CHAPTER #2: CELL STRUCTURE  Usually a single circular chromosome

Cytoplasmic structures:
Eukaryotic Cell Structure:  Lack mitochondria and chloroplasts
o ETT occurs in the cytoplasmic membrane
Nucleus:  Photosynthetic pigments
 Outermost membrane is continuous with the ER  Insoluble granules
 Exhibits selective permeability via nuclear pores o Storage of energy
 Chromosomes only visible when cell is undergoing o Reservoir for structural building blocks
division o Polyβhydroxybutyric acid (PHB)
 Nucleolus: o Glycogen
o Area rich in RNA o Sulfur
o Site for ribosomal RNA synthesis o Polyphosphate
o Together with imported ribosomal proteins o Volutin/metachromatic granules
from the cytoplasm form the small and large  Characteristic of the Corynebacteria
ribosomal subunits o Carboxysomes
Cytoplasmic structures: o Magnetosomes
 ER o Gas vesicles
o Rough:  Provide buoyancy
 attached 80S ribosomes Cell Envelope:
 glycoproteins, new membrane Cell membrane + cell wall
material  Cell membrane:
o Smooth: o Structure:
 Lipid synthesis, CHO metabolism  Phospholipids
 Golgi apparatus:  Proteins – 70%
o Modify and sort ER products  Absence of sterols
 Mitochondria:  Exception: Mycoplasmas
o Descendents of ancient prokaryotic organisms: o Function:
 Prokaryotic size  Selective permeability and transport
 Two sets of membranes of solutes
 Contain own DNA  Electron transport and oxidative
 70S ribosomes phosphorylation
o some eukaryotes lack mitochondria and contain In aerobics:
hydrogenosome instead  Excretion of hydrolytic exoenzymes
 Lysosomes:  Bearing the carrier molecules that
o Contain digestive enzymes function in the biosynthesis of DNA,
o Partitioned away from the cell proper cell wall, and membrane lipids
 Peroxisome:  Bearing the receptors and proteins of
o Produce H2O2 from reduction of O2 chemotactic and sensory programs
o H2O2 is then degraded by catalase  Cell Wall
General info:
 Cytoskeleton:
o Osmotic protection:
o Microfilaments (3-6nm)
 owed to murein, mucopeptide or
 Polymers of actin
peptidoglycan
 Define and maintain the shape of the
o Gram-postive (purple) vs. Gram-negative (red)
cell
 Gliding, contraction, cytokinesis o Essential role in cell division
o Intermediate filaments (10nm) o Provides a primer for its own biosynthesis
 Tensile strength o Non-selectively permeable
o Microtubules (20-25nm) o Shape of the bacteria
 Tubulin
 Assist in maintaining cell structure The peptidoglygan layer:
 Mitosis  3 parts:
 motility 1. backbone (alternating N-
 Motility Organelles: acetylglucosamine and N-acetyl
o 9 + 2 system muramic acid)
o Flagella:  same in all bacterial species
 From polar region of the cell 2. set of identical tetrapeptide chains
o Cilia:  presence of
Diaminopimelic acid
 Shorter, surround the cell
(immediate precursor of
Lysine)
Prokaryotic Cell Structure: 3. a set of identical peptide cross-
bridges
Nucleoid:  makes each peptidoglycan
 Seen with a light microscope in stained specimens layer a single giant
 Feulgen-positive – presence of DNA molecule
 No eukaryotic-type mitotic apparatus
  Gram-positve: 50% of wall
material, upto 40 sheets
 Gram-negative: 5% of wall
material, 1-2 sheets
Special Components of Gram-Positive Cell Walls:
1. Teichoic and teichuronic acids
a. Contain glycerolphosphate or ribitol
phosphate residues
b. Negatively charged – responsible for
the negative charge of the entire cell
surface
c. Two types:
1. Wall teichoic acid (WTA)
2. Membrane or Lipoteichoic acid
(LTA)
Together, these provide functions of
the cell envelope related to:
i. Elasticity
ii. Porosity
iii. Tensile strength
iv. Electrostatic properties
d. Most contain large amounts of D-
alanine
e. Constitute major surface antigens
i. Lie outside of the
peptidoglycan surface
f. Teichuronic acids:
i. Repeat units of sugar acids
instead of phosphoric acids
ii. Synthesized when
phosphate is limiting
2. Polysaccharides
Special Components of Gram-negative wall:
1. Outer membrane:
a. Bilayered and asymmetrical
i. Inner- typical cell layer
ii. Outer – LPS
b. Ability to exclude hydrophobic
molecules
i. Protection (ex: bile salts)
c. Contain porins
i. Passive diffusion of low
molecular weight
hydrophilic compounds
ii. Large antibiotic molecules
penetrate slowly
d. Connected to both the cytoplasmic
and peptidoglycan (lipoprotein)
layers
2. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS): A complex
glycolipid
a. Lipid A on the outer membrane
which anchors the LPS
i. Where most of the toxicity
is associated
b. Polysaccharide core
i. 2 characteristic sugars:
1. Ketodeoxyoctano
ic acid (KDO)
2. Heptose
ii. Unique repeat unit “O
antigen”
c. Ca+2 and Mg+2 stabilize and provide a
barrier
i. Target for polycationic
antibiotics (polymyxins and
aminoglycosides)
d. LPS- endotoxin of Gram-negative
bacteria, released only when the cell
is lysed
3. Lipoprotein:
a. Numerically most abundant protein
of Gram-negative
b. Stabilizes the outer membrane and
anchor it to the peptidoglycan layer
4. Periplasmic space:
a. Between the inner and outer
membranes
b. Contains the peptidoglycan layer and
a gel-like solution of proteins
c. Binding proteins, hydrolytic
enzymes, detoxifying enzymes
Acid Fast Cell Wall:
 Mycolic acids – waxes
 Hydrophobic structures makes these resistant to
harsh chemicals (detergents and strong acids)
 Mycobacteria
Crystalline Surfae Layers:
 S-Layer (protein molecule) found at the
outermost component of the cell envelope
o Resistant to proteolytic enzymes and
protein-denaturing agents
Enzymes that attack Cell Walls
 Lysozyme (tears, saliva, nasal secretions,
eggwhite)
o Hydrolyzes the β14 linkage of the
peptidoglycan backbone
 Autolysins
The Mycoplasms:
 Cell-wall lacking bacteria w/no peptidoglycan
 Resistant to penicillins and cephalosporins
 Contain sterols in their membranes
Capsule and Glycocalyx:
 Extracellular polymer is usually polysaccharide
o Exceptions:
 Bacilllus anthracis
 Bacillus licheniformis
o Glycocalyx – polysaccharide-containing
material lying outside of the cell
 Adherence of the bacteria to its
environment (ie. dental caries)
o Capsule – a condensed, well-defined layer
closely surrounding the cell that excludes
particles (india ink)
 Protection from phagocytosis
o Slime layer – if glycocalyx is loosely
associated with the cell and does not exclude
particles
Flagella:
 Thread-like appendages
 Semiridgid helical rotors – spinning movement
 Types:
o Monotrichous – single, polar flagellum
 o Lophotrichous – multiple polar flagella o Spore wall
o Peritrichous – flagella distributed over the cell  Normal peptidoglycan and becomes
o Amphitrichous – both ends the cell wall
o Cortex – thickest layer
 Unusual peptidoglycan
o Coat
 Impermeable – resistance to
antibacterial chemical agents
o Exosporium – composed of CHON, lipids,
CHO
 Function is unclear, some bacteria
lack this
 Germination
1. Activation – cannot be activated immediately,
must rest or activation via heat, abrasion,
acidity, compounds w/free sulfhydryl groups
2. Initiation – if environmental conditions are
favorable
a. An autolysin degrades the cortex
 The flagella is attached by a structure of a hook and basal
peptidoglycan, calcium dipicolinate
body
is released
o Hook : universal joint b/w the motor and basal
structure 3. Outgrowth-
o Basal body: bears a set of rings
 Gram-positive – 1 pair
 Gram-negative – 2 pairs

Pili (Fimbriae)
 Rigid surface appendages, shorter and finer
 Types:
o Ordinary pili
 Adherence to host cells
o Sex pili
 Bacterial conjugation
 Move the cell via “twitching”, process which involves
reaching out then retracting or pulling towards the anchor
 Inhibit the phagocytic ability of leukocytes

Endospores:
 Gram-positive rods
o Bacillus
o Clostridium
o Thermoactinomyces
o Sporolactobacillus
o Sporosarcina
o Sporotomaculum
o Sporomusa
o Sporohalobacter
 Sporulation – triggered by near depletion of nutrients
o Forms a single spore which germinates when
conditions become favorable to produce a
single, vegetative cell
1. Axial filament formation
2. Forespore septum formation
3. Engulfment of forespore
4. Cortex synthesis
5. Coat deposition
6. Maturation
7. Lysis of mother cell
 Properties of Endospores:
o Core – spore protoplast
 Complete nucleus, protein
synthesizing apparatus, energy-
generating system
 Large amounts of calcium
dipicolinate – for heat resistance