrease.
The voltage drop across the plate-load resistor might decrease by 12 V, to 63 V across the Rl. As the grid voltage
swings to 1 V positive, the plate current will increase, until there is a voltage drop of perhaps 87 V across the
load resistor. As grid voltage varies from –1 V to +1 V (a 2 V peak to peak variation), the voltage across the load
resistor varies between 87 and 63, i.e. 24 V. The voltage ratio of 2:24 indicates that across the plate load resistor,
the voltage variation is 12 times more than the variation between the grid and the cathode.
Bias voltage
In the circuit described above, the grid was driven negative and positive alternately. But this creates distortion.
To avoid the distortion, in a practical circuit, the grid may never be allowed to become positive and thus there is
no grid current (Ig) from the cathode. This is accomplished by adding a dc voltage source in series with the
grid-cathode circuit. The negative potential is applied to the grid through the transformer, and the positive
potential to the cathode. The negative dc voltage added in series with the grid circuit is known as the bias
voltage. If a negative 10 V bias is enough to produce plate-current cutoff with a given plate voltage, then a
possible bias voltage would be half of this, i.e. 5 V for a class A amplifier. It can accommodate a peak ac emf of
5 V from the secondary of the grid-circuit transformer and neither cutoff the plate current nor drive the grid into
positive region.
When pieces of p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined together, a p-n junction results. Flow of electric
current through such a junction is possible only when the positive pole of the battery (voltage source) is
connected to the p-type semiconductor and the negative pole to the n-type semiconductor. This is called the
"forward biased" condition. In this condition, positively charged holes are repelled by the battery voltage
towards the junction between p and n type material. Simultaneously, the electrons in the n-type material are
repelled by the negative battery voltage toward the p-n junction. Despite the presence of a potential barrier at the
p-n junction, which prevents electrons and holes from moving across and combining, under the influence of the
electric field of the battery the holes move to the right across the junction and the electrons move to the left. As a
result, electrons and holes combine and for each combination of that takes place near the junction, a covalent
bond near the positive battery terminal breaks down, an electron is liberated and enters the positive terminal. This
action creates a new hole which moves to the right toward the p-n junction. At the opposite end, in the N-region
near the negative terminal, more electrons arrive from the negative battery terminal and enter the n-region to
replace the electrons lost by combination with holes near the junction. These electrons move toward the junction
at the left, where they again combine with new holes arriving there. As a consequence, a relatively large current
flows through the junction. The current through the external connecting wires and battery is due to that of the
flow of electrons. If, however, the polarity of the battery is reversed, i.e., the positive terminal is connected to
n-type semiconductor and the negative terminal of the battery to the p-type semiconductor, the p-n junction will
block the electron flow by building up a voltage barrier at the junction. The holes are now attracted to the
negative battery terminal and move away from the junction because of the attraction of the positive terminal.
Since there are effectively no hole and electron carriers in the vicinity of the junction, current flow stops almost
completely. This type of device is called a "solid state diode" or a semiconductor. By exploiting their property of
one way flow of electric current, they can be utilized to convert alternating current to direct current (known as
rectification). Without adequate filtering, the resultant d.c. is pulsating in nature.
Transistors
The simplest of the transistors are of two types-either p-n-p or n-p-n. Two p-n junction diodes can be sandwiched
back to back to form a p-n-p or n-p-n junction transistor. But in a practical transistor, the center or n-type portion
of the sandwich is extremely thin in comparison to the p-regions. In the 1st illustration, both the p-n junctions
are reverse biased.
In this type of connection, holes in the each of p-region are attracted towards the negative battery terminal and
the mobile electrons in the n-region are initially moved away from both junctions in the direction of the positive
battery terminal. Due to the displacement of holes and electrons, there will be no current flow in the external
circuit.
In the 2nd illustration, one of the p-n junctions is forward biased, while the other is reversed biased. In a
transistor, the middle layer (here n-region) is called the base, the forward biased p-n junction is called the
emitter junction and the reverse biased p-n junction is called collector junction. Due to the positive potential at
the emitter junction, the holes in the p-region cross into the n-region (the base). But this region is very thin and
there are very few electrons with which holes can combine. So, majority of the holes drift across the base into the
collector junction. About 5 per cent of them are lost in the base region as they combine with electrons. For each
hole that is lost by combination with an electron in the base and collector areas, a covalent bond near the emitter
electrode breaks down and a liberated electron leaves the emitter electrode and enters the positive battery
terminal. The new hole that is formed then moves immediately toward the emitter junction, and the process is
repeated. Thus, a continuous supply of holes are injected into the emitter junction, which flow across the base
region and collector junction, where they are gathered up by the negative collector voltage. The flow of current
within the p-n-p transistor thus takes place by hole conduction from emitter to collector, while conduction in the
external circuit is due to the conduction of electrons.
Because of the reverse bias no current can flow in the collector circuit, unless current is introduced into the
emitter. Since a small emitter voltage of about 0.1 to 0.5 volt permits the flow of an appreciable emitter current,
the input power to the emitter circuit is quite small. As we have seen, the collector current due to the diffusion of
holes is almost as large as the emitter current. Moreover, the collector voltage can be as high as 45 volts, thus
permitting relatively large output powers. A large amount of power in the collector circuit may be controlled by a
small amount of power in the emitter circuit. The power gain in a transistor (power out/power in) thus may be
quite high, reaching values in the order of 1000.
The ratio of collector current to emitter current is known as alpha (α ) and it is the measure of possible
current amplification in a transistor. α cannot be higher than 1.
Transistor Symbols and Connection:
When transistors are operated as amplifier, three different basic circuit connections are possible: (a)
Common-base, emitter input; (b) common-emitter, base input; and (c) common-collector, base-input.
Regardless of the circuit connection the emitter is always forward biased and collector is always reverse
biased.
D. Radio Receivers
Q. Compare and contrast a Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) receiver with a Superheterodyne receiver.
A TRF receiver consists of the following stages:
i. Antenna input stage
ii. A few stages for RF-amplification
iii. A detector stage for demodulation
iv. One or more stages of AF amplifier
Q. How the RF amplifier, Local Oscillator and mixer circuit of a superhet receiver maintains a constant
frequency separation and why?
The main objective of the superheterodyne receiver is to produce an intermediate frequency (IF) by the process
of heterodyning or beating.
This can be accomplished when two frequencies are mixed to produce the beat frequency. In superhets, the IF is
usually 455 kHz which is selected because the broadcast band begins above that frequency. So, if we imagine a
situation when the RF amplifier is tuned to receive a 800 kHz broadcasr signal, the local oscillator must be tuned
to 1255 kHz which will result in an IF of 455 kHz (1255-800 kHz=455 kHz).
Since we have to tune the RF amplifier section throughout the entire broadcast band, the frequency of the local
oscillator must also vary in a manner that it always maintains a gap of 455 kHz. To achieve this condition, the
Local Oscillator and RF Amplifier section are 'ganged', i.e. their tuning condensers are connected/ganged
mechanically in such a way that when we tune the variable capacitor in the RF section, the variable capacitor in
the local oscillator also changes its value, it 'tracks' the frequency to which the 'Aerial Circuit' is tuned and
remain seperated from the tuned frequency by 455 kHz up.
The Intermediate Frequency (IF), which is a considerably low frequency is being used, because-
i. it is a suitable frequency to achieve amplifying efficiency.
ii. It provides better selectivity.
iii. It provides better sensitivity throughout the broadcast band.
iv. It provides uniform sensitivity as well as uniform selectivity.
If the RF Amplifier section selects and amplify a signal of 800 kHz, then the local oscillator produces a
frequency of 1255 kHz. By mixing both the frequency at the mixer stage, a difference of frequency of the value
455 kHz is obtained (1255-800=455 kHz)
Intermediate Frequency (IF) Amplifier
The 455 kHz IF is fed to the IF amplifier through an IF transformer. The circuitry of the IF section is so designed
and tuned so that it gives the optimum gain at that particular IF frequency.
Q. Why ham radio transmissions are not heard in ordinary radio receiver sets? Can you receive
ham radio transmissions in your ordinary radio set?
The radio sets available in the market for general public are designed to receive Amplitude Modulated (AM) or
Frequency Modulated (FM) broadcasts only. But the ham radio operators use a very efficient mode of
transmission called Single Side Band (SSB) transmission. The power of a ham radio station is also very low (
usually not more than 100 watts) in comparison to the broadcast station (which use power in the kilowatts range).
In fact many of the broadcast band radio receivers available in the market also covers some of the frequencies
which are allotted to the ham radio stations. A 4 band radio set (inclusive of the Medium Wave band) can be
expected to cover some popular ham radio frequencies like 7 to 7.1 MHz (i.e. 7000 to 7100 kHz), 14 to 14.350
MHz (i.e. 14,000 to 14,350 kHz) and 21 to 21.450 MHz (i.e. 21,000 to 21,450 kHz). This kind of receiver can be
improvised to receive ham radio transmissions with very little effort.
First, we will need an outdoor aerial. Because, these radio sets are not sensitive to receive low power
transmissions. Majority of the hams use power below 100 watts (a broadscast station may use 4000 or 5000 watts
of power!). A novice ham radio operator may be found to be operating with a power as low as 0.5 watt!
Ham radio conversation if heard on an ordinary radio set sounds like the 'Duck quacking'. There is no
intelligibility in the audio. As already mentioned, our ordinary radio sets are meant to receive AM signals only
and not to receive SSB signals-a separate unit is required at the 'Detector' stage of the AM receiver, which is
nothing but a stable 'Frequency Generator' (RF Oscillator), called the 'Beat Frequency Oscillator' (BFO).
The BFO is used to introduce a 'Local Carrier Frequency' (frequency of the carrier is 10 to 20 Hertz within that
of the transmitter carrier frequency which is suppressed at the transmitter of the ham radio station willingly in
order to save power).
Another popular technique of receiving ham radio stations on an ordinary receiver set is to employ two radio
sets. In this improvised technique, one radio set acts as the BFO. The radio sets are just kept very close together.
The volume control knob of the radio set which we intend to use as a BFO should be kept at its minimum.
Usually a two band (one Medium Wave and one Short wave) AM pocket receiver can be suitably used as a BFO.
The first step is to locate a ham radio transmission over the main radio receiver (search for the "duck quacking"
like audio) tuned to a ham frequency (say in the 40m or 20m band, i.e. 7-7.1 MHz or 14 to 14.350 MHz
respectively). Once a strong ham station has been detected, the next step is to bring the pocket receiver (whose
volume is kept at minimum) near to the main receiver. The pocket radio set should also be tuned to a frequency
near to the frequency in which the ham transmission is received. By this way, frequency generated by the local
oscillator of the pocket radio can be made to produce the heterodyne effect in the main receiver making the ham
transmission intelligible. This technique of course requires your patience. The first attempt should not become
the last attempt!
E. Radio Transmitters
Q. Write what you know about Amplitude Modulation and %ge of modulation.
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a process in which the amplitude of a radio frequency current is made to vary
and modify by impressing an audio frequency current on it.
A radio frequency current has a constant amplitude in absence of modulation and this constant amplitude RF
carries no information, i.e. no audio intelligence and is of no use to radio telephone (voice communication), but
has application in morse code communication.
So, to give intelligence to the RF current, audio signal is impressed/superimposed on the RF current in a
non-linear modulator circuit; as a result of which carrier current amplitude begins to rise to a maximum value
above and below its original amplitude during the positive cycle of the audio signal and during the negative cycle
of the audio signal, it falls to a minimum value.
This results in the carrier having two outlines of the audio signal, this is because the variation at instant in the
amplitude of the carrier wave is directly proportional to the value of the modulating signal.
During amplitude modulation, two side band frequencies are also produced. Upper sideband frequencies equal to
the carrier frequency plus audio frequency and lower side band frequency is equal to carrier frequency minus
audio frequency. So the amplitude modulated carrier occupies a space in frequency spectrum, the width of which
is equal to twice the highest modulating frequency.
Percentage of modulation
The degree of modulation in an AM wave is expressed by %ge of maximum deviation from the normal
amplitude of the carrier RF wave.
The effect of such modulated wave is measured by a receiver's ability to reproduce the signal in distorted or
undistorted manner.
/
Percentage of modulation=(VoltageMax-VoltageMin) (VoltageMax+VoltageMin) x 100
Where VoltageMax is the maximum instantaneous value of the modulation and VoltageMin is the minimum value
of the RF carrier.
Because of the lower power rating, circuit components designed for SSB equipment can be smaller and lower in
cost.
For generation of a modulated signal without carrier, a balanced modulator is used. A filter then discards one side
band.
Q. Why 100% modulation should be aimed in voice transmission?
The power of a modulated wave is found from the formula:
Pmod=(1+m2/2) x Pcarr
M=degree of modulation,
Pcarr=power in the carrier frequency.
The power in an amplitude modulated wave is divided between the carrier and the two side bands. The carrier
power is constant, and so, the side band power is the difference between the carrier power and the total power in
the modulated wave. The above formula is to find the power of the modulated wave when carrier is modulated by
single sinusoidal tone.
If the carrier power=50 watts
%ge of modulation=100 or 1
degree of modulation=1
Then the power of the modulated wave,
Pmod=(1+m2/2) x 50=3/2 x 50 = 75 watts
Since the carrier power = 50 watts; the two side bands have 25 watts in them, i.e.
25/ x 100% = 33.3% of the total power with 100% modulation.
75
Now the side bands have only 6.25 watts (since 56.25-50 = 6.25)
Since all the intelligence being transmitted is contained in the side bands, the desirability of a high percentage of
modulation is crystal clear. A comparatively low powered, but well modulated transmitter often produces a
stronger signal at a given point than does a much higher powered, but poorly modulated, transmitted the same
distance from the receiver.
Q. Draw the schematic diagram of your intended transmitter and explain its function in brief.
RF Oscillator
This is the stage where the carrier frequency intended to be used is generated by means of Crystal Oscillator
Circuitry or capacitance-inductance based Variable Frequency Oscillator (VFO). The RF oscillator is designed to
have frequency stability and power delivered from it is of little importance, hence can be operated with low
voltage power supply with little dissipation of heat.
Buffer Amplifier
The low power RF carrier output from the RF oscillator is amplified in this portion and it also keeps the RF
oscillator and power amplifier circuits separate electrically imparting frequency as desired by the amateur can be
done in this stage, when the carrier frequency multiplication technique is applied here. In it the Morse key for
keying out carrier continuous wave can be accomodated.
Modulator
Audio information is impressed upon the carrier frequency at this stage.
Balanced Modulator
In this type of modulator, while the audio information (voice) is impressed upon the carrier frequency, at the
same time its output gives a signal without carrier frequency but yet with the two side band frequencies carrying
the voice/audio information.
Side-band filter
It discards out any one of the side band.
RF linear Amplifier
RF power amplification is done here and this stage is coupled to the antenna system through antenna impedance
matching circuitry. Care is taken at this stage so that no harmonic frequency is generated which will cause
interference in adjacent band (splatter) on other bands.
Q. Why crystal oscillators are used and where?
Crystal oscillators are used in most modern commercial radio transmitters, either telegraph or telephone. Quartz
crystal oscillators are used because they do not drift more than a few hertz from the frequency for which they are
ground. A variable Frequency Oscillator (VFO) tends to drift considerably more.
Crystal Oscillators
Crystals made from quartz are used in radio frequency oscillator circuits in order to impart stability to the
frequency of oscillation. The function of the quartz crystals are based on the piezoelectric effect, i.e. generation
of electricity by compressing or stretching the quartz. Conversely the quartz crystal can be made to expand or
contract physically by applying a voltage across it (e.g. by placing it between two metallic plates where the
voltage is applied).
At its resonant frequency a crystal behaves exactly like a tuned circuit. If a crystal between metal plates is
shock-excited by either a physical stress or an electric charge, it will vibrate mechanically at its natural frequency
for a short while and at the same time produce an ac emf between the plates. This is somewhat similar to the
damped electron oscillation of a shock excited LC circuit.
The circuit shown is a TPTG (Tuned Plate Tuned Grid) circuit. When the switch is closed, the LC
(Inductance-Capacitance) tank in the plate circuit is shock-excited into oscillation by the sudden surge of plate
current. The ac developed across this LC circuit is fed back to the top crystal plate through inter-electrode
capacitance, and to the bottom plate of the crystal through the bypass capacitor from the LC circuit. The crystal
starts vibrating and working as an ac generator on its own. The emf generated by the crystal, applied to the grid
and cathode, produces plate current (Ip) variations in the plate LC circuit. With both crystal and LC circuit
oscillating and feeding each other in proper phase, the whole circuit oscillates as a very stable ac source. The
plate LC circuit must be tuned slightly higher in frequency than the crystal to produce the required phase
relationship between the two circuits to sustain oscillations.
F1 layer exists at an altitude of 200 km during daytime and its characteristics are very similar to E-layer which
merges into F2 layer at night.
F2 layer is the most important layer, which exists at altitudes ranging from 250 to 400 km and HF long distance
propagation round the clock is due to this layer. The behaviour of this layer is influenced by the time of the day,
by season and by sunspot activity. F2 layer was formerly known as Appleton layer. This layer has a high
ionization gradient. This layer exists both in the daytime and nighttime. Since at such an altitude air density is
extremely low, the free ions and electrons (due to the action of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun) can not
recombine readily and so can store energy received from the Sun for many hours; that is the reason the refractive
property of this layer changes only to a negligible extent during day and night. The path which the short wave
signal follows through the F2 layer is in reality a curved one. Degree of the curve depends on the angle of
incidence of the wave, ionization gradient of the layer and frequency of the signal.
Q. What is skip distance?
As discussed above, under the action of solar radiation (and the hail of meteorites), an ionized layer is formed in
the upper part of the Earth's atmosphere. In this layer, the neutral air molecules are decomposed into ions and
electrons and the whole layer presents a chaos of charged particles. Short wave radio signals are reflected from
this layer just as light rays are reflected from the surface of a mirror, or sound from a barrier. Likewise, this layer
can be compared with the edge of billiard table: if the ball does not go straight into the pocket, it can be sent on
rebound. In a situation a radio receiver located at a distance of 200 kilometers away from the wireless
transmitting station can not receive signals from the transmitting station, but another receiving station which is
located even at a distance more than this distance can copy the signal. This is because the ground waves are
stopped by the Earth's curvature and the sky wave will not reach the receiver, because it bounces again
more than 200 kilometers way. So some 'blind zones' are formed and if the receiver is located in that blind zone
it will receive no signal or very weak signal. In such a situation, another station can relay the message to the
target station. The distance of the intended receiver from the transmitter is then termed as 'skip distance'. So it is
not always necessary that a receiving station located near to the transmitting station will be able to receive its
signal.
Q. How do the hams overcome the variable propagation conditions of the ionosphere and the problem of
skip?
The problem of variable propagation conditions can be partially overcome by using frequency diversity, in which
an allotted communication network is provided with several frequency assignments spanning the High Frequency
(HF) band of frequencies. The ham can choose the frequency that gives the best results at any given time.
Similarly if a station is in skip at a particular frequency, another workable frequency can be found out.
Q. What is line-of-sight propagation?
The radio frequencies above 30 MHz has the tendency to penetrate the ionosphere making them unsuitable for
long distance propagation. So, the range of frequencies from 30 to 300 MHz (also 300 MHz and above), which
are placed under the Very High Frequency (VHF) category are mainly used for line-of-sight communication.
The most common example of line-of-sight communication is the TV Telecast.
A TV transmission tower is made as tall as possible so that its signals can have a wide area of coverage. To
receive a TV telecast, we have to turn our TV antenna (known as a Yagi antenna) towards the TV transmission
tower. In areas where the TV transmission tower is located at a far away place from a viewer, the viewer has to
increase the height of his TV receiving antenna.
This means that both the transmitting and receiving antenna should literally see each other to make the
communication effective. Otherwise there should be some means to redirect the signal back to the receiver.
Artificial Satellites in space (which houses active electronic relaying device), terrestrial relay station and passive
reflectors (the metallic plates we see above the hills) are employed to extend the VHF coverage. Line-of-sight
communication is considered reliable within a short distance (or even for long distance communication if
artificial communication satellites are employed), because instead of relying on the ionosphere (whose
propagation conditions are not under human control), relay stations (known as repeater station) can be set up on
tall towers. The relay station can cover a certain area most reliably round the clock. Different services employing
VHF for communication also have their own repeater station. Another advantage of VHF is that the size of the
VHF equipment is very small
A Passive reflector
(because of its low power as well as miniaturization in the circuit design). A VHF communication set is also
popularly known as a Walkie-Talkie. We are certain that the above description is sufficient to clear any doubt
about the range of a Walkie-Talkie !
Q. What are the two phenomenon significant in line-of-sight reception?
In case of line of sight reception, there are two components of the signal. One is the direct signal and other is
the signal reflected from the ionosphere. Both the signals leave the antenna with the same signal phase, but
travel different paths to the receiving antenna. These paths may be of different length. Because the reflected
signal suffers 180 degree phase reversal at the point of reflection, the two signals may aid or oppose each other
in the receiving antenna. The resultant signal may be stronger or weaker than the direct path signal alone, which
is not desirable.
Q. How can you overcome the problem caused by this phase reversal phenomenon?
The problem arising out of the undesirable phase reversal phenomenon can be overcome by varying the height of
the antenna.
The line-of-sight propagation is limited to the optical horizon and it is only about 75 miles for frequencies above
30 MHz; but it is found that in the spring or fall, or sometimes in summer, this line-of-sight propagation extends
to about 500 miles. This is due to the presence of layer of hot, dry air above a layer of cool, moist air. The direct
waves are bent back which otherwise pass over the receiving antenna.
As distinct from fade-out, fading is the constant variation of the received strength of radio wave. To the listener it
appears as gradual rising and falling of the volume. The signal waxes and wanes and at times even drops below
usable values. This phenomenon is manifested chiefly in long-distance transmission. It is caused by multiple
reflections from the ionosphere which cause two or more waves from the same transmitter travel over different
paths of different lengths and hence differ in phase and amplitude when they arrive at the receiving aerial.
G. Aerials
Q. Write a general note on aerials.
Aerial or antenna is a device, which acts as the mouth and ear of a radio transmitter or receiver respectively.
Though we don't notice any external aerial in many of the commercial radio sets, they in fact, have aerials in
built within the cabinets holding their electronic circuitry. But a ham radio operator is mainly concerned with an
external outdoor antenna without which he can't expect to radiate radio energy into space from his radio
transmitter. Similarly, without an external outdoor antenna, his radio receiver will not be able to pick up the radio
waves speeding across the sky. A radio receiver might not need an external outdoor aerial to receive high power
radio transmissions. But most of the ham radio transmitters use considerably low power (compared to the
broadcast radio stations) which necessitates the use of outdoor aerials. A low power transmitter with an efficient
antennae system or a less sensitive receiver with efficient antennae system can be made to work beyond
imagination!
The aerials are usually made out of metallic rods or wires which are cut into specific lengths. The aerial should
not be placed behind any obstruction. Conducting materials such as tin-roof, ferro-concrete and to lesser extent
foliage when wet. The aerial should be as high as practical above the ground and grounded objects such as metal
roofs, power or telephone wires etc.
Q. What are the different types of antenna system used by ham radio operators?
Different types of antennae system commonly used by ham radio operators are:
1. Horizontal Dipole,
2. Inverted -V dipole,
3. Yagi beam,
4. Ground plan vertical,
5. Qubical quad
VSWR=Emax /Emin
Or,
SWR=Imax /Imin
The SWR is also equal to the ratio of the characteristic impedance of the transmission line to the impedance of
the antenna (load), or vice versa. For example, if the line has a characteristic impedance of 300 ohms and antenna
impedance is 50 ohms, the SWR is 300/50, or 6. A higher SWR indicates a greater mismatch between the
transmission line and the antenna.
When the load (antenna) impedance matches the transmission line impedance, there will be no standing waves.
SWR=1:1 or 1
VSWR is greater than one for a mismatched system and equal to one for a perfectly matched system.
VSWR on a transmission line is caused by power being reflected back to the transmitter from the antenna. If PF
is the forward power and PR is the reflected power measured in watts by a directional wattmeter, then VSWR can
also be calculated by the formula:
Or, R=P/I2
So in case of the antenna, radiation resistance is the ratio of the radiated power to the square of the centre current
in the antenna.
Radiation resistance is also defined as a fictitious resistance, which when substituted for the antenna would
consume as much power as the antenna radiates.
Radiation resistance is also called 'Feed-point' impedance; in case of a dipole antenna feed point impedance is
nearly 73 Ohms.
Q. Why impedance matching is necessary in an antenna and transmission line system?
Impedance matching is of utmost importance so far as energy transference from the transmitter to the antenna
through the transmission line is concerned; because, mismatching will prevent maximum output being radiated,
i.e. if the transmission line impedance doesn't match the antenna feedpoint impedance, a part of the energy fed
down the line will be reflected back from the antenna causing standing waves on the line; it makes the system
inefficient.
Mismatching a transmission line to an antenna results in the line at the transmitter end appearing to have either
inductive reactance (Xi) or capacitive reactance (Xc), which will detune the inductance-capacitance (LC) circuit
to which it is coupled; mismatching should be avoided so that final stage of the RF amplifier is not detuned.
In many of the commercial wireless equipment, mismatching should be strictly avoided to prevent damage of the
circuitry.
Q. What are current fed and voltage fed antennae?
e. T-Match: In this type of impedance matching, two coaxial cables are held side by side and both their outer
sheaths are connected to the midpoint of the unsplitted dipole, while two points are chosen on the dipole
where inner conductors going parallel to each other (of the coaxial) are connected.
f. 1/4 wave transmission line impedance matching device: A 1/4 wave line can act as an impedance
matching device between high and low impedance circuits if it has the proper intermediate impedance
found from the formula: Z = /Z1.Z2
Where Z1 = antenna feedpoint impedance; Z2 main transmission line impedance. When we want to
match a 300 ohms transmission line to a 70 ohms feed point impedance dipole antenna, then the 1/4
wave transmission line connected between both the system should have
Z= / 300 x 70 = 145 ohms
Q. What is a Yagi antenna?
When a half wave dipole antenna consists of one or more parasitic arrays, the antenna becomes parasitic beam
antenna, named as "Yagi" after its designer Proff. Yagi, Japan.
The antenna consists of mainly three elements, the 1/2 wave splitted dipole driven element, in front of this driven
element is the 5% shorter director element, back of the driven element is the 5% longer reflector. All the
elements can be assembled on a single conducting boom. This antenna beams radio signals in the direction of the
director and no signals to the backward direction.
Part-IV
Study material to learn Morse Code
A Morse Key
To practice Morse Code sending, a novice can use a small device called the 'Code Practice Oscillator' (CPO).
This is a small electronic circuit capable of generating a sinusoidal audio tone when a key (or switch) is made 'on'
or 'off' manually. The circuit of a CPO shown below can be easily assembled by a novice.
It is advisable not to start practice sending the Morse code until the novice is proficient in receiving Morse code.
For receiving practice, you have to rely on a ham radio operator who can send/generate Morse code using a CPO
or you can try to find out Morse Code transmissions over your radio receiver. Morse code practice cassettes and
multimedia computer software are nowadays available. Mere gaining confidence in sending does not qualify you
to be an expert receiver! In fact you may not be able to receive a single letter in Morse code even if you gained a
sending proficiency of 12 words Per Minute (WPM)! Remembering the Morse codes is an art by itself. It
involves a rhythmic response in your mind. Try to remember the combination of dot (.) and dashes (-) by their
sound and not as a group of printed symbols. For this purpose, a dot (.) is referred to as a 'di' and a dash (-) as a
'dah'. A 'di' coming at the end of the combination is pronounced as 'dit'
The letter 'R' is represented by '. - .' (di dah dit) in Morse code. The time taken to produce the sound equivalent to
one 'di' or 'dit' (dot) is taken as unit time and called a dot unit. A 'dah' is approximately of three dot units length
and the space between two sound elements of a letter is one dot unit, i.e. silence period is one dot unit. The space
between two letters or characters is equal to three dot units. The space between two words is equal to five dot
units. The word 'cat' can be represented as -.-. .- - (dah di dah dit di dah dah)
In fact Morse code devised by Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872) is a primitive type of digital communication
which still works efficiently in this era of microprocessors and computers. In a computer, all information are
processed or stored in binary digits, i.e. 0 and 1s. A zero (0) means that the switch is off and a one (1) makes it
on. One interesting fact is that any type of information can be converted to binary digits and later on the
information stored in the form of binary digits can be decyphered (decoded).
In the Morse Code system, the encoding is done by 'short' and 'long' duration of flow of current through a circuit.
This method of representing and manipulating information in electrical form is known as digital approach,
because the encoded information may be visualized as a series of numerical digits. The modern day computer to
computer digital communication (which is automated) can be visualised as an extension of the communication
system that started with the hand key operated telegraphic communication (which is manual) back in 1837. The
computer can sense the 'long' and 'short' pulses and decipher them automatically. But a ham receiving Morse
code deciphers the message by listening to the 'short' and 'long' tones. Though the modern day computer
communication has its roots in Morse code communication, yet it has been observed that the allocation of Morse
codes to the characters has been done in a haphazard manner. It is believed that Samuel F.B. Morse did not
visualised his code as a binary sequence. They also believe that Morse did not heard of his now celebrated
compatriot George Boole (1854) and his famous work on binary algebra going by his name! Binary signaling is
the earliest form of communication. It is defined simply as the presence or absence of a single element that when
used in prearranged combinations conveys intelligence. Signal fires, reflected sunlight, smoke signals, flag
waving, and jungle drums are the earliest examples of binary signaling. The earliest versions were, of course,
audible or visual systems, since electrical transmission had yet to be invented. Electric signaling arrived in 1835,
when Samuel Morse employed a chemical battery and a lever to send currents through a wire circuit. The
original Morse machine printed code on tape. The word "telegraph"was coined to mean a device that could print
patterns at a distance. It was derived from the Greek "tele" (far) and "graphein" (to write). The discovery of the
"ground return" circuit meant that only one wire would be needed. Samuel Morse ushered in the age of electrical
communications by sending his first public "What hath God wrought?" message on May 24, 1844 over an
experimental telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. He developed a key and sounder for this
demonstration, since he discovered that the code could better be received by ear, eliminating the printer.
Morse code is also called CW, i.e. Continuous Wave, in the sense that a constant amplitude interrupted radio
frequency wave is transmitted; interruption being made in conformity with the code.
Analog and Digital methods
The electrical telephone and telegraph are very simple examples which illustrates the difference between the
analog and digital methods. In the telephone, the information is transmitted from one end to the other via a
current which varies continuously as direct equivalent of sound waves striking the microphone-the analog
approach. In the telegraph, the information is encoded (cyphered) and sent as a sequence of current/no current
pulses illustrating the digital approach.
Why Morse code is still in use?
It was deemed important that ham radio operators prove an ability to transmit and receive in Morse Code signals.
In the last 50 years, however, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has reviewed and modified
the amateur Morse Code requirement at every international conference capable of changing it. In 1947 (Atlantic
City) the ITU agreed that Morse proficiency should only be required when the operation took place on
frequencies below 1000 MHz (1 GHz). At WARC-59 (The 1959 World Administrative Radio Conference) this
level was dropped to144 MHz. A further reduction was made at WARC-79 to its presents 30 MHz.
Despite the capability of voice communication, Morse code is still in use. One important reason is that a vast
group of the radio amateurs still adore Morse code. A ham radio operator employing digital communication
techniques (like Packet Radio, Radio Tele Typing-RTTY or AMateur Tele-printing Over Radio-AMTOR)
in his ham radio operation treats Morse code with much the same affection he has for those modern
innovations!
A ham radio operator wearing his headphone and the Morse Key in hand can send messages silently without
disturbing his family members who might be sleeping comfortably!
Another reason is that short wave radio telephone (voice) signals often suffer very rapid and deep fading; two
frequencies separated by only a few hertz, fade at different times. To overcome this, modulated code tones are
transmitted. The situation is now that under severe conditions of fading, the carrier frequency may fade out
completely but one or the other side band may remain strong as a result a continuously readable signal is
received. This is the reason that we hear a band full of exotic sounding CW call-signs at any time of day or night.
When the a band appears to be dead, and we can barely copy phone signals, the band remains alive with many
CW signals.
Why this be so?
(i) The answer is that to communicate human speech, a wider bandwidth is required than that of the CW
signal. With a smaller bandwidth the 'signal to noise ratio' of the receiver is significantly improved, and the
threshold at which signals can still be received above the noise level is therefore extended.
(ii) Also, it is possible for the human ear to be able to resolve CW signals which are only marginally above
the noise level, whereas SSB signals of the same signal level could not be copied. It has been suggested
that CW has an advantage of approximately 20dB over SSB signals. A narrow band-pass filter improves
the CW reception.
How to learn Morse Code?
Many newcomers seek exemption from 'tiresome' Morse test for Short wave operation. This is unfortunate as the
Morse code is the key to enter into the world of ham radio with a very little monetary investment. A novice can
assemble a simple Morse code transmitter with lesser technical hurdles than that of a SSB Voice transmitter.
Morse code can be learnt easily if we use certain techniques to remember the codes. Learning the Morse code can
also be considered as an entirely personal venture embarked upon by alone. Following points should be kept in
mind while learning the Morse code-
1. Try to remember the codes from their sound.
2. In the initial stage, you can take help of an innovative technique to memorize the different ‘dot’ & ‘dash’
combinations for each alphabet which has been devised by A.G. Reinhold, K2PNK, Cambridge. Bring
into your mind the image of the letter and the corresponding placement of ‘dot’ and ‘dash’ in it.
3. Don’t begin with a practice to send. Sending is much easier compared to receiving.
4. During receiving of a message, don’t write down the ‘dot’ and ‘dash’ combinations. Directly write down
the letters in running hand. Don’t bother to know the content of the message. Just continue writing the
letters one by one and leave a space when you are not sure about the letter. If you wait wondering about
what the letter was, you would get stuck and in the process many letters would pass by you, which you
would not be able to jot down.
THE INTERNATIONAL MORSE CODE
A._J.___S...1.____
B_...K_._T_2..___
C_._.L._..U.._3...__
D_..M__V..._4...._
E.N_.W.__5.....
F.._.O___X_.._6_....
G__.P.__.Y_.__7__...
H....Q__._Z__..8___..
I..R._.9____.
0_____
PUNCTUATIONS
. (Period) . _ . _ . _ (AAA)
, (Comma) _ _ . . _ _ (MIM)
? (Question mark) . . _ _ . . (IMI)
; (Semicolon) _ . _ . _ . (NNN)
- (Hyphen) _ . . . . _ (BA)
Error sign . . . . . . . . (8 dots)
Sentence separation indicator _ . . . _ (BT)
End of transmission of a message . _ . _ . (AR)
Invitation to transmit _ . _ (K)
Wait . _ . . . (AS)
End of work . . . _ . _ (VA)
Almost all the letters/characters and punctuation marks can be arranged in certain groups which can used to show
the resemblance between/among the combination of dot and dashes. For example the letter 'A' (. _ ) is the
opposite of 'N' (_ .). Similarly, the letters A, U, V and the character 4 can be made into a group which shows a
A._ T_ N_. E.
U.._ M__ D_.. I..
V..._ O___ B_... S...
4...._ H....
5.....
B_...
V..._
EISH TMO AN DU WG BV PX
After remembering the Morse code combination for the EISH combination, the following words can be formed
to be sent for receiving practice.
IS HIS SHE
In a similar way, once the novice is able to remember the Morse code combinations for the rest of the
combinations shown above, the number of words to be sent can be increased accordingly as shown below.
THIS TOM SOME IT MISS THE
MAN NAME TEN NET HAM
DATE MAD SAD SUN
WHAT WISH SAW WET WASH GONE GOT HUG
BOSS TOMB BOMB HAVE VOTE
PET POT SHOP TAX XEROX
An innovative technique to memorize the different ‘dot’ & ‘dash’ combinations for each alphabet has been
devised by A.G. Reinhold, K2PNK, Cambridge. This pictorial approach is reproduced below:
Part-V
ease, it has also the potentiality to create heavy destruction if we do not take adequate precautions against its
potential ills. A casual attitude towards the electricity should always be avoided.
The ham should keep his wireless equipment in a protected place, so that, it can not be operated by any
unauthorized person in his absence. All the equipment should be properly installed and precaution should be
taken so that they don't create electrical hazards. For this and the safety of the other people in the house,
equipment should have proper ground connection (an alternative path to the Earth). Though the switch board
sockets have the facility to insert a three pin electrical plug (the male plug from our equipment), the wire
connecting to the ground from the third hole of the socket may remain disconnected somewhere without our
knowledge. This may create a risk to your life because the electrical equipment's current carrying wires are
vulnerable to insulation breakdown due to many reasons.
Under such circumstances, if a current carrying wire touches the metallic portion of the equipment, current will
start flowing in that portion also. Under such a situation, if we touch an electrical gadget housed in a metallic
enclosure, we may get electrocuted as well! In fact electrical currents seek for the paths of low resistance. In the
above situation, if we are bare footed, then these electrical currents will find their easiest path to the Earth
(Ground) through our body and simulate a close circuit situation. Our body will heat up (because the human body
too offers resistance to the flow of current) and we will die! In a different situation where the metallic portion of
the electrical gadget is properly grounded with the help of a good conducting wire (e.g. copper), even if we touch
the current carrying metallic portion, most of the current will flow through that grounded copper wire only
causing less damage to our body. A part of the current will still find their path to the ground through our body
because we are still bare footed! So the highest safety measure is to wear shoes made of insulated material
(which do not conduct electricity) and keep us separated from the ground (the Earth). In this situation, even if we
accidentally touch the current carrying metallic portion of the electrical gadget, current will not able to find their
path in to the ground through our body and we shall remain safe. In no case, the 'phase' (current carrying) and
'neutral' wires should be touched by your hand simultaneously. Doing so will create the most potential risk to
your life, because, current from 'phase' to 'neutral' will now flow from one hand to the other hand (if you use both
your hands to touch the 'phase' and 'neutral' !) through your body and you will be getting killed in the process!
So, always:
1. Check for proper ground connection in the electrical wiring of the house.
2. If possible connect an extra conducting wire to the ground (you can tightly tie the wire on to a water
pipe) from the metallic enclosure of the electrical gadget.
3. Don't touch electrical gadgets with wet hand. Water reduces the resistance of the skin of our body and
as a result electrical currents find their easy entry into our body!
4. Always wear insulated shoes (rubber, plastic etc.)
5. A dry wooden board can be kept on the floor which will provide additional insulation.
6. The electrical device should have a 'fuse' as per the current rating of the device. For example, if the
equipment is designed to allow a current of 5 ampere, the 'fuse' should also be rated 5 ampere. Any more
current due to short circuit will blow the fuse and inactivate the equipment. This will prevent further
damage of the equipment and other electrical wiring will remain safe.
7. There should be a main switch (called the "Big Switch"!) at your easy reach. While closing down your
ham radio operation, this switch should be pulled to disconnect all the equipment at the same time. That is
why, in ham terminology, many operator's use the phrase "Pulling the Big Switch" to indicate that he is
closing down his station!
8. Nowadays, miniature circuit breaker switches (MCB) are also available. This type of switches provide
safety to the electrical gadgets connected to the electrical sockets by automatically disconnecting them
from the current in the event of a short circuit in the electrical wiring.
9. The fuses in the electrical meter box should not be tempered with. A blowing fuse indicates that an
electrical gadget is drawing more current than its specification. Alternatively, you may be using too much
of electrical gadgets in your house resulting in a current flow which exceeds your allotted rating. In such a
situation, if you increase the thickness of the fuse wire to prevent it from frequently burning down, the
whole electrical wiring of your house will at the risk of burning down.