MANIFESTATION OF LIFE

A. Structural Organization
1. The cell is defined as the basic structural and functional unit of life.
Structurally, a living organism may be made up of a single cell, e.g. yeast, bacterium,
Chlamydomonas, or a few to a million cells with varying degrees of complexity, e.g. alga,
moss, starfish, orchid, bee, bird, ape or man. In the former, all functions of life, whether
metabolic or self-perpetuative, are performed by and within a single cell. In the latter case
of multicellularity, many different cells are so designed to perform specific functions.
2. The cell is made up of the following parts with corresponding function:

PARTS OF THE CELL DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTION

Plasma membrane Outer semipermeable boundary of the cell made of continuous
sheets of phospholipid molecules in which various proteins serve
as pumps and channels to transport specific molecules into and out
of the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum Flattened sheets, sacs and tubes of membrane that extend
throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells enclosing a large
Smooth ER intracellular space
Is structural continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope and specializes in the synthesis and transport of lipids
Rough ER and membrane proteins.
generally occurs as flattened sheets, studded on its outer face with
ribosomes engaged in protein synthesis
Golgi apparatus A system of stacked, membrane-bound, flattened sacs, involved in
modifying, sorting and packaging macromolecules for secretion
or for delivery to other organelles; around the apparatus are
numerous vesicles, which are thought to carry materials between the
Golgi apparatus and the other compartments of the cell. Produce
oligosaccharides
Lysosomes membrane-bounded vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes
involved in intracellular digestion. Also called suicide bag of the cell
Peroxisomes Membrane-bounded vesicles containing oxidative enzymes that
generate and destroy hydrogen peroxide.
Mitochondrion the powerhouse of eukaryotic cells, harnessing energy obtained
by combining oxygen with food molecules to make ATP
Cytoskeleton arrays of protein filaments forming networks in the cytosol that give
the cell its shape and provide the basis for movement; in animal
cells. The cytoskeleton is often organized from an area near the
nucleus that contains the cell’s pair of CENTRIOLES
Cytosol consists of all spaces outside the cellular and the nucleus, and
generally represents 50 to 60% of the total cell volume in eukaryotes.
Most intermediary metabolism and protein synthesis required for cell
growth and maintenance occurs here.
Nucleus The most conspicuous part of the cell, separated from the cytoplasm
by the nuclear envelope, consisting of two membranes. All of the
chromosomal DNA is held in the nucleus, packaged into chromatin
fibers by its association with an equal mass of histone proteins. The
nuclear contents communicate with the cytosol by means of
openings in the nuclear envelope (also nuclear membrane) called
nuclear pores.
nucleolus A factory in the nucleus where the-cell’s ribosomes are assembled

Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad

 and the cell's RNAs are manufactured.

SPECIAL PLANT CELL ORGANELLES/PARTS

Chloroplasts Chlorophyll-containing, double-membrane organelles found in all higher plants.
They also have elaborate internal membrane systems called thylakoids that
contain the photosynthetic apparatus.
Vacuoles very large, single-membrane vesicles occupying up to 90% of plant cell volume;
functions for space filling, intracellular digestion and for the control of cell turgor;
present but inconspicuous in animal cells..
Cell Wall A rigid structure composed of tough fibrils of cellulose and hemicellulose. It is the
outer boundary of plant cells that provides strength and support to the entire
plant body and maintains the shape of individual cells.

2. Definition of Terms
A. METABOLISM: A group of life-sustaining processes which defines the capacity of
organisms to "keep alive' or to "maintain life.
1. NUTRITION: An activity of organisms to provide themselves the raw materials,
such as matter and energy for the maintenance of life.
a. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION: Type of nutrition where organisms require
only inorganic materials (e.g. water, carbon dioxide) from their environment to
manufacture their own food.
Photosynthesis
light energy
12H20 + 6C02 C6H1206 + 6H20 + 602
Chlorophyll glucose (sugar)
b. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION: Type of nutrition where organisms
require pre-fabricated organic nutrients (e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
nucleic acids).
2. RESPIRATION: The breakdown or burning of simple organic nutrients to harness
energy.
a. FERMENTATION - occurs in the absence of oxygen:

Alcoholic fermentation
C6H1206 2C2H60 + 2C02 + ATP
Ethanol
Lactic acid fermentation
C6H1206 2C3H603 + ATP
Lactic acid
b. AEROBIC RESPIRATION: Complete breakdown of simple organic
nutrients, which requires the presence of oxygen.
C6H1206 +602 + 6 H20 12H20 + 6C02 + ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate)
Biological energy currency
3. BIOSYNTHESIS: The process by which nutrients are formed into new
biomolecules used as building blocks of life. Growth is the characteristic outcome of
the use of nutrients in the construction of living parts.
B. SELF-PERPETUATION: A set of life processes that provides the necessary control
over metabolism, to permit communication among organisms and their environment in
the preservation of life.
1. STEADY STATE CONTROL: Maintenance of homeostasis or internal equilibrium
2. REPRODUCTION:The process by which organisms give rise to another
generation of individuals of their kind.

Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad

 a. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Involves the fusion of two sex cells or
gametes (sperm in males and egg or ovum in females) through fertilization.
b. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Occurs in the absence of sex cells or
gametes.
3. ADAPTATION: The process by which an organism changes to adjust to the
changes in the environment in order to survive and persist.

III. BIOLOGICAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

ATOMS

COMPOUNDS .

ORGANELLES

CELL The cell is the smallest functional unit of life.

TISSUES A tissue is a group of cells of performing similar

functions

ORGANS An organ is a group of different tissues joined

structurally and cooperating functionally to perform a
specialized task
ORGAN SYSTEMS
ORGANISM

POPULATION

COMMUNITY
A. Cellular Biology
THE CELL THEORY The functional unit of life is the cell.
All living things, whether plants, animals or
microorganisms, are made up of cells.
Cells come from pre-existing cells.
ROBERT HOOKE (1635-1703) He coined the term “cell” and was responsible for the
beginnings of cytology as a subdiscipline in biology.
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632-1723) He discovered the bacteria and other
microscopic organisms and studied the structure of plant and animal tissues.
FRANCESCO REDI (1626-1697) and LAZZAROSPALL'ANZANI (1729-1799) They
disproved the theory of Spontaneous Generation.
R. H. DUTROCHET (1824) He presented one of the first clear statements of the idea that
all living things are composed of cells.
ROBERT BROWN (1831) 'An English botanist who discovered the presence of nuclei
within cells.
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1838) and THEODOR SCHWANN (1839) Botanist and
zoologist respectively who introduced the concept that all plants and animals are
made up of cells.
PURKINJE (1839) A Bohemian who coined the term protoplasm to refer to the living part
of the cell.
FELIX DUJARDIN (1801-1860) He noted that all cells contain the protoplasm.
RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1821-1902) He found that cells divide to form new cells. He
concluded that cells come from pre-existing cells.
LOUIS PASTEUR (1862) A French chemist who supplied the proof for Virchow's theory

Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad

 of biogenesis

VIRUSES HAVE ONLY THE FIRST THREE CHARACTERS, and are therefore not
considered true cells.
VIRUSES, PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Definitions:
Virus - a microorganism consisting of DNA and/or RNA. They are not considered to
be true cells, although they share common cellular properties as heredity and mutation.
These are dependent on the host cell and are regarded as obligatory parasites, relying
on the biosynthetic machinery of the host. The entire viral particle is produced within the
host cell by a process of macromolecular assembly.
Prokaryocytes versus Eukaryocytes: Cells are identified as one of two types:
prokaryotic or eukaryotic. The main difference is that the prokaryotic cell lacks a nuclear
envelope, the DNA occupies a space in the cell called the central body or nucleoid.
From an evolutionary point of view, prokaryocytes are considered to be the ancestors of
eukaryocytes.
Plant cells versus animal cells: The main difference between the two is the absence
of a non-living cell wall in animal cells. Other differences are the presence of large
and numerous vacuoles, phragmoplast for cell plate formation during cytokinesis,
chlorophyll in chloroplast for photosynthesis and plasmodesmata for intercellular
communication in plant cells.

A COMPARISON OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

CHARACTERISTICS PROKARYOCYTE EUKARYOCYTE

Organisms bacteria and cyanobacteria protists, fungi, plants and animals
Cell size generally 1 to 10 um in linear generally 10-100 um in linear dimension
dimension
Metabolism anaerobic anaerobic or aerobic
Organelles few or none nucleus, mitochondrion, endoplasmic
reticulum, chloroplasts. etc.
DNA circular DNA in the cytoplasm organized into chromosomes with many
non-coding regions; and bounded by a
nuclear envelope

RNA and protein both synthesized and
processed in the cytoplasm
Cytoplasm no cytoskeleton, cytoplasmic
streaming, endocytosis nor
exocytosis
RNA synthesized in the nucleus, proteins
synthesized in the cytoplasm
cytoskeleton composed of protein
filaments; with cytoplasmic streaming;
with endocytosis and exocytosis

Cell division binary fission mitosis (or meiosis)

Cellular organization mainly unicellular mainly multicellular with differentiation of

cells
Nuclear membrane absent present

Chromosomes are made up of

PROTEINS and
NUCLEIC ACIDS called DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid.

Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad

 Which are polynucleotides or made of a chain of many nucleotides
Each nucleotide is made up of :
1. a sugar called deoxyribose
2. a phosphate group (phosphoric acid) and
3. a nitrogen bases such as
purines: Guanine and Adenine
pyrimidines: Cytosine and Thymine

Another type of nucleic acid is found in the nucleolus and in the ribsomes called RNA for
ribonucleic acid.
Which are polynucleotides or made of a chain of many nucleotides
Each nucleotide is made up of :
4. a sugar called ribose
5. a phosphate group (phosphoric acid) and
6. a nitrogen bases such as
purines: Guanine and Adenine
pyrimidines: Cytosine and Uracil

Carbohydrates are “go food” taken from the word carbon and hydration which mean each
carbon atom combines with a molecule of water (C + H2O), eg. CH2O, C2H4O2, C6H12O6.
Complex forms are polysaccharides and simple forms are monosaccharides or simple
sugars. Plants store food in the form of polysaccharide starch, and produce cell walls
made of polysaccharide cellulose and cementing material pectin in middle lamella.
Humans store polysaccharide in the form of glycogen in the liver.
Proteins are “grow food”, complex forms are polypeptides and simple forms are amino
acids. They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Examples are
melanin(brown skin pigment), keratin (hair, nails and skin), collagen (connective tissues),
hemoglobin (in red blood cells).

Lipids are either fats or oils. They may be made of triglycerides which means they have 3
fatty acids for every 1 glygerol. Phospholipids are the chemical constituents of plasma or
cell membrane.

Catherine Genevieve Barretto-Lagunzad