Life Cycle Assessment A

P r og r am f o r No r t h Ame r i c a n M o bi l i t y In Highe r Educa t io n PIECE
MODULE 14. “ Li f e Cyc l e Assessmen t (LCA) ”

4 s t eps o f L C A, app r oac h es, s o f t w a r e, da t
abases, sub j e c t ivi t y, se n si t ivi t y a n a l ysis, app l i
c a t io n t o a c l a ssi c examp l e.
NAM P PIECE
S t r u c t u r e o fM o du l e 1
What is the structure of this module?
Module 14 is intended to convey the basic aspects of Life Cycle

Assessment (LCA) methods and tools, using a case study approach.
This module is divided into 3 “tiers”, each with a specific goal:

Tier I: Basic Concepts.
Tier II: How to use computer tools.
Tier III: How to Apply the Tool in a real world context.
These tiers are intended to be completed in that particular order.

Students are quizzed at various points to measure their degree of
understanding, before proceeding to the next level.
M od u l e 14 – Li fe Cy c l e A 2
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I
Ba ck g r o u n d In f o r ma t io n
NAM P PIECE
Pu r po se o fM o du l e 1
What is the purpose of this tier?
Background Information. It will provide a general overview of life
cycle assessment (LCA) and its potential applications

NAM PIECE
P
Re f e r en
ces
 Gaudreault, C., Samson, R., Stuart, P. (2004). “Survey of LCA Applications and
Methodologies in the Pulp and Paper Industry”. Paper submitted to TAPPI Journal.
 Goedkoop and Oele. 2002. ”User Manual Introduction into LLCA methodology and
practice with SimaPro 5.1“.
 International Organization for Standardization.2000.“Environmental Management –

Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework”. Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO
14040
 International Organization for Standardization.2000 “Environmental Management –
Life Cycle Assessment – Goal and Scope Definition and Inventory Analysis”. Geneva,
Switzerland. Notes: ISO 14041
Life Cycle Assessment – Life Cycle Impact Assessment”. Geneva, Switzerland. Notes:
ISO 14042
Life Cycle Assessment – Life Cycle Interpretation”. Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO
14043
ssessmen t
 International Organization for Standardization.2000.“Environmental Management
– Life Cycle Assessment – Life Cycle Interpretation”. Geneva, Switzerland.
Notes: ISO 14043
 Lopes, Dias, Arroja, Capela and Pereira, 2003 “Application of life cycle
assessment to the Portuguese pulp and paper industry”. Journal of Cleaner
Production.
 Pollution Prevention – A Federal Strategy for Action, 1995
 Svoboda S. (1995). “Note of Life Cycle Analysis”. National Pollution
Prevention Center for Higher Education.
 Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), www.setac.org
 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), http://www.unep.org
NAM PIECE
P
Tie r I: Ou t l
ine
1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment

(LCA).
2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.
3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper

industry.
4. Proposal of “life cycle thinking” concept: using LCA as a tool

for practical applications in the operation of a facility.
5. Multiple choice questions.
ssessmen t
1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).
1.1. The origin
NAM PIECE
P
1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle

Assessment (LCA).
1.1. The origin
LCA has its roots in the 1960’s, when scientists concerned about the rapid depletion of
fossil fuels developed it as an approach to understanding the impacts of energy
consumption.
In the early 1970’s, LCA’s concentrated mainly on energy and raw materials but later
air emissions, water emissions and solid waste were included in the calculation.
ssessmen t
Assessment (LCA).
In the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, the environmental concern shifted to issues of
hazardous waste management.
The SETAC conference of 1990 in Vermont was the first to analyze LCA’s into three
main stages. These stages are:
Inventory – In which the data describing the system are collected and converted to a
standard format to provide a description of the physical characteristics of the system of
interest.
Interpretation – In which the physical datas from the inventory are related to
observable environmental problems.
Improvement – In which the system is modified in some way to reduce or ameliorate
the observed environmental impacts.
Inventory
Interpretation Improvement
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

1.1. The origin
1.2. Introduction
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE

Assessment (LCA).
1.2. Introduction
A fundamental part in the application of the LCA is that a company that makes and
uses a LCA -in the long run- is going to the same demand to its suppliers and clients
within the commercial chain.
Generally using a LCA causes a rain of ideas that can help to see
the problem from an extensive point of view. The LCA is a tool of
support for the decision making.
 For what kind of applications do we use the LCA ? A1
The potential applications of LCA include (ISO 1997):
 Identification of improvement opportunities for

environmental aspects.
 As a decision making tool in strategic planning,
priorities definition and product or process design.
 Selection and evaluation of relevant environmental performance indicators.
 Marketing programs.
ssessmen t
Slide 12
A1 important vs potential applications

ANTONIO; 06-janv.-05
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

1.1. The origin
1.2. Introduction
1.3. Definition
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE

Assessment (LCA).
1.3. Definition
Life Cycle :
Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product or a service system, from the
extraction of natural resources to the final disposal.
In this module, LCA is utilised as a quantitative process used to evaluate the associate
A2
environmental loads to a product, a process or an activity identifying the use of mass
and energy and the discharges to the surroundings; in order to determine it potential
impact.
ssessmen t
Slide 14
A2 not only environmental

NAM P PIECE

Assessment (LCA).
The study takes into account the stages of extraction and processing of raw materials;
production, transportation and distribution of raw materials and products; use,
A3
reusability and/or recycling as well as the disposition of the remainder.
Energy
Energy Resource
Resource
Recycled & Disposal

Recycled of the remainder
& Disposal
of the remainder
Use,
Use,reusability
reusability&
&
maintenance
maintenance
Extraction
Extraction &
&
Pro cessing
Pro cessing TransportTransport
& Distribution
&
Distribution
Produ
Produ ction
ction
Emissions
Emissions
ssessmen t
Slide 15
A3 too many "ands"

NAM PIECE
P

Assessment (LCA).
The ISO 14040 standard defines LCA as a compilation and evaluation of the inputs
and outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system through
its life cycle. The Life-Cycle Assessment framework as laid down in this standard is
shown below:
Principles and Framework (ISO

14040) Direct application:
• Product development
Goal and scope
and improvement
Definition
(ISO 14041)
• Strategic planning
• Public policy making
• Marketing
Inventory
Interpretation
Analysis
(ISO 14043)
(ISO 14041) Other tools:
Techniques
Economic
Impact
Social
Assessment
(Based on ISO 14040)
(ISO 14042)
ssessmen t
Assessment (LCA).
The base of LCA consists of making a mass and energy balances of the studied
system. In this way the inputs and outputs are identified, and later the potential
environmental impacts are evaluated.
A4
A cradle-to-grave manner involves all the steps in the product production: from raw
material extraction and transport to production and consumption, until the re-use or
the disposal.
Slide 17
A4 it is not - cradle to grave?

NAM P PIECE

Assessment (LCA).
Life Cycle Analysis must be used cautiously, and in the interpretation of the impact
assessment, care must be taken with subjective judgments.
When first conceived, it was predicted that LCA would enable definitive judgments to
be made. That misplaced belief has now been discredited.
In combination with the trend towards more open disclosure of

environmental information by companies and the desire by
consumers to be guided towards the least harmful purchases,
LCA appears to be a vital tool.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

1.1. The origin
1.2. Introduction
1.3. Definition
1.4. The ISO 14040 family
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

Assessment (LCA).
1.4. The ISO 14040 Family
 ISO 14040 : Environmental Management - LCA – Principles and Framework
 ISO 14041 : Environmental Management - LCA– Goal and Scope Definition &
Inventory Analysis
 ISO 14042 : Environmental Management - LCA– Life Cycle Impact Assessment
 ISO 14043 : Environmental Management - LCA– Life Cycle Interpretation
 ISO 14047 : Illustrative Examples on how to apply ISO 14042 - Life Cycle
Assessment – Life Cycle Impact Assessment
 ISO 14048 : Environmental Management - LCA– Data Documentation Format
 ISO 14049 : Environmental Management - LCA– Examples of Application of ISO

14041 to Goal and Scope Definition and Inventory Analysis
ssessmen t
Assessment (LCA).
 ISO 14040 : Environmental Management - Life Cycle Assessment –

Principles and Framework
This international standard specifies the general framework,

principles and requirements for conducting and reporting life
cycle assessment studies. This international standard does
not describe the life cycle assessment technique in details.
In this definition, it is clear that impact assessment is an

integral part of LCA. ISO 14040 is an excellent compromise
between what makes up a Life Cycle Assessment and that
what is to be achieved at all.
Assessment (LCA).

Goal and Scope Definition & Inventory Analysis
This international standard in addition to ISO 14040 specifies

the requirements and procedures necessary for the
compilation and preparation of the definition of the goal and
scope of a Life Cycle Assessment study and for performing,
interpreting and reporting a Life Cycle Inventory analysis
(LCI).
This international standard does not describe the life cycle

assessment technique in detail.
Assessment (LCA).

Life Cycle Impact Assessment
ISO 14042 describes and gives guidance on a general

framework for the Life Cycle Impact Assessment phase
(LCIA) of LCA as well as its key features and inherent
limitations. It specifies requirements for conducting LCIA and
its relationship to other LCA phases.
The standard is supported with a technical report illustrating

examples on how to apply ISO 14042. In the ISO 14042
document a large range of issues are mentioned that need
to be decided and described.
Assessment (LCA).

Life Cycle Interpretation
This international standard provides requirements and
recommendations for conducting the life cycle interpretation
phase in LCA or LCI studies. This document is intended to
provide guidance on the interpretation of LCA results in
relation to the goal definition phase of the LCA study,
involving review of the scope of the LCA.
This international standard does not describe specific
methodologies for the life cycle interpretation phase of LCA
and LCI studies. This standard is short, clear and
illustrated. The aim of the working group was to
demonstrate that the LCA interpretation can be done
simply, by referring essentially to common sense.
Assessment (LCA).
 ISO/DTR 14047: Illustrative Examples on how to apply ISO

14042 - Life Cycle Assessment – Life Cycle Impact
Assessment
The purpose of this Technical Report is to provide examples

to illustrate practice in carrying out a life cycle impact
assessment according to ISO 14042. These examples are
only a sample of the total possible examples that could
satisfy the provisions of the standard. They should be read
as offering “a way” or “ways” rather than the “unique way”
of applying the standard. They reflect the key elements of
the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase of the LCA. It
should be noted that the examples presented in this
technical report are not exclusive and that other examples
exist to illustrate the methodological issues described.
Assessment (LCA).
 ISO/DTR 14048: Environmental Management - Life Cycle

Assessment – Data Documentation Format
This technical specification is applicable to the specification and

structuring of questionnaire forms and information system.
However, it can also be applied to other aspects of the
management of the environmental data.
The technical specification does not include requirements on
completeness of data documentation. The data documentation
format in independent of any software of database platform for
implementation.
The technical specification does not require any specific
sequential, graphic or procedural solutions for the presentation
or treatment of datas, nor does it describe specific modeling
methodologies for LCA and LCI data.
Assessment (LCA).
 ISO/DTR 14049: Environmental Management - Life Cycle

Assessment – Examples of Application of ISO 14041 to Goal
and Scope Definition and Inventory Analysis
This technical report provides examples about practices in

carrying out a Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI) as means
of satisfying certain provisions of the standard. They should
be read as offering a way or ways rather than the unique
way of applying the standard. Also they reflect only certain
portions of an LCI study.
It should be noted that the examples presented in this
technical Report are not exclusive and that many other
examples exist illustrating the methodological issues
described. The examples are only portions of complete LCI
studies.
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P
2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology
2.1. Methodology
The ISO 14040 general framework of an LCA study consists of four steps:
1. Defining the goal and scope of the study.

2. Making a model of the product life cycle with all the environmental inflows
and outflows. This is usually referred to as the life cycle inventory (LCI)
stages.
3. Understanding the environmental relevance of all the inflows and outflows,
this is referred to as the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase.
4. The interpretation of the study.
ssessmen t
Principles and Framework (ISO

14040) Direct application:
Goal and scope • Product development
Definition and improvement
(ISO 14041) • Strategic planning
• Public policy making
Inventory Life • Marketing
Analysis Cycle • Other
(ISO Interpretation
14041) (ISO 14043)
Other tools:
Impa ct
Techniques
Assessment
(ISO 14042) Economic
Social
The challenge for the LCA practitioner is to develop the models in such a way that the
simplifications and thus uncertainties do not influence the results too much.
The best way to deal with this problem is to carefully define a goal and scope of the LCA
study before starting.
The goal and scope definition is a guide that helps you to ensure the consistency of the
LCA you perform.
Example :
LCA methodology was applied to Portuguese production of printing and writing paper in
order to evaluate its environmental performance and also to make a
comparative, environmental assessment of fuel oil and natural gas,
respectively, as energy sources in the manufacturing process.
(Lopes et al. 2003)
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

2.2. Goal and scope
Goal & Scope Definition (ISO 14041). That is to state, the reasons of the study, the
information that is expected to obtain, how it is going to be used, the intended audience
of the report, the analysis of the scope and the limits of the system.
1. Defining the goal:
The goal of any study shall unambiguously state the intended application, the reasons
for carrying out the study and the intended audience, I.e. to whom the results of the
study are intended to be communicated.
Some LCA studies serve more than one purpose. The results may be both used internally
and externally. In that case, consequences of such double use should be clearly
described. (Goedkoop and Oele. 2002)
ssessmen t
It is obvious that an LCA should have goal. However, in ISO there are some particular
requirements for the goal definition:
 The application and intended audiences shall be described unambiguously. This is

important, as a study that aims to provide data that is applied internally can be quite
differently structured than a study that aims at making public comparisons between two
products.
 The reasons for carrying out the study should be clearly described. Is the commissioner
or practitioner trying to prove something, is the commissioner intending to provide A5
information only, etc.
2. Defining the
th scope:
The scope of the study describes the most important methodological choices,
assumptions and limitations. One starts with initial system
syste boundaries and initial data
quality
qualit requirements that can be adapted later if more information becomes available
or necessary.
Slide 34
A5 alignment...
NAM P PIECE
The scope of any LCA study should be efficiently well defined to ensure that the breadth
and the inherent details in which the study is conducted are both compatibles with and
sufficientes to address the stated study goal. (Goedkoop
Goedkoo and
an Oele. 2002) A6
Factors that should be considered and stated clearly in the Scope of Study include:
 The function(s) of the system to be analyzed

 The functional unit on which the study will be based
 The system boundaries
 Allocation procedures adopted
 Data quality requirements
 Any assumptions made
 Study limitations
 The type and format of the study reports
ssessmen t
Slide 35
A6 "s" twice
NAM PIECE
P
Function, functional unit and reference flow
A particularly important issue in product comparisons is the functional unit or

comparison basis. In many cases, one cannot simply compare product A and B,
as they may have different performance characteristics. Defining a functional unit
can be quite difficult, as the performance of products is not always easy to
describe. For instance, if the objective of the study is to compare paper towels
with hand dryers, the function of these products is to dry hands and the
functional unit can be defined as x pair of dried hands.
Initial System Boundaries

Product systems tend to be interrelated in a very complex way. It is helpful
to draw a diagram of the system and to identify the boundaries in this
diagram. Important choices in this area are:
 What is the boundary with nature? For example, in
an LCA on paper it is important to decide if the growing ofof aa
tree is included. If it is, one can include the CO2 uptake aandnd
land use effect.
ssessmen t
 Will the production and disposal of capital goods be included? One can
distinguish three orders:
• First Order : Only the production of materials and transport are included.
• Second Order : All processes during the life cycle are included, but the capital
goods are left out.
• Third Order : Now the capital goods are included.
Criteria for inclusion of inputs and outputs

Apart from the criteria for system boundaries, one can also use a certain
threshold below which you consider it is useless to collect data for an inflow or an
outflow. ISO recommends using one or more of the following bases for such a
threshold:
 If the mass of the inflow is lower than a certain percentage.
 If the economic value of an inflow is lower than a certain percentage of the
total value of the product system.
 If the contribution from an inflow to the environmental load is below a certain
percentage.
Data Categories
It defines the kind of data necessary for the study. They can be collected at the
production sites (i.e. primary data) or be obtained or calculated from published
references or databases (i.e. secondary data). ISO recommends the use of
primary data for those processes that contribute with most of the mass and
energy flows or processes with significant environmental emissions (ISO 1999).
Data Quality Requirements

The quality of the data used in the life cycle inventory is naturally reflected in the
quality of the final LCA. The data quality can be described and assessed in
different ways. It is important that the data quality is described and assessed in a
systematic way that allows others to understand and control the actual data
quality.
Initial data quality requirements shall be established which define that following
parameters:
 Time-related coverage.
 Geographical coverage.
 Technology coverage.
In all studies, the following additional data quality indicators shall

be taken into consideration in a level of detail depending on goal
and scope definition:
 Precision
 Completeness
 Representativeness
 Consistency 12
 Reproducibility 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
Allocation
ISO recommends the following procedure in order to deal with allocation issues:
 Avoid allocation, by splitting the processes in such a way that can be described
as two separated processes that each has a single output.
 Another way to avoid allocation is to extend the system boundaries, and by
including process is that would be needed to make a similar output.
 If it is not possible to avoid allocation in either way, the ISO standard suggest
allocating the environmental load based on a physical causality, such as mass or
energy content of the outputs.
If this procedure cannot be applied, ISO suggests using socio-economic allocation

basis, such as the economic value.
Although ISO mentions the socio-economic basis as a last resource, it is used
very often. The advantage is that economic value is a good way to distinguish
waste from an output, and it expresses the relative importance of an output.
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.3. Goal and Scope : Example
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

2.3. Goal and scope: Example
The purpose of this study is the identification and assessment of the

environmental impacts associated with the production, use and final disposal of
printing and writing paper produced in Portugal from Eucalyptus globulus and
consumed in Portugal. The schema below shows the system boudaries.
Eu cca lyp ttu s forest
Eucally p ttu s pu llp p rro d u cction

C o m po sting
Paper p rro duction Consumers Landfiilllliin g
Softwo o d pu llp p rro du cction

R eccyclliin g
So fftwood forest
Che m ica ll P rro du cction

E lle c triicciitty P rodu ction
T rra nspo rrts
O tth er systtem s Fue ll p rro duction
ssessmen t
In this example, the functional unit was defined as 1 tonne of white

printing and writing paper, with a standard weight of 80 g/m2,
produced from Portuguese Eucalyptus globulus kraft pulp and
consumed in Portugal.
The impact assessment conducted in this study considers the

following impact categories:
 Global Warming potential for 100 years

 Acidification
 Eutrophication
 Non-renewable resource depletion
 Photochemical oxidant formation
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

Phase of Life Cycle Assessment involving the compilation and

quantification of inputs and outputs, for a given product system
throughout its life cycle. (International Organization for
Standardization 1997)
ssessmen t
Inventory Analysis
Inventory analysis is the stage in which data are collected and where
calculations are performed in order to quantify the relevant inputs and outputs
of the system as a whole. Typically, inventory data include raw materials and
energy consumption, and the emission of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes.
Inventory data may be provided for full life cycles or for partial life cycles.
(Susan Svoboda, 1995)
Inputs Outputs
Raw Materials Emissions to Air

Energy System Releases to Water
Solid Waste
Water
Usable Products
Other Environmental Releases
An important step in the inventory is the creation of a process flow diagram that
will serve as the “blueprint” for the data to be collected. Each step in the system
should be represented in the diagram, including the steps of the production of
ancillary products such as chemicals and packaging. This step is important because it
clearly depicts the relative contribution of each subsystem to the entire production
system and the final product.
The following is a synopsis of the various issues that can be analyzed in an inventory
analysis:
 Data Collection
 Refining System Boundaries
 Calculation
 Validation of Data
 Relating data to the specific system
 Allocation and Recycling
1. Data Collection
Inventory Analysis involves data collection and calculation procedures to quantify

relevant inputs and outputs of a product system. These inputs and outputs may
include the use of resources and releases to air, water and land associated with the
system. Interpretation may be draw from these data, depending on the goals and
scope of the LCA. These data also constitute the input to the life cycle impact
assessment.
The qualitative and quantitative data for inclusion in the inventory shall be collected
for each unit process that is included within the system boundaries. The procedures
used for data collection may vary depending on the scope, unit process or intended
application of the study.
The technical specification provides comprehensive formats for data collection and
treatment and the following concept can be used,
 Description of the process as well as description of inputs and outputs.

 Description of modeling and validation
 Description of administrative information
2. Refining System Boundaries
The system boundaries are defined as a part of the scope definition procedure. After
the initial data collection, the system boundaries can be refined e.g. as a result of
decisions of exclusion life stages or sub-systems, exclusion of material flows or
inclusion of new unit processes shown to be significant according to the sensitivity
analysis. The following is a synopsis of the various subsystems that can be analyzed
in an inventory analysis:
Inputs Outputs
Ra w M aterial Acquisition
Raw M aterials
Emissions to Air
M aterial M anufacture
Releases to W
Energy Final Product Assembly ater Solid W aste
Usable Pro du cts

Transportation /Distribution
W ater
Oth er Environ m
Consum er Use and Disposal ental Releases
System Boundary
 Raw Materials Acquisition.
Data are collected for this subsystems an all activities required to obtain raw
materials, including transportation of the materials to the point of manufacture.
The inventory should also include all inputs of energy, materials, and equipment
necessary for acquiring each raw material. Because this dramatically increases
the complexity of the analysis, criteria must be determined to eliminate
insignificant contributions (usually any component contributing less than five
percent of inputs might be ignored).
Inputs
Energy Materials
Infrastructure and Capital Equipment
Outputs
Inputs
Exploration and Extraction Cultivation, Harvest, and Replenishment

Handling and Transportation
Outputs
 Product System.
Data collected for this subsystem includes all energy, material, or water inputs
and environmental releases that occur during the manufacturing processes
required to convert each raw materials input into intermediate materials ready
for fabrication. If industrial scrap is used in another subsystem, it is considered
to the same consumption and emission rates required to produce that primary
material.
Fuel Production
Producing Of Ancillary
Industries Materials
Emissions to Air
Raw Releases to Water
Materials Main Productions System Solid Waste
Acquisition Usable Product
Co-Products
 Transportation/Distribution.
An inventory of the related transportation activities of the product to

warehouses and end-users maybe simplified by using standards for the
average distance transported and the typical mode of transportation used. As
in previous stages, clear boundaries must be established to define the extent
to which issues such as building and maintaining transportation and
distribution equipment will be included into the inventory results.
NAM PIECE
P
 Consumer Use/Disposal.
Data collected for this subsystem cover consumer activities including use
(product consumption, storage, preparation, or operation), maintenance (repair)
and reuse. Issues to consider when defining the scope of the subsystem
include:
 Time of product use before it is discarded

 Inputs used in the maintenance process
 The typical frequency of repair
 Potential product reuse and recycling options
Use
Transportation Waste
Point Of Use Maintenance Disposal
/ Distribution Management
Re-Use
Recycle
M od u l e 14 – Li fe Cy c l e A ssessmen t 53
NAM PIECE
P

3. Calculation procedures
No formal demands exist for calculation in life cycle assessment except the described
demands for allocation procedures. Due to the amount of data it is recommended as
a minimum to develop a spreadsheet for the specific purpose. A number of general
PC-programs/software for calculation are available e.g. spreadsheets/spreadsheet
applications (EXCEL/Lotus etc), together with many software programs developed
specially for life cycle assessment. The appropriate program can be chosen depending
on the kind and amount of data to be handled.
4. Validation of Data
The validation of data has to be conducted during the data collection process in order
to improve the overall data quality. Systematic data validation may point out areas
where data quality must be improved or data must be found in similar processes or
unit processes.
For each data category and for each reporting location where missing data are
identified, the treatment of the missing data should result in:
 An acceptable reported data value;
 A “zero” data value of justifies; or
 A calculated value based on the reported values from unit processes employing
similar technology.
ssessmen t
5. Relating data to the specific system
The fundamental inputs and outputs data are often delivered from industry in arbitrary
units e.g. energy consumption as MJ/machine/week or emissions to the sewage system as
mg metals/liter wastewater.
For each unit process, an appropriate reference flow shall be determine (e.g. one kilogram
of material or one mega joule for energy). The quantitative input and output data of the
unit process shall be calculated in relation to this reference flow.
Based on the refined chart and system’s boundaries, unit processes are interconnected to
allow calculations of the complete system.
6. Allocation and Recycling
When performing a life cycle assessment of a complex system, it may not be possible to
handle all the impacts and outputs inside the system boundaries. This problem can be
solved either by:
1. Expanding the system boundaries to include all the inputs and outputs, or by
2. Allocating the relevant environmental impacts to the studied system.
Since the inventory is intrinsically based on material balances between inputs and outputs,
allocation procedures should approximate as much as possible such fundamental input-
output relationships and characteristics. Some principles should be kept in mind when
allocating loadings.
Allocation can be necessary when dealing with:
 Multi-output “black box” processes, i.e. when more than one product is produced and
some of those product flows are crossing the system boundaries.
 Multi-input processes, such as waste treatment, where a strict quantitative causality
between inputs and emissions etc. seldom exists.
 Open-loop recycling, where a waste material leaving the system boundaries is used as
a raw material by another system, outside the boundaries of the studied system.
Recycling technology is expected to improve greatly in the future. Therefore, content

levels and recycling rates should always be reported at current rates with
documentation of study dates. Advances in technology will both increase rates and the
number of products that are recyclable, altering both open-loop and closed-loop
recycling options.
P ro d u Pc ero Vd irg
u cein M a te ria l
V irg P ro d u Pc eroVdirg in M
u ce Vairgt e ria l
in M a te ria l in M a t e ria l
Rec y c l i n
g Sub s y s t C o n vCe o
rt ntovPro
e rt d to
Pro d u c t 1
uct1
RR ee cc yy cc lin
lin g
C o n vC
e rt
on tovPro
e rtdtou c t 1
g Pro d u c t 1
em
W Waaste
ste W Waast stee
MMa an na a
ggemem e ne tn MMa an na ag ge emme entnt
Cl os e d - l
op O pe n - l
op
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

a l yp
E u cca forest
ttu s
Euca lyptus pulp

p rro d u cctt io n Co m p os ting
The production of
Eucalyptus
P a p e rr p rro d u ct io nincludCeCsofnonrsessut
Landfilling
minsetarllssation, forest
growth and wood harvesting.
Forest
So ftw oo d pu
llp
p p rro d u
installation and growth Recyclliin g
cctt io n comprises path opening, land
preparation, soil
two o forest preparation, deep fertilization,
So fftw
d
plantation, pest control, soil
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P Che m ical
P rro d u mobilizati o n a n d s o il fertilization. T rra nspo rrts
E l le c tr riic c iitt y
ccttio n P rro
duc tion
O tth h er Fue ll p rro duc ti on
s y s te m s
ssessmen t
a l yp
E u cca forest
ttu s
Euca lyptus pulp

p rro d u cctt io n o st i n g
This subsystem includes pineC om p
growth and pine harvesting,
Pape rr p rro Consumers Landfilling
duc ti on 75% of which is done
by
So ftw oo d pu
llp
p p rro d u regeneration felling and 25% byR ec y clliin g
cctt io n
thinking.
two o
So fftw
d forest
Che m ical P rro d u ccttio n

E lle c t riic iitty
yP rro duc tion
T rra n spo rrtt s

s y s te m s
a l yp
E u cca forest
ttu s
Euca lyptus pulp

p rro d u cctt io n
Data on the production Co m p os ting
Pape rr p rro of softwood pulp include

C Landfilling
the
duc ti on So ftw oo o o n su u m e r
p u lp i n g p ro c
s Recyclliin g
d pu llp
p ess.
p rro d u cctt io n
two o forest
So fftw
d

yP rro duc tion
T rra n spo rrtt s

s y s te m s
a l yp
E u cca forest
ttu s
Euca lyptus pulp

p rro d u cctt io n Co m p os ting
To perform this study,
two scenarios were
Pape rr p rro
duc ti on defined: Landfilling
• ACcCtouoanl
ssucuemnaerriros (A
S):
Eucalyptus pulp and
So ftw oo d pu paper integrated Recyclliin g
llp
p p rro d u
cctt io n production using heavy
fuel oil.
two o
So fftw
d
•
fore s t
Natural gas scenario
( S): Eucalyptus pulp and
N paper
G integrated production using
Che m ical
nEallteucrta T rra n spo rrtt s
P rro d u
trrliigciaittsy
ccttio n
. P rro
duc tion

s y s te m s
a l yp
E u cca forest
ttu s
E u c a l y p t u s p u l pThe printing and writing

paper Co m p os ting
p rro d u
cctt io n production include eucalyptus
pulp
P a p e rr p rro
o d u ct io n Landfilling
tCraonnnsfseuur,msoeftrwrsood pulp
bales pulping, pulp refining, Recyclliin g
So ftw oo d pu llp
pcleaning, and screening,
broke
p rro d u
cctt io n
recovery, paper machine,
two o
So fftw
d f inishing, wastewater
f o r e s tt
treatment in an activated
sludge plant and
on site energy production.
Che m ical E lle c
P rro d u T rra n spo rrtt s
t riic iitty
yP
ccttio n rro duc tion

s y s te m s
a l yp
E u cca forest
ttu s
Euca lyptus pulp

p rro d u cctt io n Co m
p os ting
Pape rr p rro
Consumers Landfilling
duc ti on
Final disposal alternatives in
So ftw oo d pu llp
p
Portupgrraol dfourccptirioionnting and Recyclliin g
writing
wastepaper are recycling (11%),
lanSSdofoilffltitnwgo(oo8d4d%f o)
r e s t
a n d composting (5%).
yP rro duc tion
T rra n spo rrtt s

s y s te m s
Eu cca lyp ttu s forest
The pEruocdcauaclytiopntuosfs pu lp
Com posting
hydrogen pperrroooxdiudecctaiinodn
sodium chlorate was
Pape rr p rro duction Consumers Landfilling
included because, they
are enerSgoyf-fittnwseonosdidtivpeu llp
propcpersosd. u cction Recyclliin g
So fftwo o d forest
Che m ical P rro du cction

E lle c triiciitty P rro duction
T rra nspo rrts
O tth er system s Fue ll p rro duction

a l yp
E u cca forest
ttu s
Euca lyptus pulp

p rro d u cctt io n Some subsystems Co m p os ting
purchase electricity from
Pape rr p rro
theCnoant iosnua l Landfilling
n u
duc ti on So ftw oo
gri
m e r sd, w hile others
have a surplus of
Recyclliin g
d pu llp
p electricity production.
p rro d u cctt io n
two o forest
So fftw
d

yP rro duc tion
T rra n spo rrtt s

s y s te m s
a l yp
E u cca
forest This subsystem includes
ttu s
the circulation, between
Euca lyptus pulp subsystems, of wood,
p rro d u cctt io n Co m p o s
so f tow oo d p u
ti i n g
l p , paper,
Pape rr p rro wastepaper, chemicals
Consumers
and
duc ti on So ftw oo
Lfuaenlsdbfiyillll1iin6
gtonne, 28 tonne and
d pu llp
p garbage trucks, ocean
p rro d u cctt io n ships and electric
R ec ytrcalliininsgg.
two o
So fftw
d forest

yP rro duc tion
T rra n spo rrtt s

s y s te m s
a l yp
E u cca forest
ttu s
Euca lyptus pulp

p rro d u cctt io n Co m
p os ting
Pape rr p rro
Consumers Landfilling
duc ti on
So ftw oo d pu Recyclliin g
llp
p p rro d u
cctt io n
two o forest
So fftw
d
The fuels considered a

C h e m
re heavCyhfueeml
l
oi cil,al light fuel E lle c
T rra n spo rrtt s
P rro d u cctt io n t riic iitty
yP
oil, diesel oil and rro duc tion
natural
gasO.Otthh er Fue ll p rro duc ti on
s y s te m s
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.6. Impact Assessment
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

The purpose of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is to assess a system’s Life
Cycle Inventory results with the aim of improving understanding with regard to their
potential environmental significance. LCIA specifically uses impact categories and
associated indicators to simplify LCI results with regard to one or more environmental
issues. An LCA shall include LCIA to help identify potential environmental problems
associated with various man-made activities.
Life Cycle Impact Assessment is defined as the phase in the LCA aimed at understanding
and evaluating the magnitude and significance of the potential environmental impacts of
a product systems.
ssessmen t
Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is the third phase in a life cycle
assessment containing the following main issues:
Mandatory Elements
 Selection of impact categories and category indicators

 Assignment of LCI results (Classification)
 Characterization
Optional Elements
 Normalization
 Grouping
 Weighting
 Data Quality Analysis
Selection of Impact Categories

An important step in an LCIA is the selection of the appropriate impact categories.
The choice is guided by the goal of the study. It requires some expert judgment to
make such a list, and to understand which impact categories should be defined to
cover all these issues.
An important help in the process of selecting impact categories is the definition of so-
called endpoint. Endpoints are to be understood as issues of environmental concern,
like human health, extinction of species, availability of resources for future
generation. Endpoints can be selected by the practitioner, as long as the reasons for
including or excluding endpoints are clearly documented.
Category endpoints are variables which are of direct social concern, such as human
life span, natural resources, valuable ecosystems or species, etc. The level of the
endpoints is also called “damage level”. Category midpoints are variables in the
environmental mechanism of an impact category between the environmental
interventions and the category endpoints, like the concentration of toxic substances,
the deposition of acidifying substances, etc.
The level of the endpoints is also called “damage level”. Category midpoints are
variables in the environmental mechanism of an impact category between the
environmental interventions and the category endpoints, like the concentration of
toxic substances, the deposition of acidifying substances, etc. The level of midpoints
is also called “problem level” (Udo de Haes et al. 1999a). According to ISO, the
category indicator can be defined at any level of the environmental mechanism (ISO
2001a).
The inventory results of an LCA usually contains hundreds of different emissions and
resource extraction parameters. Once the relevant impact categories are determined,
these LCI results must be assigned to these impact categories.
Once the impact categories are defined and the LCI results are assigned to these
impact categories, it is necessary to define characterization factors. These factors
should reflect the relative contribution of an LCI result to the impact category
indicator result.
General overview of the structure of an impact assessment method. The LCI result
are characterized to produce a number of impact categories indicators. According to
ISO, one must document the environmental relevance of each indicator by describing
the link to the endpoints.
Respiratory deceases
Extinction of species
Dieing forest Reduced resource base

SSeeaawwaaterr
level Cancer Endpoints
Endpoints
Environmental Mechanism
Radiation
n ity
c
o lay us fu Midpoints
Midpoints
ati g er e el
-
Ra S Ca Cli Ac Nu Ec Mi
La
Smog
rci
LCI Inventory
Inventory
LCIresults
results
The impact category “human toxicological impacts” is one of the most difficult
categories to handle. The potential effect on humans depends as for ecotoxicological
impacts an the actual emission and fate of the specific substances emitted to the
environment.
The human toxicological effects can be:

 Acute toxicological effects
 Irritation
 Allergenic reactions
 Genotoxicity
 Cecinogenicity
 Neurotoxicity
 Teratogenicity
The choice of the impact assessment method depends largely on the addressed
audience.
Ecodesign
Implementation plan for of LCA Ecodesign DDeessiiggnneerrs
Implementation plan
Interface with your organization
on Eco- indicators
for of LCA i
t StrategyStrdevelopment
ategy PPrroodduuct
a development maannaagers
z
i
Goal: Why use LCA n Aggregated scores and some details
Goal: Why use ga Pr oduct declaration
Pr oduct LCCA
LCA or declaration
r eexxper ts
Scope: ou
Scope: y
Benchmarking EMS, process improvement
Benchmarking
Which applications?
•Which applications? h EMS, All details
t EEMS
How are results
•How are results and toi who? process
reported, ssppeeccialisstt
reported, and to w
Who will do it improvement
who? e
c LCC
•Who will do it LCC
Assignment of LCI results (Classification)
Assignment of LCI results to impact categories should consider the following, unless
otherwise required by the goal and scope:
 Assignment if LCI results which are exclusive to one impact category;

 Identification of LCI results which relate to more than one impact category,
including impact categories of human and acidification and
 Allocation among serial mechanism, e.g. NOX may be assigned to ground level
ozone formation and acidification.
Classification is a qualitative step based on scientific analysis of relevant

environmental processes. The classification has to assign the inventory input and
output data to potential environmental impacts i.e. impact categories. Some outputs
contribute to different impact categories and therefore, they have to be mentioned
twice.
Characterization
The method of calculating indicators results shall be identified and documented,

including the value-choices and assumptions used.
The usefulness of the indicator results for a given goal and scope depends on the
accuracy, validity and characteristic of the models and characterization factors. The
number and kind of simplifying assumptions and value-choices used in the
characterization model for the category indicator will also vary between impact
categories. A trade off often exist between characterization model simplicity and
accuracy.
Variation in the quality of indicators among impact categories may influence the
overall accuracy of the LCA study, for example:
 The complexity of the environmental mechanism between the system boundary

and the category endpoint,
 The spatial and temporal characteristics, for example the persistence of a

substance in the environment, and
 The dose-response characteristics
Calculation of indicator results occur in two steps:
a. Selection and use a characterization factor to convert the assigned LCI results to
common units;
b. Aggregation of the converted LCI results into the indicator results.
Normalization
This procedure transform an indicator result by diving with a selected value. Some
examples of reference values are
 The total emissions or resource use for a given area which may be global,
regional, national or local
 The total emissions or resource use for a given area on per capita basis
 A baseline scenario such as the indicator result under consideration divided by the
calculated indicator result of a given alternative product system.
The selection of the reference system should consider the consistency of the spatial
and temporal scales of the environmental mechanism and the reference value.
Grouping
Grouping is assigning impact categories into one or more sets, sets are predefined in
the goal and scope, and it may involve sorting and/or ranking. Grouping is an
optional element with two possible procedures:
 To sort the impact categories on a nominal basis e.g. by characteristics such as

emissions and resources or global, regional spatial scales;
 To rank the indicators in a given order or hierarchy, e.g. medium and low priority.
Ranking is based on value choices.

Weighting
Weighting is the process of converting indicator results of different impact categories
by using numerical factors based on values-choices. It may include aggregation of
the weighted indicator results. Weighting is an optional element with two possible
procedures:
 To convert the indicator results or normalized results with selected weighting

factors;
 To possibly aggregate these converted indicator results or normalized across
impact categories.
Weighting steps are based on value-choices and are not based on natural science.
The application and use of weighting methods shall be consistent with the goal and
scope of the LCA study and it shall be fully transparent. Different individuals,
organizations and societies may have different preferences, therefore it is possible
that different parties will reach different weighting results based on the same
indicator results or normalized indicator results.
In an LCA study it may be desirable to use several different weighting methods and
to conduct sensitivity analysis to assess the consequences on the LCIA results of
different value-choices and weighting methods.
Obligatory Elements
Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterization models
Classification: Assignment of LCI results to selected impact categories
Characterization: Calculation of category indicator (CI) results for each impact category
Optional Elements
Category indicator results (LCIA profile)
Normalization: Calculation of magnitude of CI results relative to reference information

Grouping: Assignment of impact categories to groups or ranking categories
Weighting: Conversion and possible aggregation of CI results through impact categories using numerical factors based on value choices
Data Quality Analysis
Elements of LCIA phase according to ISO 14042

NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE

LCIA – Mandatory Elements

Impact Categories Class representing environmental issues of concern to which LCI results may be
assigned. (International Organization for Standardization 2000)
Classification Assignment of LCI results. (International Organization for Standardization 2000)
Calculation of category indicator results. (International Organization for Standardization

Characterization 2000)
LCIA – Optional Elements
Normalization Calculation of the magnitude of category indicator relative to reference information.
(International Organization for Standardization 2000)
Grouping Sorting and possibly ranking of the impact categories. (International Organization for
Weighting Convert and possibly aggregating indicator results across impact categories using
numerical factors based on values-choice. (International Organization for
Data quality analysis Better understanding the reliability of the collection of indicator results, the LCA profile.
(International Organization for Standardization 2000)
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.8. Impact Assessment : Example
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE

The next table shows the inventory parameters considered in this study and the impact
categories selected for analysis.
Impact categories and corresponding parameters.
Impact Category Parameters

Global Warming, 100 years (GW) Non-renewable CO2, CH4, N2O
Acidification (A) SO2, NOx, HCL, NH3, HF, H2S
Eutrophication (E) NOx air, NH3 air, N water, NO 3- water,
NH4+ water, P water, PO 43- water COD
Non-renewable resource depletion water
(NRRD) Crude oil, Natural gas, Coal
Photochemical oxidant formation (POF) CH4, Halogenated hydrocarbons, Aromatic
hydrocarbons.
In the next step of impact assessment (characterization), the total potential contribution
from all inputs and outputs to the different impact categories is calculated using
characterization factors.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.9. Interpretation
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

2.9. Interpretation
Interpretation (ISO 14043). Is a systematic procedure to identify, qualify, check

and evaluate information from the conclusions of the inventory analysis and/or impact
assessment of a system and present them in order to meet the requirements of the
application as described in the goal and scope of the study.
Interpretation is performed in interaction with the three other phases of the life cycle
assessment. If the results of the inventory analysis or the impact assessment is found
not to fulfill the requirements defined in the goal and scoping phase, the inventory
analysis must be improved by e.g. revising the system boundaries, further data
collection etc. followed by an improved impact assessment.
This iterative process must be repeated until the requirements id the goal and
scoping phase are fulfilled as can be described by the following steps (Goedcoop and
Oele. 2002):
1. Identify the significant environmental issues. Evaluate the methodology and results for
completeness, sensitivity and consistency.
ssessmen t
2. Check that conclusions are consistent with the requirements of the goal and
scope of the values and application oriented requirements.
3. If so, report as final conclusions. If not, return to step 1 or 2.
4. This procedure has to be repeated until 3 is fulfilled.
Interpretation is the fourth in life cycle assessment containing the following main
issues:
 Identification of significant environmental issues.

 Evaluation which considers completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks
 Conclusions, recommendations and reporting
Identification of significant environmental issues

The objective of this step is to structure the information from the inventory analysis
and – if additionally conducted – from the life cycle impact assessment phase in order
to determine the significant environmental issues in accordance with the goal and
scope definition.
The identification step include structuring and presentation of relevant information:
 Results from the different phases i.e. presentation of e.g. data from inventory
analysis in tables, figures or diagrams etc. or presentation of results of the impact
assessment .
 Methodological choices
 Valuation methods used
 Role and responsibility if different interested parties.
Evaluation
The objective of this step is to establish confidence in the result of the study, based
on the preceding LCA phases, and on the significant environmental issues identified
in the first step of the interpretation. The results should be presented in such a form
as to give the commissioner or any interested party a clear and understandable view
of the outcome of the study.
The interpretation made at this stage shall be reinforced by the facts and calculations
bought forward in at least the three following elements:
 Uncertainty Analysis
 Sensitivity Analysis
 Contribution Analysis
 Gravity Analysis
Types of Uncertainties in LCA and Existent Frameworks for their Assessment

The objective of this step is to establish confidence in the result of the study, based
on the preceding LCA phases, and on the significant environmental issues identified
in the first step of the interpretation. The results should be presented in such a form
as to give the commissioner or any interested party a clear and understandable view
of the outcome of the study.
The interpretation made at this stage shall be reinforced by the facts and calculations
bought forward in at least the three following elements:
 Uncertainty Analysis
 Sensitivity Analysis
 Contribution Analysis
 Gravity Analysis
1. Parameter Uncertainty
It includes the uncertainty on the inventory data and the data used for the
calculation of impact assessment factors (i.e. characterization, normalization and
weighting). Sources of parameter uncertainties are (Huijbregts 1998a): lack of
data, inaccuracy and unrepresentativity.
LCA practitioners mostly have to deal with parameter uncertainties on inventory
data that they collect and model in order to study a system. For such purposes
several frameworks have been proposed (Huijbregts 2001b, Maurice 2000,
Huijbregts 1998b, Weidema 1996).
To fill data gaps in life cycle inventories, it has been recommended the use of
mass and energy balances or models that calculate direct and indirect emissions
and resources using the estimated price of missing flows as input. Missing data
can also be estimated by using information for the most similar process or
product for which data are available or for the main ingredients of the product.
This kind of sources may also be used to further specify sum parameters (e.g.
hydrocarbon emissions) (Huijbregts et al 2001b).
Monte Carlo simulation is usually recommended to assess the inaccuracy and

representativity of the inventory data (Huijbregts et al 2001b, Maurice et al 2000,
Huijbregts 1998b). However, in practice it is be very difficult to obtain the
uncertainty distributions for the large amount of parameters included in the
inventory analysis.
Therefore, a prior identification of key parameter is proposed by means of a

broad sensitivity analysis using standard uncertainty estimates (Sakai et al 2002,
Heijungs 2001, Heijungs 1996). However, a disadvantage of using a standard
sensitivity range is that parameters with a minor contribution to LCA outcomes
but with a large unknown uncertainty range are eliminated from the analysis
(Huijbregts 1998b). An alternative approach is to identify the key input
parameters based on the contribution of input data to the results and a
qualitative assessment of the data uncertainty (Maurice et al 2000).
Contributions can be calculated from current LCA software and uncertainty can
qualitatively be assessed using data quality indicators (i.e. ordinal scale with
numbers ranging from 1 to 5) (Weidema 1998).
After the key input parameters have been identified, a quantitative uncertainty
analysis can still remain complicated because of lack of knowledge about actual
uncertainty of input data. One alternative can be the use of expert judgement to
estimate uncertainty ranges (Huijbregts 2001) or different proposed guidelines
for parameters extensively measured and data based on little information
(Maurice 2000, Finnveden 1998, Hanssen et al 1996).
The assessment of the uncertainty of characterization factor on the LCA study
outcomes has been illustrated for the comparison of insulation thickness in
buildings (Huijbregts 2001a), but there is no evidence of its inclusion in real
studies because uncertainty of characterisation factors is generally unknown.
Model developers generally do not provide quantitative information about

parameter uncertainty, except for some references about midpoint modeling of
toxicity potentials (Hertwich et al 2000, Huijbregts et al 2000, Hertwich et al
1999).
Because normalization and weighting are optional steps and the methodological
choices involved in their application are supposed to have a stronger effect on
the study results, parameter uncertainty of the normalization and weighting
factors are not covered on the literature.
 Uncertainty due to Choices
Several choices are made when performing LCA studies (e.g. system boundaries,
allocation rules, characterization models, weighting factors, etc.). The use of
guidelines such as SETAC Best Available Practices (Udo de Haes et al 2002) and
ISO standards (ISO 1997, ISO 1999, ISO 2001a, ISO 2001b) as well as the peer-
review processes are useful practices to reduce uncertainty due to choices
(Huijbregts 1998a).
Uncertainties due to choices can be quantitatively assessed as it has been
illustrated for the comparison of two types of roof gutter, where the combined
effect of parameter uncertainty and uncertainty due to choices in inventory data
and characterization factors were calculated (Huijbregts 1998b).
 Model Uncertainty
There are model uncertainties in LCA studies due to the lack of temporal and
spatial variability as well as the linearity in the assessment, model uncertainties
on the simplified environmental models used to calculate characterization factors,
etc. At present, model uncertainty assessment has not been made operational in
LCA case studies (Huijbregts 1998b).
All these factors can have very significant impacts on the result. The only way to
deal with them is in the uncertainty analysis. Uncertainty caused by
incompleteness refers to the unavoidable data gaps. Important issues are:
 System Boundaries, as we have discussed above it is not easy to apply

consistent boundaries and cut of criteria.
 Incomplete data sheets and insufficiently specified data. In many cases, data is
gathered from interviews and through questionnaires, and often data will be
partially available. A particular problem is that often data is gathered in sum
parameters.
 Mismatch between inventory and impact assessment. In many cases, inventory

data that is collected does not have a characterization factor, and therefore this
finding is ignored in the rest of the LCA.
2. Sensitivity Analysis
The ISO 14043 prescribes that sensitivity analysis should focus on the
most significant issues, to determine the influence on variations in techniques,
methods and data.
Tornado diagrams illustrate the changes in output parameter values for

equal levels of change in input parameters. The model is run with low and high
values for each parameter while all other parameters are held constant. The result
are presented in lying bar graphs, the top bar representing the output range of the
most sensitive parameter, and the bottom bar representing the least sensitive
parameter, giving a graph shaped like an upside down triangle, hence the simile to a
tornado.
One-way sensitivity analysis determines the amount an individual input

parameter value needs to change, all other parameters held constants, in order for
output parameter values to change by a certain percentage.
Scenario analysis. Scenarios in LCA studies are descriptions of possible future

situations, based on specific assumptions about the future, and are
characterized by choice of system boundaries, allocation methods, technology,
time, space, characterization methods, and weighting methods.
In Ratio sensitivity analysis, which is applicable only in comparative studies, a

ratio is calculated to determine the percentage an input parameter value need
to change in order to reverse rankings between two alternatives. The sensitivity
is expressed as the ratio of the difference between alternatives over individual
process component.
The Critical error factor (CEF) is a measure of the sensitivity of a priority

between two alternatives to an input parameter value x. It is calculated as the
ratio of the critical error Δx, i.e. variation in x required to bring about a change in
priority, over the value of x, i.e. CEF=Δx/x.
3. Contribution Analysis
An important tool in understanding the contribution of your results is the

use of the contribution analysis. With such analysis, you determine which processes
are playing a significant role in your results. With the information you can focus your
attention on these processes, and analyze if these processes are sufficiently
representative, complete and if there are important assumptions within these
processes.
4. Gravity Analysis
Contribution analysis shows which processes create high environmental

load. However this does not reveal the cause of the load.
In gravity analysis we can look at the interrelations between the processes
and show which processes are in fact responsible for the load, while these processes
in themselves may have low emissions.
.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The final step of the interpretation is more or less similar to the traditional concluding
and recommending part of a scientific and technical assessment, investigation or
alike.
The aim of this third step of the interpretation is to reach conclusions and
recommendations for the report of the LCA study or life cycle inventory study.
This step is important to improve the reporting and the transparency of the study.
Both are essential for the readers of the LCA report.
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.9. Interpretation
2.10. ISO guideline; Interpretation
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE

Significant points To structure the results from the LCI or LCIA phases in order to determine the significant
identification issues, in accordance with the goal and scope definition and interactively with the evaluation
element. (International Organization for standardization 2000)
Completeness study Process of verifying whether information for the preceding phases on an LCA or an LCI
study id sufficient for reaching conclusions in accordance with the goal and scope definition.
(International Organization for standardization 2000)
Consistency study Process of verifying that the assumptions , methods and data are consistently applied
throughout the study and in accordance with the goal and scope definition. (International
Organization for standardization 2000)
Sensitivity analysis Process of verifying that the information obtained from a sensitivity analysis is relevant for
reaching the conclusion and giving recommendations. (International Organization for
standardization 2000)
Conclusion and The objective of this third element of the life cycle interpretation is to draw conclusions and
recommendations make recommendations for the intended audience of the LCA or LCI study. (International
Organization for standardization 2000)
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.9. Interpretation
2.11. Interpretation: Example
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

2.11. Interpretation : Example
It is possible to make a first interpretation at the inventory analysis

level based on individual parameters.
The next figures show the energy consumptions, the air emissions
and the water emissions at the different stages of the paper life
cycle, for the actual scenario and for the natural gas scenario. It
important to note that only the CO2 originated during the
combustion of non-renewable fuels (non-renewable CO2) was
considered, since one of the assumptions of this study is that the
CO2 released from renewable sources (renewable CO2) is balanced
by CO2 absorption in the forest.
ssessmen t
Based on the inventory analysis and impact assessment results:
The printing and writing paper production is the most important contributor to
non-renewable CO2 emissions due to on-site energy production.
Although the eucalyptus pulp production is the largest consumer of energy

throughout the paper life cycle, its contribution to air emissions is not
predominant.
The final disposal stage assumes a predominant role in global warming and
photochemical oxidants formation impact categories, as a result of the CH4
emissions in landfilling.
Transport is the main source of NOx emissions, resulting in an important

contribution to the eutrophication and acidification impact categories. The
contribution of the remaining stages of the paper life cycle to the impact
categories is not relevant.
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.9. Interpretation
2.12. Benefits and limits of LCA Methodology
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

LCA is the only tool that can be used for product comparisons over the whole life
cycle (Finnveden 2000). The main benefits from using this methodology have
been highlighted by ISO and SETAC as (Owens 1999):
 Quantifying material and energy efficiency for a system.

 Identifying improvement opportunities and trade-offs.
 Illuminating hidden or unrecognized issues.
 Promoting a wider communication about how to compare and improve highly
complex and difficult to analyze industrial systems.
However, LCIA addresses only the environmental issues that are identified in the
goal and scope, therefore, is not a complete assessment of all environmental
issues. Furthermore, LCIA is fundamentally an analysis of inputs from and
outputs to the environment rather than an analysis of the actual environmental
consequences or effects from a system. Impact Assessment modeling in LCA
involve in some cases highly simplified assumptions about complex environmental
processes (e.g. eco-toxicity) and there are also difficulties in dealing with spatial,
temporal and dose-response issues (Owens 1999).
ssessmen t
Therefore, even for comparisons it has been suggested complementing LCA

results with absolute approaches of other techniques, (e.g. risk
assessment). The system-wide, relative LCA approach can be seen to
identify and analyse possible system issues and trade-offs, where absolute
tools would analyse in detail the issues raised by LCA (Owens 1999).
Others limitations of the methodology include the uncertainty of the results

due to data gaps, data uncertainties, methodological choices and values.
However, these are relevant also for other environmental tools (Finnveden
2000).
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine
2.1. Methodology
2.2. Goal and Scope
2.9. Interpretation
2.13. Interaction (Value) of LCA with other PI tools
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P

2.13. Interaction (Value) of LCA with other PI tools
Heat & Mass Exchange Networks Integrated Process Design & Control
Business Modeling Supply Chain
Capital Effectiveness Analysis

Process Simulation
Validation
Data Driven Process Modeling
Process Models
Process
On-line Data Collection/Analysis
Data
ssessmen t
Process simulation Intedgartaatceadn Pbreoucseesds Dienstoigan L&CA

Heat & Mass Exchange Networks
Business Modeling Supply Chain order to assess
environmental impacts.
Capital Effectiveness Analysis
Process Validation
Simulation
Process Models
Process
Data
Integrated Process Design & Control

Heat & Mass Exchange Networks Business Modeling
Supply Chain
LCA results can be used

Capital as a complement to
Effectiveness capital
Analysis ePffreoccteivsesness
Validation
analysis in order to show
S ii m
the imp a c t
u la ti o n
o f a p r oject
on the environment.
Process Models
Process
Data

Heat & Mass Business Modeling
Exchange Supply Chain
Networks
Capital Heat and mass integration will

Effectiveness identify the optimal pollution
Analysis prevention straPtreogcieesssfrom a Validation
process
Ssiipm
perS mecuutlliva
aetti.o
onThe
Data Driven utilization of LCA will
Process Modeling demonstrate if the
improvements are beneficial
from a product perspective. It
can also be used to
communicate these
improveP Pmr roeccne etssssto the
puPPbrlrio
oc.cess
cess
On-line Data Colle ction/Analysis
Data Mod
els

Heat & Mass Exchange Networks Business Modeling
Supply Chain
Business modeling look

Capital Effectiveness Analysis simultaneoPursolyceaststhe
process, Validation
econom ic an d e n v ir
S im u la t io n
onmental
Data Driven dimension. LCA can be used as a
Process Modeling framework to modelize the
environmental dimension. Both
LCA and Supply Chain Management
are going beyonfd the firm
boundaries, so there are a lot of
opport
th ePurmnoittciog es to use
e sther.
P rr oc eees s s
On-line Data Colle ction/Analysis
Data Mod
els
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industry.
3.1. Pulp & Paper Industry
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and

paper industry.
LCA is a potentially a powerful tool for evaluating the environmental

performance of pulp and paper products. This work show the range
applications of LCA in the pulp and paper industry and the
methodologies used by analysis of the literature. The authors highlight
certain of the limitations of LCA, and identify its potential as a tool for
demonstrating continuous improvement at mills.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

3.2. Survey of applications
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P
paper industry.
3.2. Survey of applications

33 studies have been investigated in order to draw a picture of LCA applications in the
pulp and paper industries. These applications were divided in the followings fields:
 Product comparisons
 Process analysis and benchmarking
 Comparison of improvement options for a given product or process
 Evaluation of new products
 Strategic evaluation
The next figure shows the repartition of the studies between those fields. The sum is
higher of 34 because some of the studies cover more than one field of application.
It also shows that, even if product comparisons were the primary purpose of LCA, this
methodology is more and more used for environmental process analysis and
comparison of process options.
Since pulp and paper is an old industry that reaches “steady state” regime, it is not a
lot involved with Greenfield design.
For this reason, LCA has not been integrated in the design phase of this industry. LCA
begins to be utilized to performed strategic evaluation like environmental assessment
en EMS. All these applications will be discussed later.
ssessmen t
paper industry.
12
Number of studies
10
0
Product comparison
Process analysis ProcessEvaluation of Strategic
options new product evaluation
comparison
Application
Breakdown of Studies by Field of Application

paper industry.
It also possible to classify these studies by the type of publications, such as: case
studies, methodological approaches, methodology illustrated by a case study, review of
previous work and industrial experience with LCA. Papers or conference proceedings
presenting an individual company’s experiences with the utilization of LCA are classified
in this last category. The classifications are show in the next figure.
Survey 3%
Industrial experience
9%
Methodology and
case study 15%
Methodological approach
15% Case study 58%
Some countries are more advanced than others concerning the development of LCA
methodology and its application. In fact, even of some studies were applied to some
specific countries, it is the countries from where the study was performed that is
considered here.
paper industry.
Japan studies had not been considered here but they would represent a high
percentage if they were. In fact, Japan is far more advanced in terms of general LCA
development and utilization in comparison to other countries European ones. Japan’s
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) has launched in 1998 a national
project, “Development of Assessment Technology of Life Cycle Environment Impacts of
Products”. The objective of the LCA Project is to develop a highly reliable LCA could be
due to the fact that greater concern has arisen from demographic and natural
resources issues, than say in North America.
France 9 %
Australia 12%
UK 9%
Greece 3%
Portugal 6%
USA 19% Europe
58% Netherlands 3%
27% Sweden 12 % Finland 12%

Switzerland 3%
Canada 6%
India 3%
South Africa 3%
Country of Origin of LCA studies

paper industry.
It is also possible to classify LCA studies by the type of organizations they come from.
The classification is show in the next figure. The figure shows that most of the studies
come from the university sector, This could be explained by the fact LCA is still a
methodology under development.
Consulting company
12%
Industrial association
University
and/or 43%
Industry 27%
18%
Government
Groups performing LCA studies

paper industry.
The next figure illustrates who did what. We can see that consulting companies have
mostly implied in product comparison. The interest of industrial side is more related to
the processes and the strategic evaluation because they have to meet regulations and
want to have a better concurrent position on the market. Government touches to all
preceding categories.
Consulting Company Industrial association Government University
12
10
Product comparison
Process Process New Strategic evaluation
analysis improvementproduct
Work Breakdown
paper industry.
The next figure shows that the application of each study, and its conclusions, are
generally well defined.
YesNot doneNo info
100%
Suggested elements
80%
60%
40%
Legend 20%
Yes: Activity is defined in
the publication Required elements
0%
view Inventory Impact cat. Application

Not done: It is clear that the
activity has not been done
No info: There is no info about
the activity in the publication
Goal and scope LCI LCIA Interpretation

paper industry.
LCA General application in the Pulp and Paper Industry
 Products Comparison
 Analysis of the origins of environmental impacts related to a particular
product
LCA  Comparison of improvement variants of a given product or process, or
alternative process technologies
 Evaluation of new products and product management (Product
Stewardship)
 Strategic policy development

paper industry.
Comparison of Products with the Same Function
LCA is used for the comparison of paper products with alternatives. This section
intended to highlight problems encountered when using LCA to compare different
products with the same function. Examples of product comparison are presented in the
next tables.
At the time this study
Product Comparison : Paper vs. Polyethylene (PE) were performed, there
Bags was no well-accepted
methodology.
Objectives Main
References Conclusions
Franklin Comparison of paper and PE PE is worse concerning: Non-renewable energy; abiotic resource
Associates check out bags in United States depletion; GW; photoquemical oxidant; acidification; air and
(1990) water using a resourc
source and
andTphroroefiele companeiemsiswsieornes; pollution of aquatic syste system.
USA analysis (REP
REPA) orrLLeCsIIp.ectively respPoanpseibr lies wfoorrse rs concerning Eutrophication
e concerning:
: Eutrophi cation.
the inventory, the impact
Comparison of indu ss t r ia l p ap e r rse
P a p e r i s wClimate
concerning: o change: ozone depletion;
Eurosac a s s e s s m e n t and th e c r i ti ca l
(1993) and PE sacks. e cotoxi
oxicity:
city: land
and use; mineral depletion
depletion.
analysis .
Plastic is worse concerning: Fossil fuel depletion at high use
France ratios.
3. Survey of life cycle applications in that the results from this
tThheeautpphouurslepmpaahannsisdde study were applicable only
paper industry. for the case defined by

assumptions.
Product Comparison : Towels vs. Air

Driers
References Objectives Main Conclusions

Environment al Comparison of paper Environmental footprint for air driers is smaller than the paper
resources towel and air dryers in towels. Use of dries results in lower GW, acidification ecotoxicity,
Management (2001) United Kingdom (UK) human toxicity, nutrification, ozone depletion and photoquemical
UK smog burdens.
Product Comparison : Disposable vs. Cloth Diaper

The authors stresses that
References REPA (LCI)Osbhjoeuctldive ivensot be Main Conclusions
u s ed t o f in d Cloth
h dia
a perr s
Sauer et al. Asse
Asse ss m en t o f th e Clot di pe
(1994)
a w in ne r o r a
en er gy u sa g e , wate water uCselomthoraenednedriggsyypoasnadbwleatdeiratph
lo o s e r b u t to i d e earns disposable.
requirem
requirem e n t , so l id w as t e ,
n t ify
at tm
m ospheri
spheric Diaspreosdabiflfeicduiaaltpteorscgoemnepraarteeddm
USA p o s s i b le i m p uoeorretosolid
emiss
emiss io n aa n n d w a te r waste
th ees. Air
wast i n and
c om p le te n e s s o f t
r o ve m e n t s . wh ea te r e m iss io ns a r e c on s id
e m i s siosio n s gg e enerated
nerated by e r ed information and the
disposable and cloth diapers. equivalent t
inability tofor b o th pp r o du cc .
w e ig h t e n vi ronmental
effects
against each other.
Miljökonsult and Comparison of disposable and cloth diapers. With good laundry practices, cloth diapers contribute
Svensson (1993) less to GW and acid rain and use less energy.
Sweden Phosphorus and other discharges are higher for cloth
paper industry. The authors recognize the importance of the accuracy of the input d
Product Comparison : Paper vs. Polystyrene Egg Packaging

Zabanioyou Comparison of The application of the LCA procedure to polystyrene and recycled paper
and Kassisi paper and egg packaging does not provide a clear-cut answer for defining the
(2003) Greece polystyrene for friendlier product, but it seems that the polystyrene carton has a higher
egg packaging. environmental impact.
Product comparison is undoubtedly the application that is the most sensitive to LCA’s
limitations. The results to two different studies on the same products could seem to
have contradictory results. The result from an LCA cannot be generalized, and are
very specific to the defined goal and scope. For this reason, some authors
recommend that LCA should not been used perform product comparison but only to
improve the processes.
paper industry.
Process Analysis and Benchmarking
Process analysis and benchmarking consist in the determination of the contribution of each
stage to different impact categories, to the utilization of LCA as an environmental
benchmark method, and to the optimization of resources and energy. Examples of these
are presented in the next tables.
As a result of this study, LCA became part of their environmental pro
Process Analysis and Benchmarking : Overall Process Evaluation

Wiegard Illustration of how LCA could be used to find Performing LCA on the virgin and recycled paper
(2001) opportunities for environmental improvement, gave the Visy company a true picture of its mills
Australia more specifically for reducing GHG emissions. in terms of GHG emissions.
NAM PIECE
P

paper industry.
Modeling techniques and
scenario-type sensitivity
analysis are helpful to
answer questions with a
Process Analysis and Benchmarking : Resources and Energy Optimization
high level of complexity
References Objectives and uncertainty.
Main Conclusions
Sundin et al. Life-Cycle material and energy analysis for the pulp and Environmental benefits of reducing
(2002) paper cycle in the United Kingdom for the period consumption of paper and improving
between 1987 and 1996, and modelisation of future technology is greater than increasing
UK trends in material and energy flows until 2010. recycling.
Process Analysis and Benchmarking : Evaluation of Emissions along the Paper Cycle

Pajula, Evaluation of the contribution of Fossil CO2, SO2 and NOx are the emissions that are the most
Kutinlahti, and transportation to the overall influenced by transport. The vehicle used has more impact
Wessman environmental impact of the than the distance (except for long-sea trip). Paper production
(2001) paper chain. is the major contributor to CO2 and SOx.
The result can change if clean energy is used in the process.
NAM PIECE
P

paper industry.
Incorporation of time dimension in LCA increases its utility as decision- ma
Process Analysis and Benchmarking : Asset Evaluation

Vasara and Evaluation of different scenarios over Life cycle of equipment must be considered over its
Jallinoja (1997) time concerning the life cycle of a entire lifetime and that its environmental impacts
Finland paper machine. could change in time.
Many examples show that LCA is a useful tool for investigating environmental strengths
and weaknesses along the life cycle of a process or product and identifying stages of
production which cause the most impacts. LCA is useful for identifying and assessing the
environmental impacts of a product and to improve the management control of the plant.
ssessmen t
paper industry.
Comparison of Improvement Options for Given Product or Process
Once processes are benchmarked, LCA can be use for the evaluation of improvement
variants. The comparison of these with the benchmark and with each other shows the best
opportunities for improvement. The example below shows that LCA can give a clear
answer to a defined problem, but under certain conditions.
Because of the uncertainty in the data, results were only indica
Comparison of Waste Management Scenarios

Pickin, Yuen
Investigation
and Hennings
of various
(2002) waste
Australia
management optionsOptions
in orderother
to reduce
than landfill
GHG emissions
reduce GHG
fromemissions.
paper. Waste-to-energy recovery is the most effective.
paper industry. Results from LCA should
not be used alone for
decision-making. Technical,
operational and economic
reliability should be taken
Comparison of Waste Management Scenarios into consideration.

Grant et al. Determination or the Recycling avoid virgin material use and impacts
(2001) Australia Environmental benefits of related to landfills.
recycling.
LCA methodology alone is not enough to compare
Comparison of Improvemaeltnet tohpetsieontwsofoprroacegsivs en product or process : Bleaching Processes

rnoaptitvi esn.sThoer oautcvomes
of combined LCA, risk
References assessOmbejeencttaivneds exposure- Main Conclusions
Sheringer, oafsesenenvsisrmonemnetnptarlovide
Compbaarisseodn Halder and Hungerbüler (2000) Switzerland performancae boef uses
FWA production tfltlueorrepsicccetuntre.
less energy and causes whitening
lower air and COD(FWAs)
agents emissions
withbut higher AOX emissions.
peroxide bleaching of mechanical pulp using LCA
paper industry.
Recycling problems are quite complex to analyze using LCA. For this reason, several
authors tried to develop LCA methodologies that are specific to recycling characteristics.
LCA is not sufficient to answer complex question related to process alternatives, because
some impacts are not well addressed. The author recommends to combine LCA with risk
assessment and exposure-based assessment. LCA is the most
appropriate tool to
evaluate the global impact
of process modifications.
Comparison of Improvement options for a given product or process : Energy Alternatives
Lopes et al. Assessment of the replacement of heavy fuel Substituting HFO by natural gas in the pulp
(2003) oil (HFO) by natural gas and cogeneration in and paper production process is a good
the manufacturing process of paper made environmental solution when combined
from Eucalyptus globulus pulp. with cogeneration.
Portugal
paper industry.
LCA only guides decision-makers in the assessment and selection of technologies based on
environmental performance. The methodologies used and their advantages are presented
in the next table.
Methodology Advantage
Ranking of scenarios in term of Enables the decision-maker too chose the best option based on
environmental impact categories. this environmental priorities.
Normalization to national or global impact Gives the relative significance of this system to the overall loads.
categories totals.
Environmental-economic valuation model. Integrates economic considerations in the decision.
Sensitivity analysis. Enables to test the impact of assumptions, condition and data
that have the ability to affect the results and conclusions of the
study.
Data quality analysis. Enables the identification and management of data gaps,
inconsistencies and errors.
Consistency analysis. Ensures the consistency with defined boundary conditions
throughout the study.
paper industry.
Evaluation of New Products
The environmental aspect should be considered in each stage of the life cycle of a product
beginning with its design. This practice allows a better selection of materials and
processes. Pulp and Paper industry is not using LCA a lot of the assessment of new
products. Nevertheless, it could be predicted that it will be more used for this purpose in
the future due to the notion of product stewardship. The notion means that the
manufacturer is liable for its product during the course of its entire life cycle, from the
design stage through raw material extraction and on the final disposition of the product.
paper industry.
Strategic Evaluation
LCA applications can go farther than the comparison of products, process benchmarking,
choice of improvement alternatives, or green design. It can provide an organization with
helpful information for strategic choices and marketing. A few examples of how LCA has
been used to accomplish this objective are presented in the next table.
Like mentioned before, LCA has only just begun to be used for strategic evaluations other
than process analysis and comparison of improvement variants. Up today, the main
applications in this field were the structuring of supply chains and marketing.
paper industry.
Strategic Evaluation : Structuring of Supply Chains

Reference Application
Bradley Canfor sees benefits of using LCA within the supply chain. There is an enhancement of the partner's
(1999) knowledge about the potential environmental impact of the paper chain. This experience makes
Canada opportunities for improvement more obvious. Because both economic and environmental
performance can be optimized, there are clear benefits from having suppliers and customers
working closely and studying the process chain.
Strategic Evaluation : Strategic Policy Development and Marketing

Côté (1996) International paper uses LCA in order to satisfy their customers’ concerns about the environment.
USA
Strategic Evaluation : LCA and EMS

Zobel at al. Proposition of a transparent and stringent methodology to identify and assess environmental
(2002) Sweden aspect in EMS based on LCA
paper industry.
The LCA methodologies presented in the publications were almost always incomplete. The
major criticisms concern adherence to life cycle assessment stages related to the quality of
the studies i.e. data quality sensitivity, completeness and coherence studies. Product
comparison is the most sensitive application to LCA limitations because dealing with two
products with the difference in system of product compared has a consequence that there
is more subjective choice to do this application compared to the others. The most obvious
application of LCA is process analysis, as it was created for this. However, the comparison
of process alternatives will have more value if supported by techno-economic analysis.
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P
4. Life Cycle Thinking
Life Cycle thinking implies that everyone in the whole chain of a product’s life cycle,
from cradle to grave, has a responsibility and a role to play, taking
into account all the relevant external
effects. The impacts of all life cycle
stages need to be considered
comprehensively when taking
informed decisions on production
and consumption patterns, policies
and managements strategies.
ssessmen t
InIn thethe UK,UK, ProfessorProfessor RolaRolandnd CliftClift arguedargued thatthat
““itit iiss keykey thatthat lilifefe--cyclecycle thinkingthinking bebe fosteredfostered
So c ie ty S u s ta ina ble D e v e lo pm e n t
throughoutthroughout organizations,organizations, andand bebe adoptedadopted
asas partpart andand paparcelrcel ofof thethe organiorganizationzation’’ss
Scope of Environmental Concern
philphilosophy,
M u ltip leosophy, In d us mission mission
tria l Ec ology andand dayday--toto--dayday
Ma n u fa ctu re rs
operations.operations. ThisThis makesmakes itit essentialessential thatthat lifelife--
cyclecycle thinkingthinking L ife C y cals
le als
Thooin k in
begbe appliedapplied corporatecorporate
Disposal
educationaleducational processesprocesses””..
Df E
LifeEn cycle
Lifev iro n m e n ta l C o ns c iou s D eissign
cycle thinking thinking is aa & Mmos fa tctly
mos
a nu ly qu
turin g quantitaantitativetive
di scussionscussion
Singdile Pro d u ct
to ididententiiffyy stagesstages ofof thethe lilifefe cyclcyclee
Life tim e to
and/orand/or thethe potenpotenttialial environmentalenvironmental impactsimpacts
Use
ofof greatestgreatest significasignificancence e.g.e.g. forfor useuse andand

designdesign briefbrief oror inin anan introductoryintroductory discussiondiscussion
Production
PP CP
Pro d u ct Life tim e U se Hu m a nC iv iliza tio n

P ro du cti on D i spo sal Life tim e sp an
S c op e of Te m p ora l C o n c e rn
Moving toward
sustainability
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE

It is defined as a development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Schematic representation of the

notion of sustainable
development.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
The journal of Industrial Ecology, defines IE as: a rapidly growing field

that systematically examines local, regional, and global uses and flows
of materials and energy in products, processes, industrial sectors, and
economies. It focuses on the potential role of industry in reducing
environmental burdens throughout the product life cycle from the
extraction of raw materials to the production of goods, to the use of
those goods and to the management of the resulting wastes.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

4.3. Design for the Environment (DfE)
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE

4.3. Design for the Environment (DfE)
Design for the environment approach is grounded in comparing

performance, costs, and the risks associated with alternatives. It uses
cleaner technologies, substitute assessments (CTSAs) and life cycle
tools to evaluate the performance, cost, and environmental and human
health impacts of competing technologies. A goal of DfE is to encourage
pollution prevention, front-end, innovations through redesign rather
than relying in end-of-pipe controls to reducing potential risks to human
health and the environment.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

4.3. Design for Environment (DfE)
4.4. Pollution Prevention (PP)
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE

Design for the environment approach is grounded in comparing performance, costs,

and the risks associated with alternatives. It uses cleaner technologies, substitute
assessments (CTSAs) and life cycle tools to evaluate the performance, cost, and
environmental and human health impacts of competing technologies. A goal of DfE is
to encourage pollution prevention, front-end, innovations through redesign rather
than relying in end-of-pipe controls to reducing potential risks to human health and
the environment.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

4.5. Cleaner Production (CP)
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE

The continuous application of an integrated preventive environmental

strategy applied to processes, products, and services to increase overall
efficiency and reduce risks to humans and the environment. For
production processes, cleaner production includes conserving raw
materials and energy, eliminating toxic raw materials, and reducing the
quantity and toxicity of all emissions and wastes. For products is
involves reducing the negative impacts along the life cycle of a product,
from raw materials extraction to its ultimate disposal. For services the
strategy focuses on incorporating environmental concerns into
designing and delivering services.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

4.6. Life Cycle Management
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
4.6. Life Cycle Management
The basic idea in life cycle management is to establish a thorough

knowledge of the environmental burdens of the products manufactured
by the company and use this for improvement actions. The process
includes employees at most levels of the company and starts with an
identification of all processes at the production site and an analysis of
the related in-and outputs. The result from the process can be used to
establish an LCA, but it is more important that the results are used to
minimize the environmental burdens. This one by using a set of tools
tailored to meet the needs of a given company, e.g. design for the
environment, pollution prevention strategies, waste audits, green
procurement etc.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I: Ou t l ine

5. Multiple choice questions.
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P
5. Multiple choice questions
Question 1:
What parts imply the cradle-to-grave concept?
a) Extraction and transport of raw materials
b) Production
c) Consumption
d) Re-use or disposal
e) All of the above.
ssessmen t
Question 2:
Which parts according SETAC conform an LCA study ?
a) Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment
(LCIA), the Interpretation of the study.
b) Defining the goal and scope of the study, Life Cycle
Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), the
Interpretation of the study.
c) Defining the goal and scope of the study, Life Cycle
Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA).

Question 3:
Principal factors that should be considered and stated clearly in the Scope
of Study include:
a) The function(s) of the system to be analyzed
b) The system boundaries
c) Data requirements
d) Any assumptions made
e) Study limitations
f) All of the above

NAM PIECE
P
Question 4:
What is the most sensitive to LCA’s limitations ?
a) Money
b) Information
c) Society
d) Product Comparison
e) Goal and Scope
ssessmen t
Question 5:
It consist in the determination of the contribution of each stage to different
impact categories?
a) Process analysis and benchmarking
b) Life Cycle Assessment
c) Inventory Analysis
d) Sustainability
Question 6:
What implies Life Cycle thinking ?
a) Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product or

service system, from the extraction of natural resources
to the final disposal
b) That everyone in the whole chain of a product’s life cycle,
from cradle to grave, has a responsibility and a role to
play, taking into account all the relevant external effects
c) Defining a functional unit can be quite difficult, as the
performance of products is not always easy to describe
Question 7:
It is defined as a development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs:
a) Cleaner Production
b) Sustainable Development
c) Industrial Ecology
d) Inventory Analysis
Question 8:
The goal and scope definition is a guide that helps you to ensure the consistency
of the LCA you perform.
a) True
b) False
Question 9:
Most of the study about LCA studies come from the university sector because :
a) They like it
b) It is easy
c) LCA methodology is still under development
d) It is difficult
NAM P PIECE
End o fTie r I
End Of Tier 1
Congratulations
Assuming that you have done all the reading, this is the end of Tier 1.
No doubt much of this information seems confusing, but things will
become more clear when we’ll look at examples in Tier 2.
ssessmen t
NAM P PIECE
Tie r I
De f i n i t io n s
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P
Te r min o l o
gy
Allocation. Material input that is used by the unit process producing the product, but does
not constitute a part of the product – e.g. a catalyst.
Category endpoint. Attribute or aspect of natural environment, human health or resources

identifying an environmental issue of concern.
Characterization. Second element within impact assessment succeeding the classification

element and preceding valuation, in which analysis/quantification, and aggregation of the
impacts within the chosen impact categories takes place.
Classification. First element within impact assessment, which attributes the environmental
inventions listed in the inventory table to a number of selected impact categories.
Completeness. Percentage of locations reporting primary data from the potential number
in existence for each data category in a input process.
Consistency. Qualitative assessment of how uniformly the study methodology is applied

to the various components of the analysis.
ssessmen t
NAM PIECE
P
Te r min o l o
gy
Data quality. Characteristics of data that bears on their ability to satisfy stated
requirements.
Functional Unit. Quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference unit in
a life cycle assessment study.
Geographical coverage. Geographic area from which data for unit processes should be
collected to satisfy the goal of the study (e.g. local, regional, national, continental,
global).
Impact. The consequences for health, for the well-being of flora and fauna or for the
future availability of natural resources, attributable to the input and output streams of a
system.
Impact Category. Class representing environmental issue of concern into which LCI
results may be assigned.
NAM PIECE
P
Te r min o l o
gy
Marketing. Traditional way to communicating product properties and capabilities which
are consistent with the consumer’s expectations and demands. As the level of
environmental consciousness is increasing, more attention is being paid by the consumer
to the environmental properties of goods and services. This is being used (and misused)
by many companies to attempt to increase their market share, and development of
criteria and guidelines for environmental marketing has a high priority.
Normalization. An optional element within impact assessment which involves relating all
impact scores of a functional unit in the impact score profile to a reference situation.
Normalization results in a normalized impact score profile which consist of normalized
impact scores.
Precision. Measure of the variability of the data values for each data category expressed
(e.g. variance).
ssessmen t
Process Flow Diagram. Chart containing labelled boxes connected by lines with directional
arrows to illustrate the uni
un itt processes or sub-systems included in the product system and
the interrelationships between those unit processes.
Product System. Collection of materially and energetically connected unit processes which
perform one or more defined functions – in the international ISO Standard, the term
“product” used alone includes not only product systems but also can include service
systems.
Recycling. Recycling of products implies that the environmental inputs and outputs
associated with the manufacturing of a product and its recycling are to be shared by
more than one product system.
Recycling, closed-loop. Recovery of material on the same factory that produced the
material. This kind of recovery requires a “take back” arrangement.
Recycling, open-loop. Recovery of material – but not on the same factory that produced
the material. This kind of recovery requires a central collection of used material.
NAM PIECE
P
Te r min o l o
gy
Reference Flow. Measure of the needed outputs from processing a given product system
required to fulfill the function expressed by the functional unit.
Representativeness. Qualitative assessment of the degree to which the data set reflects
the true population of interest (i.e. geographic and time period and technology coverage).
Reproducibility. Qualitative assessment of the extent to which information about the

methodology and data values allows an independent practitioner to reproduce the results
reported in the study.
Risk Assessment. A tool developed to investigate the potential risk to human health or the
environment from specific situations like transport of dangerous goods or the use of
specific substances.
System Boundary. Interface between a product system and the environmental or other
product system.
Technology coverage. Nature of the technology mix (e.g. weighted average of the actual
process mix, best available technology or worst operating unit).
ssessmen t
Time-related coverage. The desired age (e.g. within last 5 years) and the minimum
length of time (e.g. annual).
Unit – process. Smallest portion of a product system for which data are collected when
performing a life cycle assessment.
Valuation/weighting. Last element within impact assessment following the

characterization/normalization element, in which results of the
characterization/normalization, in particular the (normalized) impact scores, are weighted
against each other an a quantitative and/or qualitative way order to be able to make the
impact information more decision-friendly. This is an element which necessarily involves
qualitative or quantitative valuations which are not only based on natural sciences. For
instance, political and/or ethical values can be used in this element. The valuation can
result in an environmental index.
Waste. Any output from the product system which is disposed of.
Weighting. Conversion of category indicator results by using numerical factors based on

value choices – weighting may include aggregation of the weighted category indicator
results.

Life Cycle Assessment A

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Life Cycle Assessment A

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

P r og r am f o r No r t h Ame r i c a n M o bi l i t y In Highe r Educa t io n PIECE

MODULE 14. “ Li f e Cyc l e Assessmen t (LCA) ”

What is the structure of this module?

Module 14 is intended to convey the basic aspects of Life Cycle

This module is divided into 3 “tiers”, each with a specific goal:

These tiers are intended to be completed in that particular order.

What is the purpose of this tier?

Background Information. It will provide a general overview of life

cycle assessment (LCA) and its potential applications

 International Organization for Standardization.2000.“Environmental Management –

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment

2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.

3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper

4. Proposal of “life cycle thinking” concept: using LCA as a tool

5. Multiple choice questions.

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle

 For what kind of applications do we use the LCA ? A1

The potential applications of LCA include (ISO 1997):

 Identification of improvement opportunities for

A1 important vs potential applications

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle

A2 not only environmental

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle

Recycled & Disposal

A3 too many "ands"

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle

Principles and Framework (ISO

A4 it is not - cradle to grave?

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle

In combination with the trend towards more open disclosure of

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle

 ISO 14040 : Environmental Management - LCA – Principles and Framework

 ISO 14042 : Environmental Management - LCA– Life Cycle Impact Assessment

 ISO 14043 : Environmental Management - LCA– Life Cycle Interpretation

 ISO 14048 : Environmental Management - LCA– Data Documentation Format

 ISO 14049 : Environmental Management - LCA– Examples of Application of ISO

 ISO 14040 : Environmental Management - Life Cycle Assessment –

This international standard specifies the general framework,

In this definition, it is clear that impact assessment is an

 ISO 14041 : Environmental Management - Life Cycle Assessment –

This international standard in addition to ISO 14040 specifies

This international standard does not describe the life cycle

 ISO 14042 : Environmental Management - Life Cycle Assessment –

ISO 14042 describes and gives guidance on a general

The standard is supported with a technical report illustrating

 ISO 14043 : Environmental Management - Life Cycle Assessment –

 ISO/DTR 14047: Illustrative Examples on how to apply ISO

The purpose of this Technical Report is to provide examples

 ISO/DTR 14048: Environmental Management - Life Cycle

This technical specification is applicable to the specification and

 ISO/DTR 14049: Environmental Management - Life Cycle

This technical report provides examples about practices in

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology

1. Defining the goal and scope of the study.

Principles and Framework (ISO

1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology