CHAPTER 11

SPACE COORDINATE AND SURFACES

11-1 Space coordinates. In our study thus far we have dealt with equations
in two variables, and have pictured equations in a plane coordinate system. When
we introduce a third variable a plane wil not siffice for the illustration of an
equation. For this purpose our coordinate system is extended to three dimensions.
Let OX, OY, and OZ be three mutually perpendicular lines. These lines
constitute the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis. The positive directions of the axes
are indicated by arrows in Fig. 11-1. In this drawing, and others which we shall
make, the x-axis and z-axis are in the plane of the page, and the y-axis is to be
visualized as perpendicular to the page. The z-axis may be regarded as vertical
and the others as horizontal. The axes, in pairs, determine the three mutually
perpendicular planes, XOY, XOZ, and YOZ. These are called coordinate planes,
and are designated respectively the xy-plane, xz-plane, and the yz-plane. The
coordinate planes divide space into eight regions, called octants. The octant with
all coordinates positive is called the first octant; we shall not refer to any of the
other octants by number.

FIGURE 11-1
 FIGURE 11-2

Having selected a unit of measurement, the position of a point is determined

by its distances from the coordinate planes. The distance of a point P from yz-
plane is called the x-coordinate, of the point. Similarly, the distance from the xz-
plane is called y-coordinate, and the distance from the xy-plane the z-coordinate.
The coordinates of a point are written in the form (x,y,z).
In plotting points and drawing figures, we shall make unit distances on the
x- and z-axes equal. A unit distance on the y-axis will be represented by an actual
length of about 0.7 of a unit. The y-axis will be drawn at an angle of 135 ̊ with the
x-axis. This position of the y-axis and the foreshortening in the y-direction aid in
visualizing space figures. Notice, for example, the cube and the plotted points in
Fig. 11-2.
11-2 The locus of an equation. The locus of an equation in the three-
dimensional system is defined exactly as in the case of a two-dimensional system.
The locus of an equation consists of all the points, and only those points,
whose coordinates satisfy the given equation.
In the two-dimensional system we found lines and curves as the loci of
equations. In three dimensions the locus of an equation is a surface. There are
equations whose loci, in three dimensions, are space curves (curves not lying in a
plane). We are excluding space curves from consideration. We have noticed, of
course, that some two-dimensional equation have no loci, and that others consists
of one or more isolated points. Similarly, there are exceptional cases in athree-
dimensional system. However, we shall be interested in equations whose loci exist
and are surfaces.
11-3 Cylinder surfaces. We shall begin our study of loci by considering
equations in one and two variables. As a further restriction, we shall use equations
of only the first and second degrees. The loci of equations of this class are
comparatively easy to determine.
To find the locus of the equation
x = 4,
for example, we notice that the equation is satisfied by giving x the value 4. Since
the equation does not contain the value 4. Since the equation does not y or z, no
restrictions are placed on these variables. Hence the locus consists of all points
which have the x-coordinate equal to 4. The locus is obviously the plane parallel
to the yz-plane and 4 units to the right.
Passing now to alinier equation in two variables, we choose for illustration
the equation
2y + 3z = 6.
In the yz-plane his equation represents a line. Consider now a plane through this
line and parallel to the x-axis (Fig. 11-3). Any point on this plane has a
corresponding point on the line with the same y- and z-coordinates. Hence he
coordinates of the point satisfy the given equation. We conclude, therefore, that
the planes is the locus of the equation.

FIGURE 11-3
 The two examples indicate the correctness of the following statement:
The locus of a first degree equation in one or two variables is a plane. The
planes is parallel to the axis of each missing variable.
Take now the equation
(x-y)2 + y2 = 4.
In the xy-plane the locus of this equation is a circle of radius 2 and with the center
on the x-axis 2 units to the right of the origin (Fig. 11-4). Let (x,y,0) be the
coordinates of any point of the circle. Then the point (x,y,z), where z is any real
number, satisfies the equation. Thus we see that the locus of the given equation is
a surface generated by a line which moves so that it stays parallel to the z-axis and
intersects the circle.
A surface generated by a line which moves so that it stays parallel to a fixed
line and intersects a fixed curve in a plane is called a cylindrical surface or
cylinder. The curve is called the directrix, and generating line in any position is
called an element of the cylinder.
In accordance with this defenition, a plane is a special case of a cylinder; the
directrix may be a straight line. Hence the locus of each of the three equations
which we have considered is a cylinder.
It is easy to generalize the preceding discussion to apply to equations in two
variables, even without restriction to the degree, and establish the following
theorem.
THEOREM. The locus of an equation in two variables is a cylinder whose
elements are parallel at the axis of the missing variable.

FIGURE 11-4