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Building Stone PDF
Building Stone PDF
Rock
is a mineral mass of a more or less uniform
composition. It may consist of a single mineral
(monomineralic) or of several minerals
(polymineralic).
Monomineralic rocks are quartz sand, pure
gypsum, and magnesite
Polymineralic rocks are granite, basalt, and
porphyries
Natural rock materials are widely used for
building purpose owing to their universal
occurrence and physical and mechanical
properties.
Rocks are the main source of material for the
manufacture of mineral binding materials, such
as gypsum, lime, cement and of artificial rock
materials, eg.,brick, glass, items for concrete
and mortar.
The origin and conditions of rock formation
predetermine their chemical and mineralogical
composition, crystalline structure and texture.
The three major classification are based on the
following aspects :
(1) Geological or genetic classification
(2) Physical classification
(3) Chemical classification
According to the geological classification, rocks
are subdivided into three large groups, igneous
rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic
rocks.
(1) Igneous rocks :
Cooling and hardening of
molten magma result in the formation of igneous
rocks. Depending on the rate of cooling the sizes
of crystals are formed.
Granite, syenites, diorites and gabbros have
large crystals, while basalts, rhyolites and
andesites have small crystals.
Igneous rocks are generally very hard.
(2) Sedimentary rocks :
Transportation agents like
wind, water and ice may move the loose
weathered rock material and deposite them in the
form of layers called sediments. Such sediments
when subjected to heavy pressure undergo
compaction and cementation, resulting in the
Sedimentary rocks. Limestone, dolomite, shale,
sandstone, etc., are sedimentary rocks
(3) Metamorphic rocks :
Sedimentary rocks and to
some extent igneous rocks when subjected to
changes brought about by the combination of
heat, pressure and plastic flow ( called
metamorphism) undergo changes in the structure,
Texture and mineral composition, and this results
in the formation of metamorphic rocks. Gneiss,
schist, slate, marble, etc. are metamorphic rocks.
The basis for such a classification is the physical
properties of rocks, the manner and arrangement
of different particles and mass forming a stone.
They classified as follows:
(1) Foliated rocks
(2) stratified rocks
(3) Unstratified rocks
Foliated rocks :
These rocks shows definite paeallel arrangement of
minerals showing a tendency to split in a specific
direction.
Examples : metamorphic rock like gneiss, schist
Stratified rocks :
Stratified structure is formed due to the splitting
of parallel layers of sedimentary rocks. They
exhibit distinct layers which can be separated. The
plane of separation is called as a cleavage plane.
Examples : Limestone, slate, and sandstone
Unstratified rocks :
They are granular or crystalline structure and
become solid and cooling. They do not show any
sign of strata.
Examples : igneous rocks like granite, basalt, etc.
The presence of chemical constituents in the rocks
is the basis for their type of classification.
they are as follows :
(1) Argillaceous rocks
(2) Siliceous rocks
(3) Calcareous rocks
Argillaceous rocks :
In these rocks clay and alumina is the main
constituents.
Examples of the aegillaceous rocks are slate,
laterite, etc.
Siliceous rocks:
In these silica is the main constituent. The presence of
the silica in the free state is called sand, and in the
combined state is s silicate. Rocks containing silica in
the free state are harder, and those found in the
combined form are likely to be disintegrated.
Examples of the silicate rocks are sandstone,
quartzite, etc.
Calcareous rocks
Sandstone:-
Limestone
It is used for flooring, roofing,pavements and in general
building construction.It is found in Punjab
Maharashtra,Andhra Pradesh,etc.
Gneiss
It is used for flooring and pavement and not for major purposes
because of its weakness.It is found in Karnataka,Gujarat and
Tamilnadu.
Marble
It is used for ornamental purposes,flooring,facing works,etc.It
is found in Rajasthan,Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
-:Limestone
Gneiss:-
Marble:-
Quarrying is the process by which stones are
obtained from rock beds. Quarry is the place from
which the stone is obtained.
Methods Of Quarrying
1.Digging
In soft rocks, stones are merely obtained by digging
with the help of hand tools.like,chisels,pick-
axes,hammers,etc.
2.Heating
This method is adopted by burning certain kinds of fuels and
the exposed surface of the portion of the rock to be separated
.On burning several hours continuously due to unequal
expansion of the rock, the rock gets separated from the mass
with a dull noise.
3.Wedging
Soft stratified rocks can be removed by wedging as there
rocks are in the form of layers and are easy to split. Soft
rocks are removed with the help of pick axes an crow
bars. Limestones, Marble, Slate are removed by this
simple method.
4.Blasting
This technique is employed for quarrying hard and compact
rocks. Blasting is done In some stages.
Holes are made with steel bar with a knife-edged ends called
jumpers or drilling machine.
The drilled holes are charged with an explosive
Of suitable capacity.
Tempting of explosives is done before firing in order to
prevent the blasting within the hole itself.
The fuse is fired carefully. During the explosion, masses of
stones around the hole are removed. A properly packed
explosive shall produce a dull sound followed by displacing of
the mass of rock around it.
Generally the stones obtained from quarrying have a
rough surface and are irregular in shape. The process
of bringing stones to a regular finish is known as
dressing. The purpose of dressing are as follows:
1.To set the stones in a regular shape and appearance.
2.To prepare the stones for a suitable site for easy
handling and transport.
3.To secure proper bedding in stone masonry.
Two types of dressing are in use,
Quarry dressing
Site dressing.
Durability of stones depends on the environment at
which they are constructed. For proper durability
assurance, it is necessary to know the agencies which
deteriorate stones.
Deteriorating Agencies Of Stones:
1.Rain
Rain is one among the main causes for wetness on
stones. This wetness is dried by the sun. The process of
wetting and drying causes deteriorating of stones.
2.Climate
In hot climate there are frequent changes in
temperature which results in deterioration. Similarly
Stones exposed to cold climate causes freezing of
Water in pores resulting in the expansion, which
causes splitting of stones.
3.Wind
Wind loaded with grit and dust strikes the stones and
causes wear of the stones. Also moisture penetrate into
the pores causes dampness resulting in deterioration.
4.Vegetation Growth
Vegetation growth along the cleavages of joints of
stones release certain acids by the roots and thereby
cause deterioration.
5.Chemicals
Chemicals of different kinds move and react due to the
usage of different stone such as limestone and
sandstone, thus causing deterioration.
6.Living organisms
Living organisms sometimes form In the joints of stones
and cause instability to the structure . Further, these
holes provide room for the accumulation of moisture
and thereby deteriorate the stones.
Preservation of stones is intended to protect the
structure against the action of weathering agents and
also to protect the good appearance of the face work.
This are the following ways to preserve the stones:
1.Voids existing in the pores are filled properly.
2.By coating with suitable oils like coal tar,linseed oil
etc.
3.By avoiding the moisture into the surface of the
stones.
4.Growth of plants on the joints of stones should be
prevented.
5.Building materials which are inactive with stones
should be used.
1.General building works
Stones used for foundation, walls and superstructure.
Stone with high mechanical strength and the pleasant
colors are widely used, such as sandstones.
2.Building exposed to high wind
Stones with a high crushing strength and the presence
of silica in addition to hardness should be preferred, as
such building are constructed near the sea or location
where more wind prevails.
3.Building in industrial areas
Buildings are mostly subjected to polluted atmosphere
which may contain harmful gases, acids and moisture.
These elements leads to damage, Hence stones that could
sustain the effect of acidity and smoke on them are
preferred.
4.Building exposed to heat and fire
Stones that have high fire-resisting properties or stones
which are free from calcium carbonate can resist
fire.so,this type of stone can be used in buildings which
are frequently susceptible to fire.
5.Facing and architectural items
Facing slabs and stones ,parts of stairs and landings
,parapets and guard rail are made of slabs split from
natural stone and worked on.
6.Road metals and railways ballasts
Road metals and railway ballasts are subjected to high
compression abrasion. Thus stones selected for such
purposes should be able to resist thrust, must be strong
and highly durable. Granite and quartzite preferred for
such purposes.
Buildings Stones must be tested to assess their
properties to use for various purposes. Some
Tests are simple which can be conducted in the
field and some can be tested only in a
laboratory. Accordingly they are grouped as
• Field Tests
• Laboratory Tests
Simple Tests that can be performed on the
stone because they are relatively simple. These
include: A
• Absorption Test
• Smith’s Test
• Toughness Test
• Field Hardness Test
• Acid Test
• Crystallization Test
The test is carried out as follows:
i. From the sample of stone, a cube weighing about 50gm is
prepared. Its actual weight is recorded as W1 gm.
ii. Cube is then immersed in distilled water for a period of 24 hrs.
iii. Cube is taken out of water and surface water is wiped off with a
damp cloth.
iv. It is weighed again. Let the weight be W2 gm.
v. Cube is suspended freely in water and its weight is recorded. Let
this be gm.
vi. Water is boiled and cube is kept in boiling water for 5 hours.
vii. Cube is removed and surface water is wiped off with a damp
cloth. Its weight is recorded. Let it be gm.
From the above observations, values of the following properties of
stones are obtained.
Percentage absorption by weight after 24 hours =
Percentage absorption by volume after 24 hours =
Volume of displaced water =
Percentage porosity by volume =
Density =
Specific Gravity =
Saturation Coefficient =
This test is performed to find out the presence
of soluble matter in a sample of stone. Few
chips or pieces of stone are taken and they are
placed in a glass tube. The tube is then filled
with clear water. After about an hour, the tube
is vigorously stirred or shaken. Presence of
earthy matter will convert the clear water into
dirty water. If water remains clear, stone will
be durable and free from any soluble matter.
Rough Test without any rigid specification or
procedure.
The stones is struck by a hammer to gauge the
toughness of the stone. Force required to break
the stone reflects the toughness of the stone
Hardness is the resistance of a stone to
indentation, rebound or scratch.
It is tested by a pen knife with the aid of Moh’s
scale of hardness.
Minerals Moh’s Scale Hardness test
easily scratched with
Talc 1
the thumb-nail
scratched by the thumb-
Gypsum 2
nail
not scratched by thumb-
Calcite/ Marbles 3 nail but easily cut by
knife
can be cut by knife with
Fluorite 4 greater difficulty than
calcite
can be cut only with
Apatite 5
difficulty by knife
can be cut with knife
Orthoclase/ Feldspar 6 with great difficulty on
thin edges
not scratched by steel,
Quartz 7
scratches glass
Topaz 8
Sapphire/ Corundum 9
Diamond 10
Here, a sample of stone weighing about 50 to
100 gm. is taken. It is placed in a solution of
hydrophobic acid having strength of one per
cent and is kept there for seven days. Solution
is agitated at intervals. A good building stone
maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface
free from powder at the end of this period. If
the edges are broken and powder is formed on
the surface, it indicates the presence of calcium
carbonate and such a stone will have poor
weathering quality. This test is usually carried
out on sandstones.
4 cubes of stone with dimension 40mm are taken.
Stones are dried for 3 days and weighed. Then
stones are immersed in 14% solution of Sodium
Sulphate (Na2SO4) for 2 hours. After this stones
are dried at 100 degree Centigrade and weighed.
Difference in weight is noted .Process of drying,
weighing, immersion and reweighing is repeated
at least 5 times. Each time, change in weight is
noted and it is expressed as a percentage of
original weight.
PERCENTAGE OF WEAR SHOULD NOT
EXCEED 2% FOR GOOD STONE.
These Tests are complex and require to be done
in laboratories:
• Attrition Test
• Crushing Test
• Impact Test
• Laboratory Hardness Test
• Microscopic Test
• Freezing and Thawing Test
This test is done to find out the rate of wear of stones, which are used in road
construction. The results of the test indicates the resisting power of stones against the
grinding action under traffic.
ii. Such pieces, weighing 5kg are put in both the cylinders of Devil’s attrition test
machine. Diameter and length of cylinder are respectively 20cm and 34 cm.
iii. Cylinders are closed. Their axes make an angle of 30 degree with the horizontal.
iv. Cylinders are rotated about the horizontal axis for 5 hours at the rate of 30 rpm.
v. After this period, the contents are taken out from the cylinders and they are passed
through a sieve of 1.5mm mesh.