SALAHUDDIN M.

KHALID

ARCH. BUILDING CONST. & MATERIALS

IDEAL INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE

IX SEMESTER | FIFTH YEAR

INSIDE
THIS
ASSIGNMENT
HISTORY
HISTORY OF LONG SPAN
LONG SPAN STRUCTURES
STRUCTURES.
INDIAN CASE STUDIES
MATERIALS 1. HALL OF NATION, DELHI

MATERIALS USED IN LONG SPAN 2. LOKMANYA TILAK TERMINUS, MUMBAI

STRUCTURES AND ITS
COMPARISION. INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES
TECHNIQUES 1. EDEN PROJECT, UNITED KINGDOM

TECHNIQUES USED IN ERECTING 2. CARNAL HALL, SWITZERLAND

LONG SPAN STRUSTURES IN
3. FERRARI WORLD, ABU DHABI
INDIA & TENURE REQUIRED FOR
ERCTING IT.
HISTORY OF LONG SPAN STRUCTURES
 Contrary to the popular belief that large span structures were developed in the
second half of the 20th century, their development was initiated, shortly after the
technological advancement in the later part of the 19th century.

 With the advent of the railways in this era, the need to construct long span
enclosures was felt more than ever. Thankfully the technology of cast iron structures
at this time was advanced enough to make the construction of such structure
possible.

 With the passage of time, cast iron was replaced by wrought iron, which in turn
came to be replaced by steel and this in turn enabled the building of longer and
larger structures.

 Some prominent structures that featured large span construction in the later years of
the 19th century include, Britain’s Crystal Palace, Paddington Station and St. Pancras
Station. These buildings were a perfect example of the new age architectural
engineering.

 Besides being lightweight and functional, they were also extremely cost effective and
expressed simplicity of design and precision of structure.

 In the earlier years of 20th century, the advances in airplane technology, spelled the
need for economically constructed large span sheds that also offered large volume.
These sheds were used for housing huge delicate dirigibles and aircrafts.

 The use of long span structures broadened constantly during the entire 20th century.
This was primarily due to the growing demand for flexible column free spaces in both
industrial sectors in structures designed for entertainment and leisure.

 From production line assembly units for automobile industry, to stadium roofing and
even auditoriums and malls, the presence of these structures is visible everywhere.

 Over the year constant modifications have been made in these structures to meet
the changing needs of the construction industry and efficient, economically viable
and aesthetically appealing structures that last really long.
MATERIALS USED FOR LONG SPAN
STRUCTURES:

1. STEEL

2. CONCRETE

3. TIMBER

4. FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC

5. PLASTIC COATED TEXTILE MATERIAL

STEEL:

Image illustrating Steel as a material for long span structure.

 Steel is the major material for long-span structures.

 Bending structures originally developed for bridges, such as plate girders and trusses,
are used in long-span buildings.

 Plate girders are welded from steel plates to make I beams that are deeper than the
standard rolled shapes and that can span up to 60 metres (200 feet) ; however, they
are not very efficient in their use of material.

 Trusses are highly efficient in bending and have been made up to 190 metres (623
feet) in span.

 Two-way grids can be made of either plate girders or trusses to span square spaces
up to 91 metres (300 feet) in size; these two-way structures are more efficient but
more expensive to build.

 Vaults made of rows of parabolic arches, usually in truss form for greater rigidity,
have been used for spans of up to 98.5 metres (323 feet).

 Steel truss domes, have been the choice for several large covered stadiums, with
the greatest span being 204.2 metres (669 feet).

 A flat roof structure in bending is supported from above by steel cables radiating
downward from masts that rise above roof level; spans of up to 72 metres (236
feet) have been built.

Reinforced cement cONCRETE:

Image illustrating R.C.C as a material for long span structure.

 R.C.C. inherent strength in compression, is primarily used for long spans in funicular
compression forms, including vaults, shells, and domes.

 Thin parabolic shell vaults stiffened with ribs have been built with spans up to about
90 metres (300 feet).

 More complex forms of concrete shells have been made, including hyperbolic
paraboloids, or saddle shapes, and intersecting parabolic vaults.

 Reinforced concrete domes, which are usually also of parabolic section, are built
either in ribbed form or as thin shells. The maximum span of these domes is about
200 metres (660 feet).

 Another funicular form used in concrete, though it is really a composite structure, is

the inverted dome, or dish. As in the steel bicycle wheel, a concrete compression
ring resting on columns at the perimeter of the structure supports radial steel cables
that run inward and downward to a small steel tension ring at the centre, forming
the dish shape.

 The cable network is stiffened against wind forces by encasing it in a poured

concrete dish; structures of this type have been built with spans of up to 126 metres
(420 feet).

Timber:

Image illustrating Timber as a material for long span structure.

 Glue-laminated timber can be used as a long-span material.

 It can be prefabricated using metal connectors into trusses that span up to 45

metres (150 feet).

 It’s most economical forms, however, are the pure compression shapes of the
multiple-arch vault, with spans up to 93 metres (305 feet), and ribbed domes, with
spans up to 107 metres (350 feet).

 These are often used as industrial storage buildings for materials such as alumina,
salt, and potash that would corrode steel or concrete . Such timber structures are
usually found only near forested areas; transportation of timber to other areas
increases its cost.

Techniques Used for erecting

long span structure:

1. PLATE GIRDER & TRUSSES

2. FUNICULAR FORMS

3. TENSION CABLE NETWORK

4. SHELLS & DOMES

PLATE GIRDER & TRUSSES:

Image illustrating plate girder and trusses.

 Bending structures originally developed for bridges, such as plate girders and trusses,
are used in long-span buildings. Plate girders are welded from steel plates to make I
beams that are deeper than the standard rolled shapes and that can span up to 60
metres (200 feet); however, they are not very efficient in their use of material.

 Trusses are hollowed-out beams in which the stresses are channeled into slender
linear members made of rolled shapes that are joined by welding or bolting into
stable triangular configurations. The members of trusses act either in pure
compression or pure tension: in the top and bottom horizontal members the forces
are greatest at the centre of the span, and in the verticals and diagonals they are
greatest at the supports.

 Trusses are highly efficient in bending and have been made up to 190 metres (623
feet) in span. Two-way grids can be made of either plate girders or trusses to span
square spaces up to 91 metres (300 feet) in size; these two-way structures are more
efficient but more expensive to build.
FUNICULAR FORMS:

Image illustrating vaults made of parabolic arches.

 The highly efficient funicular forms are used for the longest spans. Vaults made of
rows of parabolic arches, usually in truss form for greater rigidity, have been used for
spans of up to 98.5 metres (323 feet).

 Cable-stayed roof construction is another structural system derived

from bridge building. A flat roof structure in bending is supported from above by
steel cables radiating downward from masts that rise above roof level; spans of up to
72 metres (236 feet) have been built.

 Another funicular form is the bicycle-wheel roof, where two layers of radiating
tension cables separated by small compression struts connect a small inner tension
ring to the outer compression ring, which is in turn supported by columns.
TENSION CABLE NETWORK:

Image illustrating tension cable network.

 Tension-cable networks use a mesh of cables stretched from masts or continuous ribs
to form a taut surface of negative curvature, such as a saddle or trumpet shape; the
network of cables can be replaced by synthetic fabrics to form the tension surface.

 Another fabric structure using tension cables is the air-supported membrane. A

network of cables is attached by continuous seams to the fabric, and the assembly of
cables and fabric is supported by a compression ring at the edge.

 The air pressure within the building is increased slightly to resist exterior wind
pressure. The increase can be as slight as 1.5 percent of atmospheric pressure, and it
is possible to maintain this even in large buildings with relatively small compressors.

 The cables stiffen the fabric against flutter under uneven wind pressure and support
it in case of accidental deflation.
SHELLS & DOMES:

Image illustrating shells and dome used for long span structure.

 Thin parabolic shell vaults stiffened with ribs have been built with spans up to about
90 metres (300 feet). More complex forms of concrete shells have been made,
including hyperbolic paraboloids, or saddle shapes, and intersecting parabolic vaults.

 Reinforced concrete domes, which are usually also of parabolic section, are built
either in ribbed form or as thin shells. The maximum span of these domes is about
200 metres (660 feet).

 Another funicular form used in concrete, though it is really a composite structure, is

the inverted dome, or dish. As in the steel bicycle wheel, a concrete compression ring
resting on columns at the perimeter of the structure supports radial steel cables that
run inward and downward to a small steel tension ring at the centre, forming the
dish shape. The cable network is stiffened against wind forces by encasing it in a
poured concrete dish; structures of this type have been built with spans of up to 126
metres (420 feet).
 NATIONAL Case study 1:
Hall of nation, pragati maidan

Image illustrating hall of nation from inside.

PROJECT: HALL OF NATION (1972)

ARCHITECT: RAJ REWAL

MATERIAL: CONCRETE (CAST IN-SITU)

SPAN: 78 M CLEAR SPAN

HEIGHT: VARIES FROM 3M TO 22 M

 It was the world’s first and largest-span space-frame structure.

 The building was made from cast in situ concrete using tessellating triangular structure
to form a capped pyramid.
NATIONAL Case study 2:
Lokmanya tilak terminus, kurla

Image illustrating lokmanya tilak terminus, mumbai.

PROJECT: LOKMANYA TILAK TERMINUS (1972)

ARCHITECT: P.K. DAS (MMRDA)

MATERIAL: METAL SHEETS

SPAN: 30M CLEAR SPACE

HEIGHT: 7M CLEAR HEIGHT

 INTERNATIONAL Case study 1:
Eden project, cornwall (u.k.)

Image illustrating eden project.

PROJECT: EDEN PROJECT

ARCHITECT: GRIMSHAW ARCHITECTS

MATERIAL: THERMOPLASTIC

SPAN: VARIES FROM 55M TO 200M

HEIGHT: VARIES FROM 35M TO 55M

 The complex is dominated by two huge enclosures consisting of adjoining domes that
house thousands of plant species, and each enclosure emulates a natural biome.

 The biomes consist of hundreds of hexagonal and pentagonal, Ethylene

tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) inflated cells supported by Geodesic tubular steel domes.
The largest of the two biomes simulates a rainforest environment (and is the largest
indoor rainforest in the world) and the second, a Mediterranean environment.

 The covered biomes are constructed from a tubular steel (hex-tri-hex) with mostly
hexagonal external cladding panels made from the thermoplastic ETFE. Glass was
avoided due to its weight and potential dangers.
INTERNATIONAL Case study 2:
CARNAL HALL, SWITZERLAND

Image illustrating carnal hall.

PROJECT: CARNAL HALL (2016)

ARCHITECT: BERNARD TSCHUMI ARCHITECTS

MATERIAL: WOOD PANEL UNDER METAL ENVELOPE

SPAN: 65M

HEIGHT: VARIES FROM 5M TO 15M

 Materials played a role in conceptualizing the project: the most important part of
the program, the concert hall, fits under the dome and is clad inside and outside in
pressed chipboard wood (OSB) panels to contrast with the metal outer envelope.
INTERNATIONAL Case study 3:
Ferrari world, uae

Image illustrating Ferrari world.

PROJECT: FERRARI WORLD, ABU DHABI

ARCHITECT: BENOY ARCHITECTS

MATERIAL: INSULATED METAL SKIN

SPAN: VARIES

HEIGHT: VARIES FROM 5M TO 25M

 Benoy’s design was a revolution, reflecting the famous sinuous form of the Ferrari
GT chassis with the brand’s signature colour and double curves.

 Ensuring sustainability, an insulated metal skin roof and efficient glass to reduce
thermal loads and glare were applied.