1

A. Propagation of Light
1. Waves can broadly separate into continuous waves and waves pulses.
(a) Continuous waves are continually oscillation motions.

Displacement against time

Displacement against distance

(b) Waves pulses are discrete disturbances

2. All waves possess four characteristics:

Characteristic Definition Unit

Velocity, v The speed which the wave travels ms-1
Frequency, f The number of complete waves generated by the Hertz
source in one second (s-1)
Wavelength, λ The distance between successive points of similar nm
phase
Amplitude, A The height of the wave crest or depth of wave -
trough

Relationship: velocity = frequency × wavelength

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3. Transverse wave has its direction of vibration perpendicular to direction of

propagation.
Light and water waves are examples of transverse waves.

4. Longitudinal wave has its direction of vibration parallel to direction of

propagation.
Sound is an example of longitudinal waves.

5. Wavefronts are lines that envelopes all crests that are in phase. Thus, the
perpendicular distance between two wavefronts represent one wavelength.

6. Huygens’ construction
Huygen postulated that points on the wavefronts themselves were the source of
small waves that combined to produce further wavefronts.

At any instant each point on the wavefront was consider as a secondary source of
secondary wavelet. Secondary wavelets will form new wavefront.

7. A ray is an imaginary line that shows the direction of travel of a wavefronts.

Hence wavefronts and rays are always at right angles to each other.

8. A group of rays is referred to as a pencil of rays. There are three type of pencil of
rays.

(a) Converging pencil of rays

Rays converge to a focus

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(b) Diverging pencil of rays

Rays diverge from a source

(c) Parallel pencil or rays

The source and focus are at infinity

9. Vergence is a quantity that expresses how diverge or converge a pencil of rays is.
The vergence, L at a particular point in a pencil of rays traveling in the air is the
reciprocal of the distance from the point to the source or focus, l.

1
Vergence, L (D) =
𝑙 (𝑚)

10. A sign convention is a set of very definite rules such that the value of any
distance measured on an diagram may given a positive or a negative sign.
The sign convention for vergence has two rules:

(a) If the distance from the point in question to the source or focus is
measured in the same direction as in which the rays directed, the distance
is given a positive sign.
(b) If the distance from the point in question to the source or focus is
measured in the opposite direction as in which the rays directed, the
distance is given a negative sign.

Hence,
(i) Convergent pencil of rays has positive vergence
(ii) Divergent pencil of rays has negative vergence
(iii) Parallel pencil of rays has zero vergence

11. The unit for vergence is dioptre (D) which is equivalent to per metre (m-1).

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12. Effectivity is concerned with change of vergence of a pencil of rays at different

point along its path.
𝐿𝐴
𝐿𝐵 = (step-back)
1+𝑑𝐿𝐴

𝐿𝐴
𝐿𝐶 = (step-along)
1−𝑑𝐿𝐴

13. Curvature of a wavefront, R is the reciprocal of the radius of curvature, r of the

wavefront. It has same sign convention as vergence.

1
Curvature, R (D) =
𝑟 (𝑚)

14. Point source: light source which is very small

Extended source: light source which is of appreciable size

15. Formation of shadows

Umbra
- is complete/ total / full shadow.
- has well-defined edge.
- is formed by point source or extended source

Penumbra
- is partial shadow
- is formed when increasing number of points on the source can reach the screen
towards the centre or periphery, causing it gradually bright towards centre or
periphery
- is formed by extended source

(a) Formation of umbra from a point source in front of an obstacle

The shadow formed is an umbra

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(b) Formation of umbra and penumbra from an extended source smaller than
the obstacle

The shadow formed is central umbra surrounded by annular penumbra

which is gradually bright towards periphery.

(c) Formation of umbra and penumbra from an extended source larger than the
obstacle

Screen at A
The shadow formed is central umbra surrounded by annular penumbra
which is gradually bright towards periphery.
As the screen moving to B, the central umbra becomes smaller and finally
disappears.

Screen at B
The whole shadow is penumbra which gradually bright towards periphery.
When the screen moves towards C, a centre brighter region appear and
becomes lager.

Screen at C
The shadow formed is annular penumbra which is gradually bright
towards centre and periphery. Centre is a brighter region.

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16. Pinhole camera

(a) Formation of image

l’ : length of camera
l : object distance

ℎ′ 𝑙′
= where ℎ′ : size of image and ℎ: size of object
ℎ 𝑙

(b) Properties of image produced:

(i) inverted
(ii) well defined over a very large range of object distances
(iii) ℎ′ increase by lengthening the box, but its brightness is decreased
(iv) free from distortion

(c) Effect on image properties when varying

(i) the size of pinhole

A small pinhole allows very little light to enter the camera. Image
will be faint and relatively long exposure time is required when
taking photographs.

A large pinhole will produce brighter image but less distinct (blur),
due to overlapping of rays from different object point.
There is an optimum size of pinhole diameter which is proportional
to 𝑙 ′ .

(ii) the shape of pinhole

The shape of pinhole is not important providing it is small enough.

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B. Reflection
1. Reflection at a surface may be classified as regular reflection or as diffuse
reflection:
(a) Regular or specular reflection
All the rays in an incident pencil of parallel rays are reflected in one
definite direction.
This occurs when parallel pencil of rays of light is incident on a highly
polished surface (very smooth surface).

(b) Diffuse reflection or scattering

Each ray is reflected according to the angle at which it meets the surface,
that is, reflection in many directions.
This occurs at irregular, rough surfaces. This is the reflection which makes
things visible.

2. Reflection at plane surface:

(a) incident ray: The ray incident on a mirror surface

(b) normal: An imaginary line that perpendicular to the surface
(c) reflected ray: The ray regularly reflected from the surface
(d) angle of incidence, 𝑖: the angle between the incident ray and the normal
(e) angle of reflection, 𝑖 ′ : the angle between the reflected ray and the normal
(f) deviation, d: The angle between i and 𝑖 ′ , the change of direction of a ray
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3. There are two laws of reflection (apply equally to plane and curved mirror):

Law 1
The incident ray and the reflected ray lie in one plane which is perpendicular to
the surface at the point of incidence

Law 2
The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence: 𝑖 ′ = 𝑖

4. Formation of virtual image produced by plane mirror:

ℎ′ is termed the virtual image of ℎ.

It is called a virtual image because the rays of light only appear to come from the
point; they do not actually intersect in the image.

(a) Characteristics of image:

(i) Position:
the image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.
the line joining an object point and its image is perpendicular to
mirror surface. (l = -l’)
(ii) The image is same size as the object.
(iii) The image is virtual.
(iv) The image is laterally inverted and upright (erect).

(b) The Sight-testing Chart

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(c) The minimum size of a plane mirror

The minimum size of mirror required is one half of the subject’s height.

5. Rotation of plane mirror:

When an incident ray travelling in a fixed direction is reflected by a plane mirror
which is rotating, it can be shown that the reflected ray moves through twice
the angle of rotation of the mirror.

When mirror rotates α°, reflected ray moves through 2 α°.

6. Deviation of light:

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7. Spherical mirror is formed from part of the surface of a sphere. There are two
types of curved mirror:
(a) Convex spherical mirror (b) concave spherical mirror

A is the pole/ vertex of the mirror: the midpoint of the mirror surface
C is the centre of curvature of the sphere of which the mirror form a part
Line AC, produced in both direction, is the principal axis of the mirror
The distance AC is the radius of curvature of the mirror, symbol r.

8. *Relationship between focal length and radius of curvature:

(a) A narrow pencil of rays which is close and parallel to the principal axis of a
concave (converging) spherical mirror is reflected to pass through its principal
focus, F. The distance AF, symbol f is the focal length of the concave mirror.

O M
i
i’
C F A

f
r

CM: Normal to the mirror

∠OMC = ∠CMF (law of reflection)
∠OMC = ∠MCF (alternate angles)
Thus, ∠ CMF =∠ MCF and CF = MF (isosceles triangle)
If only central part of the mirror is being considered, M is very close to A.
Then MF = AF, very nearly.
Thus, CF = AF and AC = 2 AF which mean r = 2f

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(b) A narrow pencil of rays which is close and parallel to the principal axis of a
convex (diverging) spherical mirror seem to be reflected from its principal focus,
F. The distance AF, symbol f is the focal length of the convex mirror.

F’

C’ i’
i M
O

A F C
f

CMC’: Normal to the mirror

∠OMC’ = ∠CMF’ (law of reflection)
∠OMC’ = ∠MCF (corresponding angles)
∠OMC’ = ∠CMF (vertically opposite angles)
Thus, ∠ CMF =∠ MCF and CF = MF (isosceles triangle)
If only central part of the mirror is being considered, M is very close to A.
Then MF = AF, very nearly.
Thus, FC = AF and AC = 2 AF which mean r = 2f

9. Relationship between f and r:

For both types of spherical mirror:

Radius of curvature = 2 × focal length

Or r = 2f

10. Real image can be formed on the screen. It is formed at the point where light rays
intersect.

Virtual image can not be formed on the screen. It is seen at the point where light
rays seem to be aroused.
*Derive

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11. Graphical constructions

(a) Draw the principal axis (a horizontal line) of the mirror.
(b) Mark the position of the mirror surface, A using a vertical line (paraxial
region).
(c) Use a convenient scale to mark the position of C and F ( F is midway
between A and C).
(d) Mark in the object by considering l and h (object position and size).
(e) Draw any two of the following construction rays:
(i) A ray from top of object passing through or aiming to C and
reflected back along the same path
(ii) A ray from top of object parallel to the principal axis, is
reflected through or from F.
(iii) A ray from top of object, passing through or aim to F, after
reflection, becomes parallel to the principal axis.
(iv) A ray from top of object, meet the vertex at i, reflected at the
same angle i’, to the axis.

12. Formation of image by concave mirror:

(a) Object further away than C

(b) Object at C

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(c) Object between C and F

(d) Object at F

(e) Object within focal length

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(f) Distant object (Object at infinity)

13. Formation of image by convex mirror:

(a) Distant object (Object at infinity)

(b) Object at any finite distance

Image always formed between A and F. It is always virtual upright and smaller.
As the object is closer to the mirror. The image is closer to A.

The reflected rays are diverging as surface is convex to incident light. Image must
be to the right of the surface and therefore virtual.

As projected rays forming the image cannot cross the axis, so the image is
upright.

After reflection, projected ray from top of the object heads towards the axis so as
this limits the image size, the image must be diminished.

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14. *Conjugate foci formula for spherical mirror:

P i’ P
i

i γ α β
i’
γ β α B A B’ C
B C B’ A

Concave mirror Convex mirror

For Δ BPB’, α = 2i + γ (i) For Δ BPB’, 2i = α + γ (i)

For Δ CPB’, β = i + γ that’s i = β – γ (ii) For Δ CPB, i = β + γ (ii)

Substitute (ii) into (i), Substitute (ii) into (i),

α = 2(β – γ) + γ 2(β + γ) = α + γ
2β = α + γ 2β = α − γ

For paraxial rays, θ = tan θ For paraxial rays, θ = tan θ

Thus, −2 tan β = − tan α +(−tan γ) 2 tan β = tan α – (−tan γ)

𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃
2𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵′ + 𝐴𝐵 2𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵′ + 𝐴𝐵
2 1 1 2 1 1
= 𝐴𝐵′ + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵′ + 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
2 1 1 2 1 1
= 𝑙′ + = 𝑙′ +
𝑟 𝑙 𝑟 𝑙

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
+ = = (use this to find image position l’)
𝒍′ 𝒍 𝒓 𝒇

𝒉′
15. Linear magnification is defined as, 𝒎 = 𝒉
Where h’ is image size
h is object size

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16. Magnification formula for spherical mirror:

ΔABT and ΔAB’T’ are similar

T
𝑇′𝐵′ 𝐵′𝐴
=
𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝐴
B’
A −ℎ′ −𝑙′
B C F =
ℎ −𝑙
T’ 𝒉′ 𝒍′
=−𝒍
𝒉

*Derive
ΔABT and ΔAB’T’ are similar
T
𝐵′𝑇′ 𝐴𝐵′
=
𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝐴

T’ ℎ′ 𝑙′
= −𝑙
ℎ

B A B’ F
C 𝒉′
=−𝒍
𝒍′
𝒉

𝑇′𝐵′ 𝐵′𝐴
=
𝐵𝑇 𝐵𝐴

Thus,
𝒍′
Linear magnification, 𝒎 = − 𝒍 (formula)

Image size, 𝒉′ = 𝒎𝒉
𝑙′
𝑚=−𝑙

−𝑛 −2𝑛
17. Reflecting power, F = = (n = 1 if surrounding medium is air)
𝑓 𝑟

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C. Refraction at a Plane Surface

1. Light may deviate when traveling from one medium to another. The change of
direction of the ray at the surface is called refraction.

Angle of incidence, i: the angle between the incident ray and normal
Angle of refraction, i’: the angle between the refracted ray and normal
Deviation, d: change of direction
(a) When ray of light passes from an optically rarer medium into an optically
denser medium, it is deviated towards the normal.
(b) When ray of light passes from an optically denser medium into an
optically rarer medium, it is deviated away from the normal.

2. Laws of Refraction
Law 1:
The incident ray and the refracted ray lie in one plane which is normal to the
refracting surface at the point of refraction.

Law 2: (Snell’s Law)

The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a
constant for any pair of media, that is
sin 𝑖
= constant
sin 𝑖′

3. Relative refractive index of glass with respect to air,

velocity of light in air
ang =
velocity of light in the medium

4. Absolute refractive index of substance,

velocity of light in vacuum
ng = velocity of light in the substance

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5. Young’s construction for determinin the direction of light travelling

(a) from air to glass

i
A 1.00 air
ang glass

i’
P

Q
(b) From glass to air

i A
ang glass
1.00 air
Q
i’

Procedure:
(i) Draw two circles with same centre point, A, having radii in ratio n: n’.
(ii) Mark the refracting surface as a horizontal line across A.
(iii) Draw incident ray according to the given i; produce the line (dashed) after the
surface, stop when it touches the circle representing index of 1st medium, point P.
(iv) Draw a perpendicular line to the refracting surface, from P to the circle
representing refractive index of 2nd medium, point Q.
(v) Join AQ, this is the refracted ray. i’ can be measured.

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6. As light travelling from air into glass, it will slow down

𝑣1 𝑡 𝜆
𝑣2 𝑡
= 𝜆1
2

Base on refraction of light waves by Huygens’ principle

sin 𝑖 𝑣 𝑡
= 𝑣1𝑡
sin 𝑟 2
𝑣
= 𝑣1
2
𝑣 𝑣
= 𝑣1 × 𝑣𝑎
2 𝑎
𝑣𝑎
𝑣2
= 𝑣𝑎
𝑣1
𝑛2
=
𝑛1
= 1n2
Reversibility of light show that
sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟
If = ang then = gna
sin 𝑟 sin 𝑖

𝑛𝑔
Thus: ang = 𝑛
𝑎
1 1
= 𝑛𝑎 =
𝑛𝑔 𝑔 𝑛𝑎

7. Snell’s Law

sin 𝑖 𝑛2 𝑛′
= 1n2 = = if r = 𝑖’, n2 = 𝑛′ and 𝑛1 = n
sin 𝑟 𝑛1 𝑛

sin 𝑖 𝑛′
Thus, =
sin 𝑖 ′ 𝑛

Then 𝑛 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛′ sin 𝑖′

(General form of Snell’s Law)

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8. Refraction by parallel sided glass block:

(a) Diagram

(b) Trace the ray through the block

(i) 𝑛′ sin 𝒊′𝟏 = 𝑛 sin 𝑖1 (get 𝑖1′ )
(ii) 𝑖2 = 𝑖1′ (get 𝑖2 )
′
(iii) 𝑛 sin 𝑖2 = 𝑛′ sin 𝒊𝟐 (get 𝑖2′ , angle of emergence)
Compare (i) and (iii) using (ii) 𝑖2′ = 𝑖1 ,
angle of emergence, 𝑖2′ = angle of incidence, 𝑖1 ; if the 1st medium and the
last medium have same refractive indices.

𝑡 sin(𝑖1 −𝑖1′ )
(c) Lateral displacement, s = cos 𝑖1′

(d) Horizontal displacement, h = t (tan 𝑖1 − tan 𝑖1′ )

9. (a) Reduced/ apparent thickness/ depth

Snell’s Law: 𝑛 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛′ sin 𝑖′

𝑛 sin 𝑖 ′
=
𝑛′ sin 𝑖
𝑖’
n’ For any small angle 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑖

𝑛 tan 𝑖 ′
n Thus, =
𝑛′ tan 𝑖
𝑑̅ 𝑖’ 𝐴
𝑛 ̅
𝑑
d = 𝐴
𝑛′
𝑑

For 𝑛′ = 1 and 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑔
𝑑
𝑛𝑔 = ̅
𝑑
𝑑
𝑑̅ =
𝑛𝑔
d: real thickness/ depth
𝑑̅ : reduced thickness/ depth (optically equivalent thickness as far as vergence is
concerned)

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(b) several layers

𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
Apparent thickness = + + +⋯
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛3

10. Critical angle, ic is the angle of incidence in the optically denser medium when
the angle of refraction in the rarer medium is 90°.
(a)

(b) Snell’s Law: 𝑛 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛′ sin 𝑖′

𝑛′
Thus, sin 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑛

11. Total internal reflection is the process where all the energy reflects back into the
optically denser. Two conditions for total internal reflection to occur:
(a) Light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium (n > n’)
(b) The angle of incident is larger than the critical angle (i > ic)

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(c) Mirage

Light from the sky is gradually refracted at layers of air with reducing
index closer to the hot road. As the angles of incidence increase gradually,
total internal reflection occurs when i > ic. The image of cloud has the
appearance of a ‘pool’ of water apparently on the road ahead of the
observer.

(d) Fibre optics

The passage of light is achieved by total internal reflection within the fibre.
The outer cladding isolates each fibre in a bundle so that light leakage is
prevented.

12. Prism

C
B

The section ABC is called the principal section of prism. The two surfaces
contain AB and AC are the refracting surfaces. A principal section is
perpendicular to the refracting faces.
The angle between the two refracting surfaces in the principal section is called
the apical angle, ∠BAC.

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13. Ray tracing through triangular prism

(a) Given i1, 𝑛′ and a (assume n =1)

𝑛′ sin 𝑖1′ = 𝑛 sin 𝑖1 get 𝑖1′

𝑛
𝑖2 = 𝑎 − 𝑖1′ 𝑖𝑐 = sin−1 (𝑛′ )

𝑖2 < 𝑖𝑐 𝑖 2 > 𝑖𝑐
Light will be refracted and emerges at Total internal reflection occurs and
2nd surface light will be refracted and emerge
through base

𝒅 = 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ’ – 𝒂
Deviation produced depends on the
apical angle, angles of incidence and
emergence.

- Calculate d if given 𝑖1
- Calculate 𝑖1 if given d, i2 or i2’

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14. Minimum deviation

dmin

𝑖1 = 𝑖2 ’

At minimum deviation, the ray in the prism parallel to the base when the prism
section is isosceles. The ray of light travels symmetrically through.
Thus, 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 ’ and 𝑖1 ’ = 𝑖2
𝑎
𝑖1 ’ = 2

𝑛′ sin 𝑖1′ = 𝑛 sin 𝑖1 (find 𝑖1 if given 𝑛′ OR find 𝑛′ if given 𝑖1 )

𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2(𝑖1 − 𝑖1′ )

15. An ophthalmic prism (small angled prism, a < 10°) is incorporated into
spectacle lenses to relief defects in extrinsic muscle system of the eyes.
Trace a ray through a small angled prism.

𝒅 = (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒂

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16. Appearance of an extended object view through a prism (long horizontal line
parallel to the prism apex)
Suppose a subject views a long horizontal line through a prism held with its base
down in front of one eye. Describe the appearance of the line if the subject is
allowed to look at the line by scanning through other than principal sections of the
prism.

A prism deviate ray towards the base. As 𝑑 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑎 → 𝑑 ∝ 𝑎

The object seems to be displaced towards As 𝑎3 > 𝑎2 > 𝑎1 , thus
the apex. 𝑎3 > 𝑎2 > 𝑎1 . The line
seems curved upwards away
from the centre.

17. Dispersion through a prism

Dispersion occurs when a narrow pencil of white rays is incident at the first face
of a prism.
Light of different wavelengths will travel at different speeds as 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆, f is a
constant.
Red light will travel faster than blue light as 𝜆𝑟𝑒𝑑 > 𝜆𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 , thus red light deviates
less as compare to blue light. The refractive index of a material varies with
wavelength of light.

18. Aberration is the departure of an image from perfection. Aberrations caused by

the variation of n of a material are called chromatic aberrations.

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