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Chapter 1 Part 1
Chapter 1 Part 1
Chapter 1 Part 1
0-1
Fig. 2.0-1
Silicon IC Technologies
; ;
M4
Salicide Salicide M3
Salicide M2
M1
n+ n+ p+ p+
STI Source/drain STI Source/drain STI
extensions extensions
Deep p-well Deep n-well p-substrate
031211-02
In addition to NMOS and PMOS transistors, the technology provides:
1.) A deep n-well that can be utilized to reduce substrate noise coupling.
2.) A MOS varactor that can serve in VCOs
3.) At least 6 levels of metal that can form many useful structures such as inductors,
capacitors, and transmission lines.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Introduction (5/02/04) Page 2.0-5
60 NMOS
Slow, 70°C
50
fT (GHz)
Typical, 25°C
40
30 PMOS Slow, 70°C
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
|VGS-VT| (mV) 030901-07
The upper frequency limit is probably around 40 GHz for NMOS with an fT in the vicinity
of 60GHz with an overdrive of 0.5V and at the slow-high temperature corner.
125-200 mm
(5"-8") 0.5-0.8mm
Oxidation
Description:
Oxidation is the process by which a layer of silicon dioxide is grown on the surface of a
silicon wafer.
Original silicon surface tox
Silicon dioxide
Uses:
• Protect the underlying material from contamination
• Provide isolation between two layers.
Very thin oxides (100Å to 1000Å) are grown using dry oxidation techniques. Thicker
oxides (>1000Å) are grown using wet oxidation techniques.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of impurity atoms at the surface of the silicon into the bulk of
the silicon.
Always in the direction from higher concentration to lower concentration.
High Low
Concentration Concentration
Fig. 150-04
Diffusion is typically done at high temperatures: 800 to 1400°C
ERFC Gaussian
N0 N0
NB NB
t3 t2 t3
t1 t2 t1
Depth (x) Depth (x)
Infinite source of impurities at the surface. Finite source of impurities at the surface.
Fig. 150-05
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 1 (5/02/04) Page 2.1-4
Ion Implantation
Path of
Ion implantation is the process by which impurity
impurity ions are accelerated to a high atom
velocity and physically lodged into the
target material. Fixed Atom
Fixed Atom
• Annealing is required to activate the
impurity atoms and repair the physical Fixed Atom
Impurity Atom
damage to the crystal lattice. This step final resting place
is done at 500 to 800°C. Fig. 150-06
Deposition
Deposition is the means by which various materials are deposited on the silicon wafer.
Examples:
• Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
• Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
• Aluminum
• Polysilicon
There are various ways to deposit a material on a substrate:
• Chemical-vapor deposition (CVD)
• Low-pressure chemical-vapor deposition (LPCVD)
• Plasma-assisted chemical-vapor deposition (PECVD)
• Sputter deposition
Material that is being deposited using these techniques covers the entire wafer.
Etching Mask
Etching is the process of selectively Film
removing a layer of material.
Underlying layer
When etching is performed, the etchant
may remove portions or all of: (a) Portion of the top layer ready for etching.
a Selectivity
• The desired material
• The underlying layer Mask
Film c
• The masking layer
b Anisotropy
Selectivity Underlying layer
Important considerations: (b) Horizontal etching and etching of underlying layer.
• Anisotropy of the etch is defined as, Fig. 150-08
Epitaxy
Epitaxial growth consists of the formation of a layer of single-crystal silicon on the
surface of the silicon material so that the crystal structure of the silicon is continuous
across the interfaces.
• It is done externally to the material as opposed to diffusion which is internal
• The epitaxial layer (epi) can be doped differently, even oppositely, of the material on
which it grown
• It accomplished at high temperatures using a chemical reaction at the surface
• The epi layer can be any thickness, typically 1-20 microns
Fig. 150-09
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 1 (5/02/04) Page 2.1-8
Photolithography
Components
• Photoresist material
• Mask
• Material to be patterned (e.g., oxide)
Positive photoresist
Areas exposed to UV light are soluble in the developer
Negative photoresist
Areas not exposed to UV light are soluble in the developer
Steps
1. Apply photoresist
2. Soft bake (drives off solvents in the photoresist)
3. Expose the photoresist to UV light through a mask
4. Develop (remove unwanted photoresist using solvents)
5. Hard bake ( ≈ 100°C)
6. Remove photoresist (solvents)
Photomask
Photoresist
Polysilicon
Fig. 150-10
Develop
Polysilicon
Photoresist Etch
Photoresist
Polysilicon
Remove
photoresist
Polysilicon
Fig. 150-11
Underlying Layer
Fig. 150-12
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 1 (5/02/04) Page 2.1-12
yy
;;
Substrate
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
; ;
Step 5 – Thin Oxide and Polysilicon Gates
A thin oxide is deposited followed by polysilicon. These layers are removed where they
are not wanted.
Thin Oxide
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
; ;
Step 6 – Lightly Doped Drains and Sources
A lightly-doped implant is used to create a lightly-doped source and drain next to the
channel of the MOSFETs.
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
; ;
“sidewall spacers” next to the thin-oxide-polysilicon-polycide sandwich. These sidewall
spacers will prevent the part of the source and drain next to the channel from becoming
heavily doped.
Sidewall Sidewall
Spacers Spacers
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
; ;
Step 8 – Implantation of the Heavily Doped Sources and Drains
Note that not only does this step provide the completed sources and drains but allows for
ohmic contact into the wells and substrate.
Sidewall
p+ n+ p+ Spacers p+ n+ n+ p+
implant implant implant implant implant implant implant
p+ n+ p+ p+ n+ n+ p+
Shallow Shallow Shallow
Trench Trench Trench
Isolation Isolation Isolation
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
Step 9 – Siliciding
; ;
Siliciding and polyciding is used to reduce interconnect resistivity by placing a low-
resistance silicide such as TiSi2, WSi2, TaSi2, etc. on top of the diffusions.
Sidewall
Spacers Polycide
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
; ;
An oxide layer is used to cover the transistors and to planarize the surface.
Inter-
mediate Sidewall
Oxide Spacers Polycide
Layer
Salicide Salicide Salicide
Salicide
p+ n+ p+ p+ n+ n+ p+
Shallow Shallow Shallow
Trench Trench Trench
Isolation Isolation Isolation
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
; ;
Tungsten plugs are built through the lower intermediate oxide layer to provide contact
between the devices, wells and substrate to the first-level metal.
Inter-
mediate Sidewall
Oxide Spacers Polycide
First
Layers Level
Tungsten Salicide Salicide Salicide Tungsten
Salicide Plugs Plug Metal
p+ n+ p+ p+ n+ n+ p+
Shallow Shallow Shallow
Trench Trench Trench
Isolation Isolation Isolation
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
; ;
The previous step is repeated to from the second-level metal.
Second
Inter- Level
mediate Tungsten Sidewall Tungsten Plugs Metal
Oxide Plugs Spacers Polycide
First
Layers Level
Tungsten Salicide Salicide Salicide Tungsten
Salicide Plugs Plug Metal
p+ n+ p+ p+ n+ n+ p+
Shallow Shallow Shallow
Trench Trench Trench
Isolation Isolation Isolation
n-well p-well
yy
;;
Substrate
Completed Fabrication
After multiple levels of metal are applied, the fabrication is completed with a thicker top-
level metal and a protective layer to hermetically seal the circuit from the environment.
Note that metal is used for the upper level metal vias. The chip is electrically connected
by removing the protective layer over large bonding pads.
; ;
Protective Insulator Layer
Top
Metal
Metal Vias Metal Via Second
Inter- Level
mediate Tungsten Sidewall Tungsten Plugs Metal
Oxide Plugs Spacers Polycide
First
Layers Level
Tungsten Salicide Salicide Salicide Tungsten
Salicide Plugs Plug Metal
p+ n+ p+ p+ n+ n+ p+
Shallow Shallow Shallow
Trench Trench Trench
Isolation Isolation Isolation
n-well p-well
Substrate
Tungsten Plug
TEOS
SOG
Polycide
Sidewall
TEOS/BPSG Spacer
Poly
Gate
Fig. 2.8-20
Metal 3
Aluminum
Vias
Metal 2
Tungsten
Plugs
Metal 1
Transistors Fig.180-11
SUMMARY
• Fabrication is the means by which the circuit components, both active and passive, are
built as an integrated circuit.
• Basic process steps include:
1.) Oxide growth 2.) Thermal diffusion 3.) Ion implantation
4.) Deposition 5.) Etching 6.) Epitaxy
• The complexity of a process can be measured in the terms of the number of masking
steps or masks required to implement the process.
• Major CMOS Processing Steps:
1.) p and n wells
2.) Shallow trench isolation
3.) Threshold shift
4.) Thin oxide and gate polysilicon
5.) Lightly doped drains and sources
6.) Sidewall spacer
7.) Heavily doped drains and sources
8.) Siliciding (Salicide and Polycide)
9.) Bottom metal, tungsten plugs, and oxide
10.) Higher level metals, tungsten plugs/vias, and oxide
11.) Top level metal, vias and protective oxide
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
iD
+vD -
Depletion
region
p-type n-type
semicon- semicon-
ductor ductor
iD
+ v -D -
W
x Fig. 06-01
-W1 0 W2
1. Doped atoms near the metallurgical junction lose their free carriers by diffusion.
2. As these fixed atoms lose their free carriers, they build up an electric field, which
opposes the diffusion mechanism.
3. Equilibrium conditions are reached when:
Current due to diffusion = Current due to electric field
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 2 (5/02/04) Page 2.2-4
dv qNA
E0
5.) The electric field, ε = - dx = - ε x + C1
8.) A second boundary condition is obtained by assuming that the potential of the neutral
p-type region is zero. This boundary condition is,
v = 0 for x = -W1
Substituting in the expression above gives,
qNA x 2 W12
v = ε 2 + W1x + 2
Depletion capacitance-
εsiA εsiA εsiA Cj
Cj = d = W 1+W 2 =
2εsi(ψo-vD) ND NA
q(ND+NA) NA + ND Cj0
εsiqNAND 1 Cj0
=A 2(NA+ND) ψo-vD = vD 0 ψ0 vD
1 - ψo Fig. 06-05
Example 1
An abrupt silicon pn junction has the doping densities of NA = 1015 atoms/cm3 and ND =
1016 atoms/cm3. Calculate the junction built-in potential, the depletion-layer widths, the
maximum field and the depletion capacitance with 10V reverse bias if Cj0 = 3pF.
Solution
At room temperature, kT/q = 26mV and the intrinsic concentration is ni = 1.5x1010 cm-3.
1015·1016
Therefore, the junction built-in potential is ψo = 0.026 ln2.25x1026 = 0.637V
The depletion width on the p-side is,
2·1.04x10-12·10.64
W1 = -4
1.6x10-19·1015·1.1 = 3.55x10 cm = 3.55µm
The depletion width on the n-side is,
2·1.04x10-12·10.64
W2 = -4
1.6x10-19·1016·11 = 0.35x10 cm = 0.35µm
The maximum field occurs for x = 0 and is
qNA -1.6x10-19·1015·3.5x10-4
Εmax = - ε W 1 = 1.04x10-12
4
= -5.38x10 V/cm
3pF
The depletion capacitance can be found as Cj = = 0.734pF
1 + (10/0.637)
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 2 (5/02/04) Page 2.2-10
Breakdown -2
-3 Fig. 6-06
Example 2
An abrupt pn junction has doping densities of NA = 3x1016 atoms/cm3 and ND = 4x1019
atoms/cm3. Calculate the breakdown voltage if Εcrit = 3x105 V/cm.
Solution
εsi(NA+ND) 2 εsi 2 1.04x10-12·9x1010
VR = 2qNAND Emax ≈ 2qNA Emax = 2·1.6x10-19·3x1016 = 9.7V
ND
0 x
-NA Fig. 6-07
The previous expressions become:
Depletion region widths-
2εsi(ψo-vD)ND m
W 1 = qNA(NA+ND)
W ∝ 1 m
2εsi(ψo-vD)NA m N
W 2 = qND(NA+ND)
Depletion capacitance-
εsiqNAND m 1 Cj0
Cj = A2(NA+ND) m = vD m
ψo-vD 1 -
ψo
where 0.33 ≤m ≤ 0.5.
vD
Dppno Dnnpo qAD ni2
-VGO
iD = I exp Vt - 1
s where Is = qA Lp + Ln ≈ L N = KT exp Vt
3
25
20
iD 15
I s 10
5
0
-5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
vD/Vt
16
10 x10
16
8x10
16
iD 6x10
Is 16
4x10
2x1016
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
vD/Vt
Metal-Semiconductor Junctions
Ohmic Junctions: A pn junction formed by a highly doped semiconductor and metal.
Energy band diagram IV Characteristics
I
Vacuum Level 1
;;;;
Thermionic
qφm or tunneling Contact
qφs
qφB EC Resistance
;;;;
EF V
EV
n-type metal n-type semiconductor Fig. 2.3-4
;;;;
;;;;
qφB Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
EC
EF
;;;;
Forward Bias V
EV
Reverse Bias
n-type metal n-type semiconductor Fig. 2.3-5
SUMMARY
Characterized the reverse bias operation of the abrupt pn junction
• pn junction has a barrier potential ψo
• Depletion region widths are proportional to N-0.5
• The pn junction depletion region acts like a voltage dependent capacitance
)
(p+
(n+
)
Well tie
)
W W
(p+
(n+
Substrate tie
rce
rce
in
in
sou
dra
sou
dra
p+
n+
Fig. 2.4-1
How does the transistor work?
Consider the enhancement n-channel MOSFET:
When the gate is positive with respect to the substrate a depletion region is formed
beneath the gate resulting in holes being pushed away from the Si-SiO2 interface.
When the gate voltage is sufficiently large (0.5-0.7V), the region beneath the gate
inverts and a n-channel is formed between the source and drain.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Polysilicon
an
Ch
p+ n+
Fig.
n+
4.3-4
n-channel
Channel
Length, L
p substrate (bulk)
The threshold voltage for a depletion mode NMOS transistor will be negative (a negative
gate potential is necessary to attract enough holes underneath the gate to cause this
region to invert to p-type material).
;;;
Weak Inversion Operation VGS
Weak inversion operation occurs when
the applied gate voltage is below VT and
pertains to when the surface of the
substrate beneath the gate is weakly n+ n-channel n+
inverted. Diffusion Current
p-substrate/well
10-12 VGS
0 VT
Characterization of Capacitors
Assume C is the desired capacitance:
1.) Dissipation (quality factor) of a capacitor is
Q = ωCRp
where Rp is the equivalent resistance in parallel with the capacitor, C.
2.) Cmax/Cmin ratio is the ratio of the largest value of capacitance to the smallest when
the capacitor is used as a variable capacitor called varactor.
3.) Variation of capacitance with the control voltage.
4.) Parasitic capacitors from both terminal of the desired capacitor to ac ground.
PN Junction Capacitors
Generally made by diffusion into the well.
Anode Cathode
Substrate
;;;
rD
Cj Cj Cw C VB
VA
;;;
n+ p+ n+ p+ Anode Rwj Cathode
Rwj Rwj Rw Rs
Depletion
n-well Region
p- substrate
Fig. 2.5-011
Layout:
Minimize the distance between the p+ and n+ diffusions. n+ diffusion
Two different versions have been tested.
p+ dif-
1.) Large islands – 9µm on a side fusion
2.) Small islands – 1.2µm on a side n-well
Fig. 2.5-1A
3 Small Islands
Large Islands 80
2.5
QAnode
Small Islands
2 60
1.5
40
Large Islands
1
0.5 20
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Cathode Voltage (V) Cathode Voltage (V) Fig2.5-1B
Summary:
Terminal Small Islands (598 1.2µm x1.2µm) Large Islands (42 9µm x 9µm)
Under Test Cmax/Cmin Qmin Qmax Cmax/Cmin Qmin Qmax
Anode 1.23 94.5 109 1.32 19 22.6
Cathode 1.21 8.4 9.2 1.29 8.6 9.5
Electrons as majority carriers lead to higher Q because of their higher mobility.
The resistance, Rwj, is reduced in small islands compared with large islands ⇒ higher Q.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
n+ p+ n+ p+ p+ n+
n-well
Vcontrol
VS+
VS- VS+ VS-
Vcontrol
n+ p+ p+ p+ p+ n+ Vcontrol
n-well
Fig. 2.5-015
An examination of the electric field lines shows that because the symmetry inherent in the
differential configuration, the path to the small-signal ground can be shortened if devices
with opposite polarity alternate.
;;;;
Conditions:
• D=S=B G D,S,B
• Operates from accumulation to
inversion D S B
• Nonmonotonic p+ p+ p+ n+
• Nonlinear Charge
carrier path n- well
p- substrate/bulk
Capacitance
Cox Cox
Weak
Accumulation Inv. Strong
Inversion
VSG
Depletion Moderate
Inversion Fig. 2.5-012
;;
Chapter 2 – Section 4 (5/02/04) Page 2.4-7
;;;;
Conditions:
G D,S VDD
• D = S, B = VDD
• Accumulation region removed B
D S
by connecting bulk to VDD
p+ p-channel
• Channel resistance: p+ p+ n+
Charge carrier paths
L n- well
Ron = 12KP'(VBG-|VT|)
p- substrate/bulk
• LDD transistors will give
lower Q because of the Capacitance
increased series resistance Cox B=D=S Cox
VSG
0
Fig. 2.5-013
Simulation Results for Standard and Inversion Mode 0.25µm CMOS Varactors
n-well:
Volts or pF
VT
-0.65V 0.6
CG vB 0.4
0.2
0.0
Fig. 2.5-3 -1.5 -1.4 -1.3 -1.2 -1.1 -1.0 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5
vB (Volts)
Cmax/Cmin ≈ 4
Interpretation:
Capacitance
Cox
Cmax
VBS = -1.50V
Inversion
VBS = -1.05V
Mode MOS
Cmin VBS = -0.65V
0.65V
VSG
0
Fig. 2.5-34
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
;;;
Chapter 2 – Section 4 (5/02/04) Page 2.4-10
;;;
More Detail - Includes the LDD transistor
D,S
;;;;;;;;
G
Shown in inversion mode
;;;
D,S
Cov
;;;;;;;;
Bulk Rsj Cj Cox Cov
B
p+ n+ n+
Rd Cd Csi Cd Rd G
p- substrate/bulk Rsi n- LDD
Fig. 2.5-2
32
VG = 1.8V
QGate
3 30
VG = 1.8V
28
2.5 VG = 1.5V
VG = 1.5V 26
2
24
1.5 22
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Drain/Source Voltage (V) Drain/Source Voltage (V) Fig. 2.5-1c
VG =1.8V: Cmax/Cmin ratio = 2.15 (1.91), Qmax = 34.3 (5.4), and Qmin = 25.8(4.9)
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
;;
Chapter 2 – Section 4 (5/02/04) Page 2.4-11
;;;;
Conditions:
G B
• Remove p+ drain and source and put
n+ bulk contacts instead
D S
• Variable capacitor with a larger
transition region between the p+ n+ n+
maximum and minimum values. Charge carrier paths
n- well
p- substrate/bulk
Capacitance
Accumulation
Mode MOS
VSG
0
Fig. 2.5-014
;;;
Accumulation-Mode Capacitor – More Detail
;;;
Shown in depletion mode. G D,S
;;;;
D,S
Cov Cox Cov
Bulk Cw B
p+ n+ n+
Rs Rw Rd Rd G
Cd Cd
n- well
n- LDD
p- substrate/bulk Fig. 2.5-5
3.6 VG = 0.3V
VG = 0.9V 40
CGate (pF)
3.2 VG = 0.6V
QGate
VG = 0.6V
35
VG = 0.9V
2.8
2.4 VG = 0.3V 30
2 25
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Drain/Source Voltage (V) Drain/Source Voltage (V) Fig. 2.5-6
VG = 0.6V: Cmax/Cmin ratio = 1.69 (1.61), Qmax = 38.3 (15.0), and Qmin = 33.2(13.6)
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Differential Varactors†
Vcontrol Vcontrol Vcontrol
A B A B A B
VDD
Diode Varactor Inversion-PMOS Varactor Accumulation-PMOS Varactor
Fig. 040-01
†
P. Andreani and S. Mattisson, “On the Use of MOS Varactors in RF VCO’s,” IEEE J. of Solid-State Circuits, Vol. 35, No. 6, June 2000, pp. 905-
910.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 4 (5/02/04) Page 2.4-14
M1 C M2
A B
VSB1 VSB2
Fig. 040-02
†
T. Tille, J. Sauerbrey and D. Schmitt-Landsiedel, “A 1.8V MOSFET-Only Σ∆ Modulator Using Substrate Biased Depletion-Mode MOS Capacitors
in Series Compensation,” IEEE J. of Solid-State Circuits, Vol. 36, No. 7, July 2001, pp. 1041-1047.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Fig. 040-03
IOX
Polysilicon II IOX
IOX Polysilicon I
FOX FOX
substrate
M3
M2
T
M1
B Poly
M3 T
M2
T B
M1
M2 B
M1
B T
Poly
M2
T
M1
B Fig. 2.5-8
Metal Metal
Metal 2 - + - +
Metal 1 + - + - Fig2.5-9
These capacitors are sometimes called fractal capacitors because the fractal patterns are
structures that enclose a finite area with a near-infinite perimeter.
The capacitor/area can be increased by a factor of 10 over vertical flux capacitors.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
030909-01
2.) Parallel wires (PW):
†
R. Aparicio and A. Hajimiri, “Capacity Limits and Matching Properties of Integrated Capacitors, IEEE J. of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 37, no. 3,
March 2002, pp. 384-393.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 4 (5/02/04) Page 2.4-20
Vias
030909-03
Vias
030909-04
Number of dice
PW
8
0
94 96 98 100 102 104 106
σc
Caver 030909-05
Experimental results for a digital CMOS process with 7 layers of metal, Lmin =0.24µm, tox
= 0.7µm and tmetal = 0.53µm for the bottom 5 layers of metal. All capacitors = 10pF.
Structure Cap. Density Caver. Area Cap. Std. σ fres. Q @ Break-
(10 pF) (aF/µm2) (pF) (µm2) Enhanc Dev. Caver. (GHz) 1 GHz down
ement (fF) (V)
VPP 1480.0 11.46 7749 8.0 73.43 0.0064 11.3 26.6 125
VB 1223.2 10.60 8666 6.6 73.21 0.0069 11.1 17.8 121
HPP 183.6 10.21 55615 1.0 182.1 0.0178 6.17 23.5 495
MIM 1100 10.13 9216 6.0 - - 4.05 25.6 -
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Capacitor Errors
1.) Oxide gradients
2.) Edge effects
3.) Parasitics
4.) Voltage dependence
5.) Temperature dependence
No common centroid
A1 A2 B
layout
Common centroid
A1 B A2 layout
x1 x2 x1
Only good for one-dimensional errors.
An alternate approach is to layout numerous repetitions and connect them randomly to
achieve a statistical error balanced over the entire area of interest.
A B C A B C A B C
C A B C A B C A B
B C A B C A B C A
0.2% matching of poly resistors was achieved using an array of 50 unit resistors.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
C
A B
C
A B
0.02
0.01
Unit Capacitance = 4pF
0.00
1 2 4 8 16 32 64
Ratio of Capacitors
Top Desired
plate Capacitor
parasitic
Bottom
plate
Bottom Plate
parasitic
B B' B B'
Sensitive to edge variation in Sensitive to edge varation in
both upper andlower plates upper plate only. Fig. 2.6-13
Top Plate
of Capacitor
Bottom plate
of capacitor
Fig. 2.6-14
RESISTORS
MOS Resistors - Source/Drain Resistor
Metal
SiO2 p+
FOX FOX
n- well
p- substrate
Fig. 2.5-16
Polysilicon Resistor
;;;;;
Metal
Polysilicon resistor
;; p- substrate
FOX
Fig. 2.5-17
30-100 ohms/square (unshielded)
100-500 ohms/square (shielded)
Absolute accuracy = ±30%
Relative accuracy = 2% (5 µm)
Temperature coefficient = 500-1000 ppm/°C
Voltage coefficient ≈ 100 ppm/V
Comments:
• Used for fuzzes and laser trimming
• Good general resistor with low parasitics
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 4 (5/02/04) Page 2.4-34
N-well Resistor
Metal
n+
p- substrate
Fig. 2.5-18
1000-5000 ohms/square
Absolute accuracy = ±40%
Relative accuracy ≈ 5%
Temperature coefficient = 4000 ppm/°C
Voltage coefficient is large ≈ 8000 ppm/V
Comments:
• Good when large values of resistance are needed.
• Parasitics are large and resistance is voltage dependent
INDUCTORS
Inductors
What is the range of values for on-chip inductors?
;;;;;; 12
10
Inductor area is too large
Inductance (nH)
8
6 ωL = 50Ω
;;;;;;
4
Interconnect parasitics
2 are too large
0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency (GHz) Fig. 6-5
Consider an inductor used to resonate with 5pF at 1000MHz.
1 1
L= 2 2 = = 5nH
4π fo C (2π·109)2·5x10-12
Note: Off-chip connections will result in inductance as well.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 4 (5/02/04) Page 2.4-38
β β
d Fig.6-6
L R
C1 C2
R1 R2
Fig. 16-7
• Design Parameters:
Inductance,L = Σ(Lself + Lmutual)
ωL
Quality factor, Q = R
1
Self-resonant frequency: fself =
LC
• Trade-off exists between the Q and self-resonant frequency
• Typical values are L = 1-8nH and Q = 3-6 at 2GHz
;;;;;
W
SiO2
I ID I
Silicon
S
I Fig. 6-9
Nturns = 2.5
Typically: 3 < Nturns < 5 and S = Smin for the given current
Select the OD, Nturns, and W so that ID allows sufficient magnetic flux to flow
through the center.
Loss Mechanisms:
• Skin effect
• Capacitive substrate losses
• Eddy currents in the silicon
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
L R
C1 C2
CLoad
R1 R2
Fig. 12.2-13
where:
L is the desired inductance
R is the series resistance
C1 and C2 are the capacitance from the inductor to the ground plane
R1 and R2 are the eddy current losses in the silicon
Guidelines for using spiral inductors on chip:
• Lossy substrate degrades Q at frequencies close to fself
• To achieve an inductor, one must select frequencies less than fself
• The Q of the capacitors associated with the inductor should be very high
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 4 (5/02/04) Page 2.4-42
Fig. 2.5-12
Q = 5-6, fSR = 30-40GHz. Q = 10-11, fSR = 15-30GHz1. Good for high L in small area.
1
The skin effect and substrate loss appear to be the limiting factor at higher frequencies of self-resonance.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 4 (5/02/04) Page 2.4-44
Inductors - Continued
Self-resonance as a function of inductance. Outer dimension of inductors.
Solenoid Inductors
Example:
Upper Metal
ent
;;
Curr
Coil
Contact
Vias Magnetic Flux
;;;;;;;;
;;
Current
Coil Lower Metal
SiO2
Silicon
Fig. 6-11
Comments:
• Magnetic flux is small due to planar structure
• Capacitive coupling to substrate is still present
• Potentially best with a ferromagnetic core
Transformers
Transformer structures are easily obtained using stacked inductors as shown below for a
1:2 transformer.
Method of reducing the
inter-winding capacitances.
Transformers – Continued
A 1:4 transformer:
Structure- Measured voltage gain-
Secondary
n+ p+ n+ n+
p-well
n-substrate
n+ p+ n+ n+
p-well
n-substrate
p-diffusion p-substrate
contact diffusion
n-well
Base
n-well
contact Lateral
Collector
Emitter
31.2
µm 71.4
µm
Base
Gate
V SS V SS
Lateral
Collector Gate
Emitter (poly)
84.0 µm
33.0 µm
Base Vertical
Collector
Lateral
( V SS )
Collector
VCE =
0.8 − 4.0 V
130
Lateral Efficiency
VCE =
0.6 − 0. 4V
Lateral ß
110
V CE =
0.4
90 − 0.4 V
0.2
70
0
50 1 nA 10 nA 100 nA 1 µA 10 µA 100 µA 1 mA
1 nA 10 nA 100 nA 1 µA 10 µA 100 µA 1 mA Emitter Current
Lateral Collector Current
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 5 (5/02/04) Page 2.5-5
;;
High Voltage MOS Transistor
The well can be substituted for the drain giving a lower conductivity drain and therefore
higher breakdown voltage.
NMOS in n-well example:
Source Gate Drain Substrate
Oxide Polysilicon
n+
Source n+ p+
Channel
n-well
p-substrate
Fig. 190-07
Drain-substrate/channel can be as large as 20V or more.
Need to make the channel longer to avoid breakdowns via the channel.
;;
;; ;; ;; ;;;;
3. Sustaining voltage breakdown.
;;;;;;;;;;
;;;; ;;
Parasitic lateral PNP and vertical NPN BJTs in a p-well CMOS technology:
;; ;; ;; ;;;;
;;;
y;; ;;;
y;;;;
VDD D G S S G D VSS
B
;;
A
p-well
n+ p+ p+ n+ n+ p+
RN- RP-
n- substrate
Fig. 190-08
VDD
Equivalent circuit of the SCR VDD +
formed from the parasitic BJTs: RN- A
-
A
Vin ≈VSS Vout
B
B
RP-
VSS
VSS Fig. 190-09
VDD VSS
For more information see R. Troutman, “CMOS Latchup”, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
VSS
Implementation in CMOS technology
Metal
p-substrate
Fig. 190-11
Noise in Transistors
Shot Noise
i2 = 2qID∆f (amperes2)
where
q = charge of an electron
ID = dc value of iD
∆f = bandwidth in Hz
i2
Noise current spectral density = ∆f (amperes2/Hz)
Thermal Noise
Resistor:
v2 = 4kTR∆f (volts2)
MOSFET:
8kTgm∆f
iD 2 = 3 (ignoring bottom gate)
where
k = Boltzmann’s constant
R = resistor or equivalent resistor in which the thermal noise is occurring.
gm = transconductance of the MOSFET
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
where
Kf = constant (10-28 Farad·amperes)
a = constant (0.5 to 2)
b = constant (≈1)
Noise power
spectral density
1/f
C C
A B A B
Fig. 2.6-02
4.) Minimize the ratio of the perimeter to the area (a circle is optimum).
5.) For parallel plates make one larger than the other to eliminate alignment problems.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Etch compensation
Total area is
12.5 units
FOX FOX
;;
Active area Polysilicon
drain/source gate
;;
Contact L
Cut
;;
W
;;
Active area
drain/source
Fig. 2.6-04
;; Metal 1
Comments:
• Make sure to contact the source and drain with multiple contacts to evenly distribute
the current flow under the gate.
• Minimize the area of the source and drain to reduce bulk-source/drain capacitance.
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
;;
;; ;
; ;;;;
;;
;; ; ;;;;
;;; Mirror Symmetry ;;
Photolithographic Invariance
Fig. 2.6-05
;;; ;;;;;;;;;
Metal 2 Metal 1
Via 1
;;; ;;;;;;;;;
;;
;;;; ;;;; ; ;;
;;;;;;;;;; ;
Fig. 2.6-06
;;;;; ;;
Metal 2
Via 1
;;
;;;;;
;;; ;;
;;
;;;;;;;
Metal 1
Resistor Layout
Direction of current flow
T
Area, A
L Fig. 2.6-15
Resistance of a conductive sheet is expressed in terms of
ρL ρL
R = A = W T (Ω)
where
ρ = resistivity in Ω-m
Ohms/square:
ρ L L
R = T W = ρS W (Ω)
where
ρS is a sheet resistivity and has the units of ohms/square
Cut Cut
L
Metal 1 Metal 1
L
Diffusion or polysilicon resistor Well resistor Fig. 2.6-16
Corner corrections:
0.5
1.45 1.25
Fig. 2.6-16B
Capacitor Layout
FOX
;;;;
Substrate FOX
Polysilicon gate Substrate
Polysilicon 2
;;;;
;;;;
Polysilicon gate
Metal 3 Metal 2 Metal 1 Metal 3
Via 2
;;;;
Via 2
Cut Cut Metal 2
;;;;
Via 1
Metal 1
;;;;
Metal 1
Fig. 2.6-17
Design Rules
Design rules are geometrical constraints that guarantee the proper operation of a circuit
implemented by a given CMOS process.
These rules are necessary to avoid problems such as device misalignment, metal
fracturing, lack of continuity, etc.
Design rules are expressed in terms of minimum dimensions such as minimum values of:
- Widths
- Separations
- Extensions
- Overlaps
• Design rules typically use a minimum feature dimension called “lambda”. Lambda is
usually equal to the minimum channel length.
• Minimum resolution of the design rules is typically half lambda.
• In most processes, lambda can be scaled or reduced as the process matures.
TOP
VIEW
SIDE
VIEW p substrate
p+ p p- ni n- n n+ Metal Fig.2.7-1
Assume the n+ buried layer can be seen underneath the epitaxial collector
TOP
VIEW
n collector
Epitaxial
SIDE Region
VIEW
n+ buried layer
p substrate
p+ p p- ni n- n n+ Metal Fig.2.7-2
TOP
VIEW
n collector
p+
isolation
p+ p+
isolation isolation
SIDE n collector
VIEW
n+ buried layer
p substrate
p+ p p- ni n- n n+ Metal Fig.2.7-3
TOP
VIEW
n collector p base
p+ p-
isolation isolation
p base
n collector
SIDE
VIEW
n+ buried layer
p substrate
p+ p p- ni n- n n+ Metal Fig.2.7-4
TOP
VIEW
p+ n+ n+ emitter p+
isolation isolation
p base
SIDE n collector
VIEW
n+ buried layer
p substrate
p+ p p- ni n- n n+ Metal Fig.2.7-5
TOP
VIEW
p+ n+ p+ n+ emitter p+
isolation isolation
p base
SIDE n collector
VIEW
n+ buried layer
p substrate
p+ p p- ni n- n n+ Metal Fig.2.7-6
;;;;;;;;;;;;
Contact etching (Mask Step 6)
;;;;;;;;;;;;
This step opens up the areas in the dielectric area which metal will contact.
TOP ;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;
VIEW
;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;;; ;;;;;
p+
isolation
n+ p+
p base
n+ emitter p+
isolation
Dielectric Layer
SIDE n collector
VIEW
n+ buried layer
p substrate
p+ p p- ni n- n n+ Metal Fig.2.7-7
TOP
VIEW
;;;;
;; ;; ;;;;
;;;;;;;; ;;;; p+
isolation
n+ p+ n+ emitter p+
isolation
p base
SIDE n collector
VIEW
n+ buried layer
p substrate
Fig.2.7-8
TOP
VIEW
;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;; ;;;; Passivation
SIDE
;;;;;;;; ;;;;
p+
isolation
n+
n collector
p+
p base
n+ emitter p+
isolation
VIEW
n+ buried layer
p substrate
Fig.2.7-9
x
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
1021 n+ p n n+ p
1020
Impurity Concentration (cm-3)
1018
1017 Epitaxial
collector
1016 doping level
1015
x, Depth from the
1014 surface (microns)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Emitter
1013
Base Collector Buried Layer Substrate Fig. 2.7-10
1012
TOP
VIEW
;;;;
;;;;
;;;;;;
p+
isolation/
collector
n+
p emitter
p+ p+
isolation/
collector
n base
SIDE
VIEW
p collector/substrate
p+ p p- ni n- n n+ Metal Fig.2.7-11
TOP
VIEW
;;;;;;;;;;;;;
p+
isolation
n+ p+
p collector
p+
p emitter
p+
isolation
SIDE n base
VIEW
n+ buried layer
p substrate
p+ p p- ni n- n n+ Metal Fig.2.7-12
Starting Substrate:
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-01 5µm
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-02 5µm
Epitaxial Growth
p-type
n-well p-well n-well p-well
Epitaxial
Silicon
n+ buried layer p+ buried n+ buried layer
p+ buried layer
layer
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-03 5µm
Comment:
• As the epi layer grows vertically, it assumes the doping level of the substrate beneath it.
• In addition, the high temperature of the epitaxial process causes the buried layers to
diffuse upward and downward.
Collector Tub
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-04 5µm
Comment:
• The collector area is developed by an initial implant followed by a drive-in diffusion to
form the collector tub.
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-05 5µm
Comment:
• The silicon nitride is use to impede the growth of the thick oxide which allows contact
to the substrate
• α-silicon is used for stress relief and to minimize the bird’s beak encroachment
Field Oxide
FOX
FOX Field Oxide Field Oxide Field Oxide
Collector Tub n-well
p-well p-well p-type
Epitaxial
Silicon
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-06 5µm
Comments:
• The field oxide is used to isolate surface structures (i.e. metal) from the substrate
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-07 5µm
Base Definition
FOX
FOX Field Oxide Field Oxide Field Oxide
Collector Tub n-well
p-well p-well p-type
Epitaxial
Silicon
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-08 5µm
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-09 5µm
Emitter Implant
NPN Transistor
Emitter Implant PMOS Transistor NMOS Transistor
FOX
FOX Field Oxide Field Oxide Field Oxide
Collector Tub n-well
p-well p-well p-type
Sub-Collector Epitaxial
Silicon
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-10 5µm
Comments:
• The polysilicon above the base is implanted with n-type carriers
Emitter Diffusion
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-11 5µm
Comments:
• The polysilicon not over the emitter window is removed and the n-type carriers diffuse
into the base forming the emitter
FOX
FOX Field Oxide Field Oxide Field Oxide
n-well
p-well p-well p-type
Epitaxial
Silicon
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-12 5µm
Comments:
• The surface of the region where the MOSFETs are to be built is cleared and a thin gate
oxide is deposited with a polysilicon layer on top of the thin oxide
• The polysilicon is removed over the source and drain areas
• A light source/drain diffusion is done for the NMOS and PMOS (separately)
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-13 5µm
Comments:
• The sidewall spacers prevent the heavy source/drain doping from being near the
channel of the MOSFET
Siliciding
FOX
FOX Field Oxide Field Oxide Field Oxide
n-well
p-well p-well p-type
Epitaxial
Silicon
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-14 5µm
Comments:
• Siliciding is used to reduce the resistance of the polysilicon and to provide ohmic
contacts to the base, emitter, collector, sources and drains
Contacts
Tungsten Plugs Tungsten Plugs Tungsten Plugs
TEOS/BPSG/SOG TEOS/BPSG/SOG TEOS/BPSG/SOG
FOX
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-15 5µm
Comments:
• A dielectric is deposited over the entire wafer
• One of the purposes of the dielectric is to smooth out the surface
• Tungsten plugs are used to make electrical contact between the transistors and metal1
Metal1
Metal1 Metal1 Metal1
FOX
FOX Field Oxide Field Oxide Field
FieldOxide
Oxide
n-well
p-well p-well p-type
Epitaxial
Silicon
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-16 5µm
Metal1-Metal2 Vias
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-17 5µm
Metal2
Metal 2
Oxide/
SOG/
Oxide
TEOS/BPSG/SOG TEOS/BPSG/SOG TEOS/BPSG/SOG
FOX
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-18 5µm
Metal2-Metal3 Vias
TEOS/
BPSG/
SOG
Oxide/
SOG/
Oxide
TEOS/BPSG/SOG TEOS/BPSG/SOG TEOS/BPSG/SOG
FOX
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-19 5µm
Comments:
• The metal2-metal3 vias will be filled with metal3 as opposed to tungsten plugs
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
Chapter 2 – Section 8 (5/02/04) Page 2.8-20
Completed Wafer
Nitride (Hermetically seals the wafer)
Oxide/SOG/Oxide
Metal3
Metal3 TEOS/
Vias BPSG/
SOG
Oxide/
SOG/
Oxide
TEOS/BPSG/SOG TEOS/BPSG/SOG TEOS/BPSG/SOG
FOX
p-substrate 1µm
BiCMOS-20 5µm
CMOS Analog Circuit Design © P.E. Allen - 2004
SUMMARY
• This section has illustrated the major process steps for a 0.5micron BiCMOS
technology.
• The performance of the active devices are:
npn bipolar junction transistor:
fT = 12GHz, βF = 100-140 BVCEO = 7V
n-channel FET:
K’ = 127µA/V2 VT = 0.64V λN ≈ 0.060
p-channel FET:
K’ = 34µA/V2 VT = -0.63V λP ≈ 0.072
• Although today’s state of the art is 0.25µm or 0.18µm BiCMOS, the processing steps
illustrated above approximate that which is done in a smaller geometry.