CD PDF

Centre for Distance Education
SNDT Women’s University

Mumbai- 49
M.A. – Education
Part- II
(W.e.f. 2016-17)
(New Course 80 Credits)
Semester- III
Course Name: Curriculum Development
Course Code: 322001
(English Medium)
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Course Preparation Team
♦ Content Writers:
Dr. Arundhati Chavan
♦ I/C Director:
Dr. Arundhati Chavan
♦ Co-ordinator:
Mr. Mangesh Kadam
(Asst. Professor-cum-Asst.Director)
♦ Instructional Designer:
Ms. Minal M. Kawale
@Centre for Distance Education, S.N.D.T Women’s University.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form by mimeograph or any other means without
written permission from centre for Distance Education, S.N.D.T Women’s University. Publishing year 2017
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Syllabus
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (322001) (100 Marks, 4 Credits)
Course Objectives:
Learners will be able to
• Explain the concept of curriculum and process of curriculum development

• Apply models in the development of curriculum
• Identify the methods and media to be used for curriculum transaction.

• Evaluate the curriculum on the basis of appropriate model.
Module 1: Curriculum Development: An Introduction

(Credits: 1, Hours: 15 Marks: 25)
Objectives:

• Explain the concept of curriculum and process of curriculum development.
• State the components of curriculum. Explain the foundations of curriculum.
Content:
• Meaning and concept of curriculum

• Understanding curriculum as a
• Body of knowledge to be transmitted

o as a product.
o as a process.
o as a praxis.
• The elements of the curriculum
• Foundations of Curriculum: (Philosophical, Social and Psychological) and its

• role in curriculum Development
• Knowledge as a base of curriculum development

• Principles of curriculum development
Module 2: Models of Curriculum Development

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Objectives:
• Explain the various models of curriculum development.

• Apply models in the development of curriculum.
Content:
• Hilda Taba‘s model
• Ralph Tyler‘s model

• Wheeler‘s cyclic model
• Hunkin‘s Decision- Making model

• Weinstein and Fantini model
• Fink‘s model of integrated course design
Module 3: Curriculum Transaction

Objectives:
• Explain the principles and criteria for developing learning opportunities.

• Explain the use of ICT in curriculum transaction
Content:
• Planning curriculum implementation.
• Criteria for selecting learning opportunities

• Use of Learner-centred methods and media with their strength and limitation.
• ICT as a mode of curricular transaction with their strengths and limitation:

- Computer based learning
- Online learning
- Blended learning
• Models of curriculum implementation

- ORC mode l(overcoming resistance to change)
- Linkage model
- Factors influencing effective curriculum implementation
Module 4: Curriculum Evaluation

Objectives:
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• Explain the various models of curriculum evaluation.
Content:
• Curriculum evaluation: concept and meaning

• Models of curriculum evaluation
- Tyler‘s Goal attainment model.

- Stufflebeam‘s CIPP model
Scriven‘s Goal free model

- Kilpatrick‘s 4 level model
• Curriculum improvement through problem solving model

References:
• Aggarwal, Deepak (2007): Curriculum development: Concept, Methods and

Techniques. New Delhi. Book Enclave.
• Erickson, H.L (2002) Concept Based Curriculum and Instruction: Teaching beyond
the facts, Corsion Press, INC (A Sage Publication Company) Thousand Oaks:
California.
• McKernan, James (2007): Curriculum and Imagination: Process, Theory,

Pedagogy and Action Research. Routledge. U.K.
• NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework-2005, NCERT, Sri AurobindoMarg,

New Delhi.
• NCERT (2000). National Curriculum Framework for School Education, NCERT, New
Delhi.
• SaritaKumari (2005) Curriculum and Instruction, Isha Books, Delhi

• Taba Hilda (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, New York,
Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich Inc. Wiles, J.W. & Joseph
• Bondi (2006): Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice. Pearson Publication
• http://www.theideacenter.org/sites/default/files/Idea_Paper_42.pdf
• http://www.brad.ac.uk/educational-development/course-and-module-
design/characteristics/
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INDEX
Module 1: Curriculum Development: An Introduction ........................................................................... 7
Chapter 1 Meaning and Concept of Curriculum ........................................................................ 7
Chapter 2 Understanding curriculum ...................................................................................... 12
Chapter 3 The elements of the curriculum .............................................................................. 16
Chapter 4 Foundations of Curriculum: .................................................................................... 20
Chapter 5 Knowledge as a base of curriculum development .................................................. 29
Module 2 Models of Curriculum Development .................................................................................... 36
Chapter 1 Hilda Taba‘s model .................................................................................................. 36
Chapter 2 Ralph Tyler‘s model ................................................................................................. 40
Chapter 3 Wheelers model and Hunkin‘s Decision- Making model ........................................ 44
Chapter 4 Weinstein and Fantini model .................................................................................. 48
Module 3 Curriculum Transaction ........................................................................................................ 54
Chapter 1 Planning Curriculum implementation ..................................................................... 54
Chapter 2 Use of Learner-centered methods and media with their strength and limitation . 60
Chapter 3 Use of Learner-centered media .............................................................................. 66
Chapter 4 Models of Curriculum Implementation................................................................... 74
Module 4: Curriculum Evaluation ......................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 1 Curriculum Evaluation: Concept and Meaning ....................................................... 79
Chapter 2 Models of curriculum evaluation ............................................................................ 83
Chapter 3 Curriculum improvement through problem solving model .................................... 92
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Module 1: Curriculum Development: An Introduction
Chapter 1 Meaning and Concept of Curriculum
1.0 Objectives

• Explain the concept of curriculum and process of curriculum development.
• State the components of curriculum. Explain the foundations of curriculum.
http://www.khayma.com/muhannad/Dr%20Amer%20lectures/curiculum%20
lectures%20en/curriculum%20concepts%20nature%20and%20purposes.pdf
1.1 Meaning and concept of curriculum
The word curriculum derives from the Latin currere meaning ‘to run’. This implies that
one of the functions of a curriculum is to provide a template or design which enables
learning to take place. Curricula usually define the learning that is expected to take place
during a course or programme of study in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes,
they should specify the main teaching, learning and assessment methods and provide an
indication of the learning resources required to support the effective delivery of the
course. A curriculum is more than a syllabus. A syllabus describes the content of a
programme and can be seen as one part of a curriculum. Most curricula are not
developed from scratch and all operate within organisational and societal constraints.
curriculum is often used to describe only the goals, objectives, or plans, something
distinct from the “means” of methods, materials, and assessment. Yet since each of
these components are essential for effective learning-and since each includes hidden
barriers that undermine student efforts to become master learners-curriculum design
should consider each of them as a piece curriculum (or curricula) is defined broadly to
include four basic components:
1. Goals: The benchmarks or expectations for teaching and learning, often made explicit
in the form of a scope and sequence of skills to be addressed;
2. Methods: The specific instructional methods for the teacher, often described in a
teacher’s edition;
3. Materials: The media and tools that are used for teaching and learning;
4. Assessment: The reasons for and methods of measuring student progress.
The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its
narrow sense, curriculum is viewed merely as a listing of subject to be taught in school.
In a broader sense, it refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in
schools but in society as well. There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this,
the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and
confusing. The definitions are influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, political as
well as cultural experiences
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Traditional Points of View of Curriculum-In the early years of 20th century, the
traditional concepts held of the “curriculum is that it is a body of subjects or subject
matter prepared by the teachers for the students to learn”. It was synonymous to the
“course of study” and “syllabus” Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent
studies” where the rule of grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for
basic education are emphasized. Basic Education should emphasize the 3 Rs and college
education should be grounded on liberal education. On the other hand, Arthur Bestor as
an essentialist, believe that the mission of the school should be intellectual training,
hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar,
literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign
language. This definition leads us to the view of Joseph Schwab that discipline is the sole
source of curriculum. Thus in our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of
knowledge we call subject areas in basic education such as English, Mathematics,
Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline may includes humanities,
sciences, and languages.
Progressive Points of View of Curriculum- a listing of school, subjects, syllabi,
course of study, and list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These
can only be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner.
Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the
individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and
education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular
elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by application. Caswell and
Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have under the guidance of
teachers”. This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley and Shores when they defined
“curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in the schools for the purpose
of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting” Marsh and Willis
on the other hand view curriculum as all the “experiences in the classroom which are
planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students.curriculum refers
to the means and materials with which the student interacts. To determine what will
constitute those means and materials, we must decide what we want the curriculum to
yield. What will constitute the "educated" individual in our society? The things that
teachers teach represent what the larger society wants children to learn. However,
beyond teaching reading and writing, what are the necessary things that they should be
taught? Is it really necessary to teach science? Does teaching mathematics really lead to
logical thinking, or does it just provide students with some basic computational skills that
may or may not come in handy at some future time? You may feel that answering such
questions is not something a teacher has to be able to do, but rest assured that at some
point a parent will ask you questions like these. As a teacher, you will be the
representative of "the curriculum" to whom parents and students turn for answers. The
purpose of the curriculum is to prepare the student to thrive within the society as it is—
and that includes the capacity for positive change and growth.
• Kelly, A.V. (1999). The curriculum: theory and practice (4th Ed.). London, UK:
Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.
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1.2 Four types of curriculum
• The Explicit Curriculum

Explicit means "obvious" or "apparent," and that's just what the explicit curriculum is all
about: the subjects that will be taught, the identified "mission" of the school, and the
knowledge and skills that the school expects successful students to acquire. If you speak
with an administrator at your school or where you do your observations or practicum
work, ask about the curriculum; it is this publicly announced (and publicly sanctioned)
explanation of the message of school that will be explained to you. The explicit
curriculum can be discussed in terms of time on task, contact hours, or Carnegie units
(high school credit courses). It can be qualified in terms of specific observable,
measurable learning objectives.
• The Implicit Curriculum

Sometimes referred to as the hidden curriculum, the implicit curriculum refers to the
lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviors, attitudes, and
expectations that characterize that culture. While good citizenship may be part of the
explicit curriculum, a particular ethos that promotes, for example, multiethnic
acceptance and cooperation may also characterize a particular school. This is not to say
that parents, teachers, and administrators sat around a table and said, "Hey, let's
promote acceptance of diverse ethnic values in the context of the American experience."
That would be nice, of course, but then it tends to fall into the category of the explicit
curriculum. By virtue of a high multiethnic enrollment, a particular school may have a
culture of multiethnic cooperation. Another school, isolated in that its enrollment is
primarily that of one ethnic group, would develop a different sort of culture. Individual
schools within a district, or even classrooms within a school that share a common explicit
curriculum, can differ greatly with regard to the implicit curriculum. This is not an
altogether bad situation, but to a great degree the implicit curriculum is subjected to less
scrutiny than is the explicit curriculum.
• Null Curriculum
Just as compelling as the notion of the implicit curriculum is Eisner's (1994) concept of
the null curriculum. This aspect of curriculum refers to "the options students are not
afforded, the perspectives they may never know about, much less be able to use, the
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concepts and skills that are not a part of their intellectual repertoire" (p. 106-107). The
teaching of evolution provides an example. For more than seventy-five years this topic
has been an issue of debate. The decision by individual states or school districts within
states not to include this topic within its explicit curriculum places it in the category of
the null curriculum. In other words, the decision to exclude particular topics or subjects
from a curriculum nonetheless affects the curriculum by its very omission
• Extracurricular Programs
The fourth aspect of curriculum is that of the extracurriculum or cocurriculum. This
curriculum represents all of those school-sponsored programs that are intended to
supplement the academic aspect of the school experience. Athletics, band, drama,
student government, clubs, honor societies and student organizations, and school
dances and social events all fall under the heading of extracurricular activities.
Participation in these activities is purely voluntary and does not contribute to grades or
credits earned toward advancement from one grade to the next or to graduation.
Extracurricular activities are typically open to all, though participation often depends on
skill level.
1.3 Characteristics of a planned curriculum
Characteristics of a planned curriculum include well-defined goals, measurable learning

objectives and valid assessments. The planned curriculum should be identifiable by the
careful steps taken to connect learner needs to proven research-based educational
strategy and performance outcomes.
1. It should faster the growth of development of attitude and skills required for
maintaining a planned social order of democratic type. To put more concretely, it should
contribute towards democratic living.
2. It should not be narrowly conceived but dynamic and forward looking, sample
adequately both the scientific content and the abilities of the pupils to the developed,
should cater to the right use of leisure later on and should be related to the environment
in which the children live. Consequently, it will then become exiting, real and
imaginative.
3. It is tested and improved through research.

4. It should aim at bringing about an intelligent and effective adjustment with the
environment itself. Further, it should enable pupils to acquire relevant scientific
information of subsequent use in the significant areas of human living.
5. It should be psychologically sound. It should take into account the theories of learning
relevant to science teaching. Further, children's capacities and capabilities, if taken into
account, will lead to the development of differentiated curriculum. Incorporating
geographical difference in it will be another innovation.
6. It should provided sufficient scope for the cultivation of skills, interest, attitudes and
appreciations.
7. It must be mostly based upon the first hand experiences of the pupils from all the
significant areas of human living. These experiences are characterized by newness,
novelty, challenge, stimulation and creativity. Science Content receives increasing
emphasis as the children move to the higher grades.
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1.4 Significance of Curriculum
In Elementary Schools
In elementary schools, the curriculum is primarily drawn by the educational boards or
some central society. They study the needs of the kids and all other feasibilities before
selecting courses and drafting a curriculum. Here, the students have least choice in their
subjects and study based on a universal curriculum, which works on all sections of the
students’ psyche and aid in the total development of the student. No area is left
untouched. Hence, the curriculum aids in the proper development, while the child comes
to terms with his or her own inclination. Therefore, at primary school levels, the
curriculum aims at providing a structured platform, which gives every child an equal
opportunity to excel.
In High Schools
At high school levels, teenagers can take their own liberty in choosing their path. Though
complete autonomy does not rest with a student, a level of choice is very evident. This
helps in the development of the teenager, with added importance of being given the field
of his own choice. At this stage, the development is more focused and rampant,
enhanced through a proper curriculum. Without an effective curriculum, a student would
not be able to understand or meet the challenges of the society.
At College & Higher Education
At a higher stage of education, an unprecedented autonomy is provided to the students.
The students can opt for a more focused curriculum, based on their choice of subjects. A
student will graduate, post-graduate or attain a doctorate based on the choice of his
subjects and the mode of his study, both or either one determined by him. The
curriculum here is reduced to just a framework that is very flexible yet very important.
The curriculum chosen by the student will go on to determine the shape of his career. A
curriculum prepares an individual with the knowledge to be successful, confident and
responsible citizens
Thinking about your undergraduate education, can you list some examples of the formal
curriculum and some examples of the hidden or unofficial curriculum?
Are there any instances where these may conflict and impact on learning?
References
• http://pediaa.com/difference-between-curriculum-and-syllabus/
• http://bdeduarticle.com/curriculum-theory-and-practice/
• http://issuu.com/rosendale/docs/how_we_learn
• https://www.flinders.edu.au/teaching/teaching-strategies/curriculum-
development/a-curriculum-process.cfm
• https://www.google.co.in/search?q=explain+curriculum+as+praxis&rlz=1C1CHZL
_
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Chapter 2 Understanding curriculum
2.1 Introduction
There are a number of issues with this approach to curriculum theory and practice. The
followings are some of the approach to curriculum theory and practice. Firstly, the plan
or programme assumes great importance. For example, we might look at a more recent
definition of curriculum as: “A programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed
so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends
or objectives” The problem here is that such programmes inevitably exist prior to and
outside the learning experiences. This takes much away from learners. They can end
up with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how they will do it.
The success or failure of both the programme and the individual learners is judged on
the basis of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour and person of the
learner (the meeting of behavioral objectives). It is to find the answer to questions
around the nature of objectives. It implies that behaviour can be objectively,
mechanistically measured. If , there is the problem of unanticipated results. The focus
on pre-specified goals may lead both educators and learners to overlook learning that is
occurring as a result of their interactions, but which is not listed as an objective.
Hence four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practices are important
1. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted.

2. Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – product.
3. Curriculum as process.
4. Curriculum as praxis.
2.2 As a Body of knowledge to be transmitted
Centuries ago the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle categorized three disciplines of
knowledge: the theoretical, the productive and the practical and some educators see
praxis as one of four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice, based on
these three disciplines: Curriculum is body of knowledge which is transmitted through
syllabus. Curriculum and syllabus are two essential components in
any educational program. Curriculum is the set of courses, coursework and their content
offered at a school or anther educational institute. Syllabus is the focused outline of a
subject. Therefore, the main difference between curriculum and syllabus is
that curriculum is a set of guidelines set out for educators whereas a syllabus is
a more descriptive list of concepts that are to be taught in a class.
Curriculum and Syllabus are the terms of education, imparted to the students by
teachers. It means the knowledge, skills or qualifications that are passed on from one
generation to another. A subject syllabus is a unit of the curriculum. The two terms differ
in a sense that curriculum is a combination of some factors which helps in the planning
of an educational program, whereas a syllabus covers the portion of what topics should
be taught in a particular subject. Curriculum is a body of knowledge-content and/or
subjects. Education in this sense, is the process by which these are transmitted or
‘delivered’ to students by the most effective methods that can be devised.
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Curriculum is usually set out by the administration of an institute. In government
educational institutions, the curriculum may be set out by the government. Educators
often make the syllabus using the curriculum. Curriculum is transmitted to syllabus
according to subject content . It describes and summarizes what should be taught to the
students. A syllabus have details such as schedule, assessments, assignments, projects,
etc. So it contains information such as dates on which assignments are to be submitted,
exam dates, details of projects, etc. Syllabus is usually accessible to students; the
syllabus is given out to students at the beginning of the course or program, particular in
secondary and tertiary education. Therefore, they can use it as a guideline for their
studies.
2.3 As a Product
Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students –

product
Education is most often seen as a technical exercise. Objectives are set, a plan drawn
up, then applied, and the outcomes (products) measured. Curriculum as an attempt to
achieve certain ends in students - product. The dominant modes of describing and
managing education are today couched in the productive form. Education is most often
seen as a technical exercise. Objectives are set, a plan drawn up, then applied, and the
outcomes (products) measured. In the late 1980s and the 1990s many of the debates
about the National Curriculum for schools did not so much concern how the curriculum
was thought about as to what its objectives and content might be.
Curriculum as product model is heavily dependent on the setting of behavioral objectives
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image.slidesharecdn.com/curriculumengagement-110619024426-
phpapp01/95/curriculum-engagement-2-728.jpg?cb=1308498687
.Generally, one starts knowing nothing, is taught, and one transmits that knowledge to
action. There were a series of steps leading to the product, and curriculum could be
designed accordingly. Those steps were:
Step 1: Diagnosis of need
Step 2: Formulation of objectives
Step 3: Selection of content
Step 4: Organization of content
Step 5: Selection of learning experiences
Step 6: Organization of learning experiences
Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate, and the ways and means of doing it.
One of concern with the product orientation is that students are generally left out of the
picture.
2.3 As a Curriculum as process
Curriculum processes is a collective term that encompasses all of the considerations

about which curriculum workers ponder and ultimately use to make choices in the
development and evaluation of a curriculum project. These processes involve changes
that some students, teachers, school staff, and community members welcome, but that
others resist either actively or passively.Curriculum is a process of critical questioning to
frame learning and teaching. The main purpose of the process is to translate broad
statements of intent into specific plans and actions. The intention is to ensure, as far as
possible, alignment between the three states of curriculum: the planned curriculum, the
delivered curriculum and the experienced curriculum. It is process at course level sets
the context for topic design and topic design sets the context for each learning
experience. Topics need to be designed to come together in structured combinations to
form coherent major and minor sequences and courses. Parts of the process especially
at the course and topic levels overlap and ideally should occur interactively with course
design informing and influencing topic design and topic design informing and influencing
course design.
The Planned curriculum
• What is intended by the designers
The delivered curriculum

• What is organised by the administration
• What is taught by teachers
The experienced curriculum

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• What is learned by student
A curriculum is what actually happens in the classroom and what people do to prepare
and evaluate. the two major things that set this apart from the model for informal
education are first, the context in which the process occurs (‘particular schooling
situations’); and second, the fact that teachers enter the classroom or any other formal
educational setting with a more fully worked-through idea of what is about to happen.
step 1: Problem Identification and General Needs Assessment
Step 2: Needs Assessment of Targeted Learners "Assessing the needs of one targeted
group of learners..."
Step 3: Goals and objectives "Once the needs of targeted learners have been
identified, goals and objectives
Step 4: Educational Strategies "Once objectives have been clarified, curriculum content
is chosen and educational methods are selected that will most likely achieve the
educational objectives."
Step 5: Implementation
• "procurement of political support for the curriculum

• identification and procurement of resources
• identification and address of barriers to implementation
• introduction of the curriculum...(piloting...)
• administration of the curriculum
• refinement of the curriculum"
Step 6: Evaluation and Feedback
"It usually is desirable to assess the performance of both individuals (individual

evaluation) and the curriculum also called program evaluation
The purpose of evaluation may be formative (to provide ongoing feedback so that the
learners or curriculum can improve) or summative (to provide a final "grade" or
assessment of the performance of the learner or curriculum").
2.4 Curriculum as praxis
Praxis is the process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is enacted, embodied, or

realized. "Praxis" may also refer to the act of engaging, applying, exercising, realizing, or
practising ideas. According to education theorist Paulo Freire defined praxis in education
as “reflection and action upon the world to transform it.” Curriculum as praxis engages
with issues of power, privilege and oppression and centers human well-being and
emancipation within the curriculum process. It implies a critical approach to curriculum,
teaching and learning, and assessment and “encourages learners and teachers together
to confront the real problems of their existence and relationships” in order to work
together towards praxis – informed, committed action. In this approach, curriculum
develops through a dynamic process of action and reflection. “That is, the curriculum is
not simply a set of plans to be implemented, but rather is constituted through an active
process in which planning, acting and evaluating are all reciprocally related and
integrated into the process. praxis is a cycle of theory and purposeful action that
incorporates reflection. It helps us to analyse our efforts so that we can develop and
improve our thinking, doing and effectiveness as educators it is the process of taking
action in practice whilst acting within a theoretical framework of thought.
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In praxis, abstract theorising is only useful so long as it informs concrete action, but
likewise action must be informed by deep thinking and justification. it is making sure
every action has an informed basis, whilst every valuable thought is put into action. A
teacher immersed in praxis would bring their theoretical thoughts to every decision as
they make it, adapting their actions in a classroom to ensure they continue to encourage
the learning their students are undertaking. It situates the learning as a conversation
between learner and teacher rather than as a teacher carrying out their plans which
were crafted in the hypothetical world.
Think about a course in which you are involved as a teacher.

• How has this course been developed – according to the objectives or the process
model?
• What do you think are then main advantages and disadvantages of each?
Chapter 3 The elements of the curriculum
3.1 The elements of the curriculum
Curriculum plays an important role in an educational system. It is somehow a blueprint

which leads the teacher and the learner to reach the desired objectives. As a result,
authorities have to design it in such a way that it could lead the teacher and the learner
meet the desired learning outcomes.
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3.2 Aims and learning outcomes/objectives
Aims and learning outcomes/objectives need to be developed in order to ensure

that the goal of producing competent graduates is achieved.
• Aims describe what the teacher is trying to achieve (eg. To encourage students
to develop self directed learning skills) whereas goals usually describe what the
course or organisation is trying to achieve (eg. To inculcate professional values
and attitudes). These terms are often used interchangeably
• Learning outcomes guide teachers/trainers on what is expected of the learners
on completion of the education/training programme. Learning outcomes also
guide students on what they are expected to be able to do in terms of
knowledge, skills and attitudes after completing the programme or parts of it.
Correct interpretation of outcomes will guide both learners and teachers on the
choice of relevant learning and teaching methods to achieve the intended
learning. Those responsible for setting examinations and other assessments will
also need to interpret the outcomes appropriately so that learners’ performance
is tested appropriately by relevant assessment techniques. Course planners need
to think about the relationship between learning outcomes or objectives,
teaching and learning activities, assessment and evaluation. the learning
objective itself and should always contain an operative word such as perform or
describe. These words vary depending on whether the objectives are knowledge,
skills or attitudinal objectives. For example, we might use the terms define, list,
name, recall or record for the ‘knowledge level’ of the cognitive domain, this is a
lower level than say the ‘analysis’ level for which we might use words such as
analyse, test or distinguish.
3.3 Content
content of parts of the curriculum has to be studied in relation to other parts so that the
curriculum forms a coherent learning programme. It should comprise and reflect a
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selection of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes relevant and valued by the
profession, subject disciplines and by the wider society. The content is usually derived
from objectives which form the basis for programme development and can be simply
defined as the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to be learned. In some countries
such as the former Soviet bloc, a national curriculum is defined which stipulates all areas
of course content in terms of hours to be taught, this type of curriculum imposes severe
constraints on course planners and it is difficult to introduce innovations.
You should check:
• That the content reflects the job that the learners will be asked to do after training
• That the content relates directly to the learning outcomes
• That the total time given to each element of the course is appropriate and that the
balance between theory and practice is appropriate
• That the content is pitched at an appropriate level for the learners

Once the objectives/ outcomes and broad content areas have been defined, this can then
be developed into a programme of learning. There will be constraints in terms of time
allocation, teachers’ availability and access to learning resources, but it is important for
course planners to plan out a timetable for the course early on in the planning process.
This should include allocating time for each element of the course and mapping out the
sequence of learning in a logical manner which enables students to progress throughout
the course
3.4 Teaching strategies
Teaching strategies (Curriculum experience) could not be effective if the content is not
clearly defined. The aims, goals and directions serve as the anchor of the learning
journey, the content or subject matter serve as the meat of the educational journey,
curriculum experience serves as the hands –on exposure to the real spectrum of learning
the selection and organization of learning experiences, in such a way that the selected
content is injected into the learning environment in ways that promotes active learning,
to accomplish set educational objectives. It must be noted that as objective formulation
and content selection is subject to crucial standards, so is the process of selecting and
organizing learning experiences. Learning interactions in the classroom are dependent on
several important points – consistency with objectives (stated outcomes), learner
appropriateness, resources, constraints, and the learning site. Once these are clarified,
more questions arise and necessary decisions need to be made in terms of the
appropriateness, attainability, sequence and combinations of teaching-learning activities
and interactions.
3.5 Evaluation
In designing evaluation methods that measure students’ performance, the starting

point should always be the stated learning outcomes. Assessments must check that
students have achieved the learning outcomes in various contexts and thus that the
content has been covered. Teaching and learning methods must support the assessment
strategy. There are two aspects of assessment to consider, those being assessment of
the curriculum and assessment of the student. As a teacher, there are aspects of
18
curriculum assessment that you can make, but the bottom line for assessment of the
curriculum, in many ways, rests with assessment of the student. If the student does not
achieve the standards, it really isn't going to matter how good the curriculum looks.
Considering the interrelatedness of objectives formulation, selection and organization of

content, as well as the selection and organization of learning experiences, it is clear that
there is no one approach or model to adapt in the development process. “Learner”, who
remains the center and core beneficiary of a curriculum development process that should
be ideally equitable and aligned with the needs of each individual invested in the
endeavor.
• https://icareabouteducation.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/interrelationship-of-3-
major-components-of-curriculum-development.jpg
Exercise
1.Find some examples of learning outcomes or objectives from a course with which you
are familiar.
2.Can you list some of the main resources which would be required to deliver a new
curriculum?
19
Chapter 4 Foundations of Curriculum
4.1 Introduction
Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers.In this way
they affect the content and structure of the curriculum.The curriculum reflects the
society and culture of a country and this is the desire of a society that their children
should learn the habits, ideas, attitudes and skills of the adult society and culture and
educational institutional are the proper way to impart these skill. This duty of teacher
and school to discipline the young of the society and provide them the set of experiences
in the form of curriculum. The needs, knowledge and information of the society provide
foundation in the formation of curriculum.
4.2 Philosophical foundation of curriculum
Philosophy is a continuous source of knowledge being implemented for knowledge itself

and helping the way to be implemented. Therefore, in curriculum foundation
epistemologically knowledge and its structural presentation are very much significant. It
provides the guideline for its framework and also shifting its trends for fulfilling
objectives of education and for the betterment of transactional phase of curriculum,
surely, human knowledge stored in various schools of thought as expected to underpin
various epistemological issues and axiological questions to be dealt in the theoretical
foundations of curriculum. Not only these, the practical ramifications of these must have
bearing in curriculum planning and development, and transactions.
1. Conservative vision The major emphasis is laid on past traditions and culture
which need to be inherited so the main task of education is to conserve the best
from the past
Curriculum prescribe educationist with conservative perspective
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• Idealism and the Curriculum: As to an idealist, the ideas i.e. essence is
more important than the materialistic, i.e. changing state / order, non-
permanent, at least a liberal curriculum is suggestive.
• Prenialism and curriculum It advocates the permanency of knowledge that
has stood the test of time and the values that have moral and spiritual
bases. The underlying idea is that education is constant, absolute and
universal. Naturally the curriculum of the perennialist is subject centered.
It draws heavily on defined disciplines or logically organized bodies of
content, but emphasizes teaching / learning of languages, literature,
sciences and arts. common curriculum for all students with a little scope
for elective subjects. Such views appeal to those educators who stress
intellectual meritocracy. Their emphasis is on testing student, enforcing
tougher academic standards, identifying and encouraging talented
students.
• In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to just
analyse interpret and evaluate social problems. They had to be committed
to the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about
constructive change.
• The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as
social service. The curriculum should engage students in critical analysis
of the local, national and international community. Examples of issues are
poverty, environment degradation, unemployment, crime, war, political
oppression, hunger, etc.
• There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race,
gender, and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate children
towards resolution of these injustices and students should not be afraid to
examine controversial issues. Students should learn to come to a
consensus on issues and so group work was encouraged.
• The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in

society. Students be aware of global issues and the interdependence
between nations. Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation
should be the focus of the curriculum.
• Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural

renewal and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge outdated
structures and entrusted with the task of bringing about a new social
order which may be utopian in nature.
• In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as history,
political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics, poetry, and
philosophy), rather than the sciences.
21
• Essentialism and curriculum This philosophical thought is rooted in
idealism and partly in realism, evolved mainly as a critique of progressive
thought in education. However, it is not totally anti-progressivism. In
essentialism learning should consist of mastering the subject matter that
reflects currently available knowledge in various disciplines. Teachers play
high directive role by disseminating information to students.
2. Progressive vision It has emerged from the political thoughts of progressive

thinkers they emphasis on inter disciplinary approach which includes child
centered and activity centered curriculum. Activity.
• The philosophy of Reconstructionism holds two premises : (1) society is in need

of constant reconstruction or change, and (2) such social change involves both a
reconstruction of education and the use of education in reconstructing society.
Reonstructionist look education as the most effective and efficient instrument for
making such changes in an intelligent, democratic and humane way though, it
does not seek to make detailed epistemological or logical studies. Hence it looks
for some radical curriculum changes
• In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to just analyse
interpret and evaluate social problems. They had to be committed to the issues
discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about constructive change.
• The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as social

service. The curriculum should engage students in critical analysis of the local,
national and international community. Examples of issues are poverty,
environment degradation, unemployment, crime, war, political oppression,
hunger, etc.
• There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race, gender, and
socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate children towards resolution
of these injustices and students should not be afraid to examine controversial
22
issues. Students should learn to come to a consensus on issues and so group
work was encouraged.
• The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in society.

Students be aware of global issues and the interdependence between nations.
Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation should be the focus of
the curriculum.
• Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal and
internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge outdated structures and
entrusted with the task of bringing about a new social order which may be
utopian in nature.
• In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as history,

political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics, poetry, and philosophy),
rather than the sciences.
4.3 Psychological foundations of curriculum
By providing a basis for understanding the teaching/learning process, educational

psychology deals with how people learn. By implication, it emphasizes the need to
recognize diversity among learners. However, it is also true that people share certain
common characteristics. Among these are basic psychological needs which are necessary
for individuals to lead a full and happy life. In this section, we shall be talking about the
major learning theories and their contribution to curriculum development. Besides, we
shall touch upon the basic psychological needs of individuals and reflect on their
translation into curriculum Grounded by some fundamental assumptions about human
behavior, Educational Psychology, an applied branch of Psychology, is a strong pillar
upon which curriculum is erected systematically. The main area of psychological
movement in education is understanding learning and teaching and deepening our
understanding of human potential to learn and also individual variations – both inter and
intra. A curriculum without in-built in psychological principle, is a void and meaningless.
There are several areas in which the psychological principles and theories come and help
as the psychological foundations of education as well as of curriculum.
Behaviorism and Curriculum The behaviorist school is rooted in a corresponding

philosophical speculation about the nature of learning. It has dominated particularly the
first-half of the 20th century psychology. After a few years of wilderness it has recently
gained currency once again with the advent of individualized education. Essentially, here
learning is considered as habit formation and teaching is regarded as arranging learning
experiences in such as way as to promote desirable behavior. It also takes notes of
retention and transfer of learning for economizing pupil learning encounter.
The following is a list of behaviourist principles applied in teaching and learnin

• Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning
• When learning factual material provide immediate and frequent feedback for
complex and difficult concepts
• Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts
• Break down complex task into smaller and manageable subskills
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• Sequence material to enhance understanding eg. teach simple concepts first
before proceeding to more difficult and abstract concept
• Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations when
necessary
• Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behaviour

• State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and students
• Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards will
be given
Cognitivism and Curriculum Cognitivism focuses on learning as change in cognitive

structure, a hypothetical construct reasoned out by a community of psychologists,
popularly known as cognitivists. Cognitive theory of learning refers to any theory of
learning that postulates intervening variables of a cognitive nature in order to explain
learning. Learning is considered as a growth-cognitive growth, essentially through the
process of education. Educator’s task is to facilitate pupil’s cognitive growth.
The following is a list of cognitivist principles that may be practiced in the teaching and
learning of various subject areas:
Gain the students' attention

• Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
• Move around the room and use voice inflections (changing tone)
Bring to mind relevant prior learning

• Review previous day's lesson.
• Have a discussion about previously covered content.

Point out important information
• Provide handouts.
• Write on the board or use transparencies
Present information in an organised manner

• Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
• Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.

Show students how to categorise (chunk) related information
• Present information in categories.

• Teach inductive reasoning.
Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information

• Connect new information to something already known.
• Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists

• Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list.
• Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.

Provide for repetition of learning
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• State important principles several times in different ways during
presentation of information (STM).
• Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson (LTM).

• Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills
(LTM).
Constructivism and Curriculum Constructivism is a theory about the nature of
knowledge. While there ate different interpretations of constructivism, their common
denominator seems to be a belief that knowledge is created by people and influenced by
their values and culture. It is more popular with its two views – cognitive view
exemplifies by Piaget and the social view exemplified by Vygotsky. The former posits
that people develop universal forms or structures of knowledge that enable them to
experience reality; knowledge is individually constructed and is based on the knower’s
intellectual development as one experiences reality during physical and social activity.
Here the teacher’s role as facilitator is to pose problems that challenge children’s
conception of reality. On the other hand, social constructivism posits that knowledge is
co-constructed through social and cultural contexts, rendering reality non-objective.
Knowledge, socially constructed as reality is created during physical and social activity.
The teacher’s role is to be a collaborator who participates with the children in
constructing reality by engaging in open-ended inquiry that elicits and addresses student
misconceptions.
Student autonomy and initiative are accepted and encouraged

• respect students’ ideas and encourage independent thinking
• teachers help students attain their intellectual potential

• students take responsibility for their own learning
Higher-level thinking is encouraged

• teachers challenge students to make connections, analyse, predict, justify and
defend their ideas
• way in which teachers ask questions will influence student response
• teacher asks open-ended questions and allows wait time for responses
Students are engaged in dialogue with the teacher and with each other
• students present what they and build their personal knowledge

• comfortable to express their ideas to allow for meaningful learning
Students are engaged in experience that challenge hypotheses and encourage
discussion
• students generate varying hypotheses about phenomena
• provide opportunity to test their hypotheses through dialogue

• the class use raw data, primary sources, manipulatives, physical and
interactive materials
• involve students in real-world situations Curriculum
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curriculum emphasises big concepts, beginning with the whole and expanding to
include the parts
Humanism and curriculum - Humanist approach to education is defined as " a

commitment to educational practice in which all facets of the teaching-learning process
give major emphasis to the freedom, value, worth, dignity and integrity of persons his
approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered movement. It
considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum. It
considers the whole child and believes that in curriculum the total development of the
individual is the prime consideration. The learner s at the center of the curriculum.
The following are some humanistic techniques in the classroom:

• Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening learning environment
in which learner’s self-concept and self-esteem are considered essentials factors
in learning
• When it seem appropriate, function as a facilitator where the he or she works and
shares ideas with students
• When the teacher is comfortable, the teacher may occasionally show his or her
“real person” by telling students how he or she feels
• Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits and
attitudes that teachers want to foster
• Teachers should be role models and set good examples
• Students and teachers plan together the experiences and activities of the
curriculum
• Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with responsibilities);
the extent of choices and freedom is related to the maturity level and age of
students
• Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and experimenting
4.4 Socio cultural foundation of curriculum
Education from sociological perspective, is a process of transmission of culture. Culture

refers to the total way of life of a society, its knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, values, skills
and behaviour patterns – and not just to what is best or most important in that way of
life, or to art, music or literature. Culture, to the sociologist, includes everything that is
learned and manmade. Schools are formal institutions specially set up for the
preservation and transmission of culture by the society. Schools seek to discharge this
function through the curriculum, which is nothing but the sum total of learning
experiences provided under its auspices. However, it is neither possible nor desirable to
transmit the whole of culture to the successive generations through educational
institution.
1. Society and education – curriculum while reflecting contemporary social forces
should also be able to respond to the dynamics of changes – local, national and global –
and put emphasis on local and global knowledge praxis of the day.
26
2. Social change and the curriculum – must take cues from growth of technology and
its impact on the learners in all corners of their lives, changing order of structure of
family and other basic institutions, cultural diversity and cultural pluralism, etc.
3. Changing order of meaning of learning and its relationship with the community
living – learning to live together, lifelong, learning, building social capital, empowerment,
etc.
Curriculum Construction The impact of educational sociology on the principles of

curriculum construction cannot be ignored. In ancient age the child was regarded as an
adult. The adults used to frame the curriculum and imposed it on the young learners.
This curriculum was obviously the brainchild of the adults. The child, his interests and
inclinations were not taken into consideration. But in the modern age all these traditional
views of curriculum construction have been totally rejected as unscientific. The
curriculum is now in conformity with the general aims of education and it must help in
the total development of the child. In the modern sense the curriculum is not mere a
bundle of subjects but includes all types of activities in the school, which provide diverse
experiences to the child. It is now the sum total of the experiences gathered by the child
through social interactions in the school. Modern curriculum thus emphasizes the social
need of education.
Activity Principle in Education Nothing can be taught, everything is to be learnt is the
main idea of present-day education. The children are no longer passive recipients of
knowledge they are now active participants in the learning process. This means that
every useful productive work has learning value. Thus work-based education helps in the
social development of the child. It prepares an individual to face the social reality. It
helps in the process of socialization of the child and bringing social cohesion and
solidarity.
The School In modern education the school is regarded as a society in miniature. The
students learn through constant social interactions in the school. John Dewey says:
“School is a purified, simplified and better balanced society.” The school is an effective
vehicle for socialization of the child. Thus schools are an important social agency or
institution, which performs various social functions and responsibilities.
School Organization and Managemen The school administration has now been
democratized. The students are now allowed to participate in school administration and
shoulder various administrative responsibilities. The school self-government is now an
accepted educational principle and practice. This is no doubt the result of sociological
principle in education.
Teacher In modern education the teacher is regarded as a friend, philosopher and
guide. He must prepare himself for this noble work. To fulfill this responsibility the
teacher must possess suitable personality.
Human Relation Education thinks that the work of education cannot be carried on
properly without reference to human relations. Human relations are also developed
among students in the school society. These human relations determine the course of
education. For this purpose now sociometric technique is applied in education. With the
help of sociometric technique the group dynamics in school can be ascertained.
Methods of Teaching The methods of teaching are also influenced by educational

sociology. The teacher has to adopt some method or technique to establish relationship
between the objectives and the materials of instruction. The educational sociologist,
27
according to Payne, judges the effectiveness of teaching method and technique in the
light of three principles:
• The method of teaching is effective only in so far as the skills and knowledge
acquired in the classroom are actually made by the individual in his adjustment
to social situations.
• The method of teaching must place primary emphasis on social behaviour outside
the classroom.
• The method of teaching must seek to utilize the social forces operative in the
social life in order to develop capacity for social adjustment.
Thus it is evident that every aspect of education such as aims, functions,
materials of instructions, methods of teaching is greatly influenced by social factors.
Modern education aims at total development. Here lies the need of sociological
foundation of education. various sociological considerations like cultural, economic and
political that deeply influence school-curriculum – its conception, content, and
organization. To begin with, curriculum is the device which a society uses to transmit
what it considers as the worthwhile aspects of its culture knowledge, values, beliefs,
skills. In designing this device for application in its schools, a pluralistic society has to
build it upon the elements that are common to the various subcultures that together
make up the total culture of the society besides making adequate provisions for the
preservation of the identities of the different subcultural groups. Curriculum should be so
designed that it does not act unfair to the interests of the lower socio-economic classes.
In the name of transmission of culture it should not act as a vehicle of domination of
middle class values. Rather it should taken note of the social factors influencing
knowledge especially relating to its distribution and stratification.
4.5 Exercise
• Distinguish between the existentialist and pragmatist in the matter of curricular

knowledge content.
• Explain the philosophical foundation of curriculum

• There should be integration between philosophical , sociological and psychological
foundation of education justify with examples
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Chapter 5 Knowledge as a base of curriculum
development
5.1 Introduction
Nature of knowledge Epistemology is the theory of

knowledge. It deals with knowledge as a universal
matter and aims to discover what is involved in the
process of knowing. As such it belongs for the most
part to the critical or analytical aspects of philosophy.
It asks many which our senses acquaint us? Does
knowing make any difference to the object know?
These are not idle questions. For if we can know that
the knowledge we possess is beyond error, that
knowledge becomes a foundation of our search for
more of it. Admittedly it may folly to believe that we
shall ever discover true knowledge when all we have
ever known is only an approximation of it. Doubtful
knowledge then only generates more doubtful
knowledge. As Santayana wrote, knowledge is a “torch of smoky pine that lights the
pathway but one step ahead, across a void of mystery and dread”. Still we must strive,
though a step at a time, to understand as well as we can the source of it, we shall be in
a better position to understand the true nature of that reality to which it is related.
Unlike philosophy, epistemology is not interested in amassing and classifying facts and
data and subjecting them to statistical process. The epistemologist has ideas about how
people think and feel, but he does not claim to be able to explain them scientifically. He
is, after all, a philosopher and not a social scientist. The epistemologist may possess all
the information commonly described as “knowledge’, but still he will ask the question,
‘what is knowledge after all’? and he may not come up with an answer .He also examines
relevant psychological concepts such as perception, memory, and reinforcement to
determine whether they are consistent, not necessarily with factual matters but with
themselves. Knowing the psychological problem is to state and assess the very grounds
on which knowledge rests and claim to knowledge are made. There are, of course,
different types of knowledge, are important.
5.2 Knowledge as a base of curriculum development
Knowledge based learning on the other hand aims to build upon the knowledge that
the pupil already has. There are clear learning objectives set out which link to the
activity undertaken, helping the child to see how their existing knowledge will help them
to complete the task.
“knowledge is "the ideas or understandings which an entity possesses that are used to
take effective action to achieve the entity's goal(s). This knowledge is specific to the
entity which created it." Knowledge refers to the sum total of man’s interactions with his
environment and his interpretations of the same. Therefore knowledge is not a unified
whole but is constitutive of different approaches to the understanding of life. The
different approaches to the classification of knowledge suggest different aspects of the
process of knowledge acquisition and hence their significance to the curriculum planner.
29
These different classifications and categorizations have, however, been characterized
differently by different philosophers as ‘disciplines’, ‘forms of knowledge’, ‘realms of
meaning’ and so on. A discipline may be considered as a organized body of knowledge
having a logical structure. It is a network of concepts and generalizations which explain
the relationships among a body of facts. Man learns by seeing relationships among
different events and processes and by generalizing about them. He sees relationships
among different facts and events with the aid of concepts and he conceptualizes by
classifying. However, thinking does not stop at the point of making single concepts or
single generalizations
A knowledge-based curriculum centers on the knowledge gained from the perspective of
the learner. It places great emphasis on developing clear and sound learning objectives.
By organizing the information to be learned into manageable objectives, planners can
then design activities that help learners master the objectives. The planners can
sequence the topics to be dealt with, can choose the appropriate teaching methods, and
can select the necessary instructional resources. Through designing courses in terms of
learning objectives, a curriculum becomes oriented to learning outcomes rather than
simply “covering content.” However, a knowledge-based curriculum done poorly has
major shortcomings. The central question becomes “What are the objectives of this
course?” This emphasis on the development of objectives sometimes leads to
reductionist thinking on the part of planners (and learners). Knowledge becomes broken
down into smaller and smaller pieces.
A knowledge-based curriculum we mean two things:

• The curriculum should have strong, formal foundations in traditional subjects.
• The curriculum should be structured carefully so that students are building on what
they already know.
Understanding of the human brain have confirmed the need for a knowledge-based
curriculum for two reasons:
1. Knowledge frees up your brain’s capacity for thinking cognitive scientists

have found that our brain works at different speeds, depending on whether we
have learned something already, or whether we are relying on “working
memory”. Working memory is new information you can keep in your head. It is
very limited – you can hold between three and seven pieces of new information -
and it is tiring keeping things in your working memory.
2. We learn new things by connecting them to old things-The way in which
the brain stores new information, and makes inferences and discoveries, is by
connecting to existing stored knowledge. You cannot have skills without
knowledge, because you cannot evaluate something you do not know anything
about.
30
https://thehypertextual.com/2012/12/10/ts-eliot-and-the-pyramid-of-
knowledge-in-organisations/
Data is conceived of as symbols or signs, representing stimuli or signals.

Information is defined as data that are endowed with meaning and purpose.
Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, expert

insight and grounded intuition that provides an environment and framework for
evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is
applied in the minds of knowers. In organizations it often becomes embedded not only in
documents and repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices and
norms.
Wisdom is the ability to increase effectiveness. Wisdom adds value, which requires the
mental function that we call judgment. The ethical and aesthetic values that this implies
are inherent to the actor and are unique and personal.
31
The transition from data to wisdom is not an easy path but when it’s achieved, a
curriculum can gain the most value out of its data because students can learn from it
and apply the knowledge and information.
5.3 Teaching a knowledge-based curriculum
• What students are taught should be explicitly linked to what they already know. You
cannot teach multiplication if students do not understand numbers. You cannot teach
evolution if students do not know what a species is.
• It matters if students remember what they learn. For example, if a student is given an
article about World War II, and there is a reference to importance of the Treaty of
Versailles that they discussed the previous term, then the students should know what is
being discussed and why it is relevant
• It matters what students are paying attention to. People learn what they concentrate
on. For example, you could teach Romeo and Juliet by watching the play and discussing
the language that is used; or making a puppet theatre to perform Romeo and Juliet. The
second sounds fun, but in ten hours students will have spent a lot of their time
concentrating on cutting out puppets. Because that is what they are concentrating on,
that is what they will remember. This is not efficient, unless what you meant to do was
teach children to be puppet makers.
• This might seem obvious, but the puppet example is very common in schools and it is
not setting children up well for the future. In the top schools in the country, and in the
best education systems in the world, students are not learning this way
• The irony is that while teachers often try to find complex ways of interesting students
in content because they assume it is too difficult or abstract, the content itself is
fascinating. Think about how excited children get when they learn everything there is to
know about dinosaurs, or football players. The number of facts they learn and want to
share can feel never-ending. A good school teaching knowledge inspires the same
excitement, because children like to feel they are learning and doing well – and when
they can apply their knowledge to the next challenge, there is an enormous sense of
accomplishment. The great thing about knowledge is that with every new fact you learn,
the number of new ideas and connections open to you increases enormously.
• A number of studies2 have shown that “direct instruction” is particularly effective. In
direct instruction teacher deliberately teaches the students, rather than leaving it up to
them to discover the answer. Students only progress to the next concept when they
have mastered the previous one, and they practice a lot to make sure they understand
what they have been taught (this is also how people learn to play musical instruments
well). There is a constant dialogue between the teacher and students in the form of
questions and answers, so that the students do not switch off and the teacher knows if
they are being understood.
32
Exercse
1.Explain why knowledge is considered as fundamental part of education?

2.Explain which levels of knowledge you need to think when you are developing the
curriculum
3.Why is ‘structure of knowledge’ important in curriculum planning? – Explain.
5.4 Principles of curriculum development
A Developmental Approach: Students develop and learn at different rates and in

different ways, constructing new knowledge and understandings in ways which link their
learning to their previous experiences. The developmental approach of the curriculum
framework accommodates these needs. At the same time, it provides students and their
parents with a clear sense of the direction of students’ learning, and through appropriate
assessment and reporting procedures, of how students are progressing.
Related to Society Life: School, college is a miniature form of the society. Thus school,
college should include all those activities which are performed by members of the larger
community other than the members of school and college. This will help students to
develop their social aspect of their and help them to adapt social environment where
they ultimately go.
Integration, breadth and balance: Effective education enables students to make

connections between ideas, people and things, and to relate local, national and global
events and phenomena. It encourages students to see various forms of knowledge as
related and forming part of a larger whole. While opportunities to specialize must be
provided to allow for specific talents and interests, all students need a broad grasp of the
various fields of knowledge and endeavor. They also need experience in building patterns
of interconnectedness, which help them to make sense of their own lives and of the
world.
Inclusivity: The curriculum framework is intended for all students in Indian schools.
Inclusivity means providing all groups of students, irrespective of educational setting,
with access to a wide and empowering range of knowledge, skills and values. It means
recognizing and accommodating the different starting points, learning rates and previous
experiences of individual students or groups of students. it means valuing and including
the understandings and knowledge of all groups. It means providing opportunities for
students to evaluate how concepts and constructions such as culture, disability, race,
class and gender are shaped.
Collaboration and Partnerships Education is the shared responsibility of students,
teachers, parents, tertiary educators and the community. Successful implementation of
the framework requires a collaborative approach to planning by all concerned and
collective responsibility for students’ achievement of the intended outcomes. attention is
given to the importance of maintaining a holistic view of curriculum, the responsibility of
curriculum as a whole for such vital skills as literacy, numeracy and social cooperation,
33
and the need to integrate knowledge, skills and values across all learning areas. The
fundamental role of curriculum in the promotion of students’ enjoyment of learning and
excellence in learning is also emphasized. This statement provides a guide for whole
school planning and review
Curriculum is Dynamic As the society and the social needs change from time to time
there is need for revision of curriculum. No single curriculum is suitable for all the time.
The curriculum has to change in accordance with the change in social strata due to
individual growth, scientific process, technological innovation and social advancement.
Curriculum is related with the Aims and Objectives Aims and objectives of the
people in a society have to be fulfilled through the experiences provided. These
experiences are planned and spelt out in the curriculum
Curriculum Development Implies of a Scientific Process of Education The
different stages involved in the curriculum process viz, objectives, content, experiences,
organization and evaluation makes the curriculum a scientific process. It is no more
based on the rigid tradition but supported by psychological, philosophical and social
consideration.
Curriculum Involves Evaluation Evaluation is a modern concept of the traditional

examination or assessment. Whereas the old system is concerned of the results only, the
evaluation is concerned of the results with reference to aims and objectives. The goals
and aims are balanced in evaluation.
An Explicit Acknowledgement of Core Values People’s values influence their
behaviour and give meaning and purpose to their lives. While there is a range of value
positions in our pluralistic society, there is also a core of shared values.
Depth: There should be chances for pupils to develop their full capacity for different
types of thinking and learning. As they grow, they should develop and apply increasing
intellectual rigor, drawing different strands of learning together, and exploring and
achieving more advanced levels of understanding.
34
Reference
• Ornstein, C and Hunkins, P, (1988). Curriculum Foundations, Principles and

Issues. London, Prentice Hall International Ltd. U.K.
• Pillai, K. K., (1980). Curriculum, teaching and evaluation. Sivakami Printers,
Annamalainagar
• http://www.bdu.ac.in/cde/docs/ebooks/BEd/II/KNOWLEDGE%20AND
%20CURRICULUM.pdf
Exercise
1. Elaborate with examples principles of curriculum.
35
Module2 Models of Curriculum Development
Chapter 1 Hilda Taba‘s model
1.0 Objectives

• Explain the various models of curriculum development.
• Apply models in the development of curriculum.
1.1 Hilda Taba‘s model of curriculum development
Curriculum models Models are used to explain: levels of

curriculum aspects of organization practice aspects of
classroom instruction types of decision making.
Curriculum models are designed to provide a basis for
decisions regarding the selection, structuring and
sequencing of the educational experiences
Hilda Taba (7 December 1902 in Kooraste, Estonia – 6
July 1967 in San Francisco, California) was an architect,
a curriculum theorist, a curriculum reformer, and a Hilda
Taba believed that there must be a process for
evalutating student achievement of content after the
content standards have been established and
implemented. The main concept of this approach to
curriculum development is that teachers must be
involved in the development of the curriculum. She
believed that the curriculum should be organized around generlized learning objectives
which enables students to discover principles that will enable them to be successfully.
Hilda Taba's theory of curriculum development is considered a more grassroots,
inductive approach than other traditionalist models.
• https://curriculumgals.wikispaces.com/Taba+Model
• https://www.reference.com/education/difference-between-ralph-tyler-s-hilda-
taba-s-theory-curriculum-469b3e1a3b4f6355
Hilda Taba‘s model
Taba advocated for teachers to design the curriculum, rather than higher authorities
dictating the curriculum to the teachers. She also believed curriculum was best designed
inductively, starting with specifics and building up to a more general design.
36
• Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the
process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is planned.
For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically. This includes
achievement understanding students' backgrounds, cultures, motivational
patterns, how they learn socially, and what cultural capital they bring from home
to the classroom. This also includes interpersonal relationships, the classroom
climate, and group values.
Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the
process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is planned.
For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically.
• Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified needs that require
attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished. objectives should
describe the kind of behavior expected, and the content to which the behavior
applies if one is attempting to create clear objectives. She elaborated by stating,
“objectives are developmental, representing the roads to travel rather than
terminal points” Teachers, in her opinion, would use the objectives as a blueprint
of sorts, then, as a guide to what they are building with their students.
Basic knowledge – Concepts and generalizations

• Thinking
– Concept formation
– Inductive development of generalizations
– Application of principles
• Attitudes, feelings and sensitivities
• Academic and social skills
37
• Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject
matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content match, but
also the validity and significance of the content chosen needs to be determined. i.e. the
relevancy and significance of content. The students need to be involved; they must be
able to make the content their own. the learners need to be able to connect to the
curriculum. If they are unable to do so, the content is meaningless in their world. The
students must employ their own experiences and background knowledge to build upon
when learning new material.
• Basic concepts
• Main ideas
• Specific facts
• Patterns for organizing content
• Organization of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must

organize it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity of learners,
their academic achievement, and their interests. Selection of learning experiences:
Content must be presented to students and students must be engaged with the content.
At this point, the teacher selects instructional methods that will involve the students
with the content.
• Sequence of learning experiences for cognitive development

• Sequence of learning experiences for affective development
• Organization of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and

organized, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning activities
is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind the particular
students whom he or she will be teaching It also includes direct instruction,
discovery/inquiry, cooperative learning, programmed instruction.
• Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must determine

just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be
designed to evaluate learning outcomes. Teachers will determine which objectives
have been accomplished.
• Diagnosis
• A range of instruments to evaluate whether objectives have been achieved
http://tspoetter.weebly.com/uploads/9/5/8/7/9587563/smith_taba.pdf
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: theory and practice. New York, NY:
Harcourt, Brace & World. Taba, H. (1971). Teacher’s handbook for elementary social
studies. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of
curriculum and instruction. Chicago, I
38
Sheela is working with NGO, who works for Adivasi children she wants to develop
curriculum to teach them basic mathematics how you will guide her to develop
curriculum by Hilda Tabas model.
39
Chapter 2 Ralph Tyler‘s model
2.1 Introduction
Ralph W. Tyler (1902–1994) was an American educator who

worked in the field of assessment and evaluation. Born in Chicago in
1902, reared and schooled in Nebraska, the 19-year-old college
graduate Ralph Tyler became "hooked on teaching" while filling in as
a science teacher in South Dakota and switched his career plans
from medicine to education. Many years later, he became an
octogenarian "guru," cries-crossing the country to advise teachers
and administrators on how to set objectives that foster the best
teaching and learning within their schools. Ralph W. Tyler’s
innovative approach to curriculum design and evaluation has made him one of the most
influential men in American education. The Tyler Model, developed by Ralph Tyler in the
1940's, is the quintessential prototype of curriculum development in the scientific
approach. ... Originally, he wrote down his ideas in a book Basic Principles
of Curriculum and Instruction for his students to give them an idea about principles for
to making curriculum.
2.2 Ralph Tyler‘s model
Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles (Tyler’s Rationale)

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
Sources Sources Sources
40
Student Society Subject
Tentative general objectives
Screen Screen
Philosophy of Psychology of
Education Learning
Precise
Instructional
Objective
This model is linear in nature, starting from objectives and ending with evaluation.
Step one is determining the objectives of the school or class. what do the
students need to do in order to be successful? Each subject has natural objectives that
are indicators of mastery. All objectives need to be consistent with the philosophy of the
school objectives Tyler referred objectives as “goals”, “educational objectives”, and
“educational purposes”. The curriculum worker must begin analyzing data relevant to
student needs and interest. These are educational, social, occupational, physical,
psychological and recreational. He recommended observations by teachers, interviews
with students, interviews with parents, questionnaires and tests as techniques for
collecting data about students.
• Objectives form the basis for the selection and organization of learning
experiences.
• Objectives form the basis for assessing the curriculum.
• Objectives are derived from the learner, contemporary life and subject specialist
41
While determining the purpose consider Societal needs and Student Needs
Developing Objectives are description of a performance you want learners to be able
to exhibit before you consider them competent. Even describe an intended result of
instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself. Good objectives provide students
with a means to organize their own efforts toward accomplishment of those objectives
For example, a school that is developing an English curriculum create an objective that
students will write essays. This would be one of many objectives within the curriculum.
Step two is developing learning experiences that help the students to achieve step
one. Learning experiences should cover three domains
Tyler outlines four general categories of possible learning experience:

• Development of thinking skills
• Acquisition of information;
• Development of social attitudes
• Development of student interests
For example, if students need to meet the objective of writing an essay. The learning
experience might be a demonstration by the teacher of writing an essay. The students
then might practice writing essays.
42
Step three is organizing the experiences.
Should the teacher demonstrate first or should the students learn by writing
immediately? Either way could work and preference is determined by the philosophy of
the teacher and the needs of the students. The point is that the teacher needs to
determine a logical order of experiences for the students.
step four is evaluation of the objectives. Evaluation is a process by which one

matches the initial expectation with the outcomes. It should be done through:-
Follow up studies
Graduating student interviews
Program Reviews
For example, the teacher could have the students write an essay without assistance. If
they can do this, it is evidence that the students have achieve the objective of the lesson
Points to remember
• Watch video Ralph Tyler Curriculum Model - YouTube

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J_JJnDgU7lU Jan 31, 2016 - Uploaded by
Ryan Dellos
43
Chapter 3 Wheelers model and Hunkin‘s
Decision- Making model
3.1 Introduction
D.k wheeler was a former member of the University of Western

Australia, Wheeler developed and extended the ideas forwarded by
Tyler and particularly Taba. He suggested five inter-related phases
in the curriculum process which logically would produce an effective
curriculum. Wheeler’s Model Wheeler’s model for curriculum design
is an improvement upon Tyler’s model. Instead of a linear model,
Wheeler developed a cyclical model. Evaluation in Wheeler’s model
is not terminal. Findings from the evaluation are fed back into the
objectives and the goals, which influence other stages. Wheeler
curriculum model is defined as a plan of action that can be
employed to structure a subject or knowledge area from a theory
into practice. In Wheeler Model, curriculum is a continuous cycle
responding to the changes within education where any new
information or practice will bring changes. It undertakes situational analysis whereby the
context or situation in which curriculum decisions are to be taken is thoroughly studied.
This help curriculum developers take correct decisions thus encouraging active
participation of staffs in school based curriculum.
3.2 Wheelers model
This model is comprised of five interconnected stages:

1. Aims, goals and objectives
2. Selection of learning experiences
3. Selection of content
4. Organisation and integration of learning experiences and content
5. Evaluation
Steps of wheeler’s model
44
Step one
Aims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end product of learning which
yields the ultimate goals. One can think of these ultimate goals as outcomes. Aims cover
all the experiences in the curriculum.
Step two
Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning. This results
in the formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a terminal level. objectives cover
more specific out come of learning experience.
Step three
learning experiences These are the activities planned to to engage the learner with
expected behavior change
Step four
Content is distinguished from the learning experiences. Content. Is what we teach it

must be related to validity significance and interesting.
Step five
Evaluation is not final step in wheelers model. If objectives are not achieved then
changes are made and curriculum is re implemented
This model shows a cyclic and continuous process, which indicates that the curriculum
development should always be from one step to another; it should be in motion and
never stop. Wheeler’s model is regarded as dynamic rather than a static one which involves
the curriculum planner and the teacher in a series of continuous decision taking processes
about a whole range of factors. Wheeler suggests that this process should be used in all
curriculum development at any level, because of its wide applicability
WATCH THIS VIDEO
• Wheeler Curriculum Night

• https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wheeler%27s+model+of+curric
ulum+development
• Wheeler, D.K. (1967). Curriculum process. London, University of London Press.
• http://breda-guide.tripod.com/module3.htm
3.3 Hunkin‘s Decision- Making model
Hunkins (2009) emphasis that curriculum development encompasses how a ‘curriculum

is planned, implemented and evaluated, as well as what people, processes and
procedures are involved..’. Curriculum models help designers to systematically and
transparently map out the rationale for the use of particular teaching, learning and
assessment approaches. Hunkins suggests that although curriculum development models
are technically useful, they often overlook the human aspect such as the personal
attitudes, feelings, values involved in curriculum making. Therefore they are not a recipe
and should not be a substitute for using your professional and personal judgement on
what is a good approach to enhancing student learning.
45
Hunkin‘s decision- making model (Technical scientific model)
First stage: Conceptualization and Legitimization. In this stage participants are
demanded to engage in deliberation regarding the nature of the curriculum. This stage
stresses understanding the nature and power of curriculum. It also confronts the various
conceptions of curriculum. In order for this deliberation to be successful, social contexts,
such as power politics, social and cultural views, have to be understood and deliberated.
At this stage views of curriculum and its purposes must be legitimized. This is not any
easy process; but is the most important.
Second stage: Diagnosis. This stage has two major tasks; translating needs into causes
and creating goals and objectives from the needs. To begin this process educators
develop needs analysis depending on the curriculum and the needs of the students. The
needs analysis is derived from student data. When a curriculum is approved and
becomes acceptable goals and objectives are generated to serve as guidelines.
Third stage: Content Selection section deals with the “what” that is to be taught or
learned. The content refers to the “stuff” of the curriculum. Content or the “what” refers
to the procedures students learn to apply knowledge and skills dealing with facts,
concepts, principles, theories and generalizations.
Fourth stage: Experience selection At this stage teachers will decide what materials
will be utilized.
Fifth stage: Implementation. After the objectives/goals, content and instruction have
been approved, is the next stage, implementation. Curriculum Implementation has two
stages. Curriculum Implementation has two stages.
• The first stage is initial piloting to work out any minor problems
• the second stage is the final diffusion stage. The final diffusion of the program is
where a management system is set up to ensure the curriculum is ready to be
delivered and experienced by the student.
Sixth stage: Evaluation is the next stage. This stage continues as long as the
program is in effect. The purpose of evaluation is to furnish data to continue to modify,
or discontinue the program.
Seventh stage: Curriculum Maintenance. Curriculum Maintenance is the methods
and means by which the implemented program is managed to assure its continual
functioning.
46
The Hunkin’s Decision-making Model has a unique feature called the feedback and
adjustment loop. This loop allows decision makers to refer back to previous stages to
make changes and any modifications. This loop contextualizes the process of creating
and implementing curriculum. This aspect of the model addresses many critics of
technical models who say that technical models are not related to the times or context in
which decisions about curriculum are made.
• Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. (2004). Curriculum foundations: Principles and

theory (4th ed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
• http://image.slidesharecdn.com/ci6112curriculummodels-141116200930-
conversion-gate02/95/ci6112-curriculum-models-11-638.jpg?cb=1426694134
• Fink‘s model of integrated course design
47
Chapter 4 Weinstein and Fantini model
4.1 Introduction
Gerald Weinstein and Mario Fantini (1970) link socio-psychological factors with cognition
so learners can deal with their problems and concerns. For this reason, these authors
consider their model a “curriculum of affect.”
Weinstein and Fantini model
Learner concern diagnose organize Content learning Teaching

Out
vehicle
come
First step: identify the learners, their age, grade level, and common cultural and
ethnic characteristics. Weinstein and Fantini are concerned with the group, as opposed to
individuals, because most students are taught in groups. Therefore, knowledge of
common characteristics and interests is considered prerequisite to differentiating and
diagnosing individual problems.
second step: the school determines the learners :-

• concerns- Student concerns include the needs and interests of the learners,
self-concepts, and self-image. Because concerns center on broad and persistent
issues, they give the curriculum some consistency over time.
• Diagnosis-Through diagnosis, the teacher attempts to develop strategies for
instruction to meet learners’ concerns. Emphasis is on how students can gain
greater control over their lives and feel more at ease with themselves.
• organizing ideas- the teacher should select themes and topics around learners’
concerns rather than on the demands of subject matter. The concepts and skills
to be taught should help the learners cope with their concerns.
Third step: content is organized around three major principles, or what Weinstein and
Fantini call vehicles: life experiences of the learners, attitudes and feelings of the
learners, and the social context in which they live. These three types of content influence
the concepts, skills, and values that are taught in the classroom, and they form the basis
for the “curriculum of affect.”
• learning skills include the basic skill of learning how to learn which in turn
increases learners’ coping activity and power over their environment. Learning
skills also help students deal with the content vehicles and problem solving in
different subject areas. Self-awareness skills and personal skills are
recommended, too, to help students deal with their own feelings and how they
relate to other people.
• Teaching procedures are developed for learning skills, content vehicles, and
organizing ideas. Teaching procedures should match the learning styles on their
common characteristics and concerns
• Evaluation the teacher evaluates the outcomes of the curriculum: cognitive and
affective objectives.
48
4.2 Fink‘s model of integrated course design
Dee is currently working as a consultant in higher education.

Previously he was the founding director of the Instructional
Development Program at the University of Oklahoma (1979-2005).
Dee has been active in the POD Network [Professional and
Organizational Development] in Higher Education, the largest faculty
development organization in the United States. He has received two
awards for teaching: The University of Oklahoma recipient of the
national teaching award presented by the American Association of
Higher Education (AAHE), the Jaime Escalante "Stand and Deliver"
Award, April, 1989. Outstanding Faculty Award, College of Liberal
Studies, University of Oklahoma, 1992.
Fink‘s model of integrated course design
Fink’s model challenges educators to not only articulate intended course goals but to
ensure that assignments, activities, and assessments all lead to the achievement of
those goals. He also highlights the presence of situational factors, which are contextual
issues in any given course environment that could affect the learning. These could
include but are not limited to: the age of students, their prior knowledge of the subject
matter, and the size of the room.
https://sites.temple.edu/edviceexchange/files/2013/10/fink_coursedesign.p
ng
Fundamental Features
• Goals are the final learning results of a semester-long experience. Teachers
should ask themselves: “What will students learn or be able to do once they complete
my course?”
• Activities are the teaching strategies and learning experiences that comprise
the day-to-day of the course. In the best courses, each element is used to prepare
students to successfully complete the assessments. What do the students need to read,
hear, see, practice, do if they are to meet the goals measured by the assessments? Fink
49
recommends that activities directly link to the overarching course goal(s) and stimulate
active learning. Examples of classroom activities that Fink provides include debates,
simulations, guided discussion, small group problem solving, and case studies.
• Assessments give students the opportunity to demonstrate where they are in
relation to achieving the course learning goals, and you an opportunity to evaluate the
students’ performance and give feedback
INITIAL DESIGN PHASE: Build Strong Primary Components

Step1. Identify important situational factors
• Give careful consideration to a variety of SITUATIONAL FACTORS

• What is the special instructional challenge of this particular course?
• What is expected of the course by students?
• By the department, the institution, the profession, society at large?
• How does this course fit into the larger curricular context?
This process starts at the “end” of the learning process and works “back” toward the
beginning. Use information about the Situational Factors box
Step 2. Identify important learning goals
• Learning Goals are What do you want students to learn by the end of the
course, that will still be with them several years later?
• Think expansively, beyond “understand and remember” kinds of learning.
• Use the taxonomy of “Significant Learning” BY Dee finks
Dee Fink’s Toxonomy
Step 3 Formulate appropriate feedback and assessment procedures

• What will the students have to do, to demonstrate that they have achieved
the learning goals ?
• Think about what you can do that will help students learn, as well as give
you a basis for issuing a course grade.
50
• Consider ideas of “Educative Assessment.”
Step 4 Select effective teaching/learning activities
• What would have to happen during the course for students to do well on
the Feedback & Assessment activities?
• Think creatively for ways of involving students that will support your more
expansive learning goals.
• Use “Active Learning” activities, especially those related to: “Rich Learning
Experiences” experiences in which students achieve several kinds of
significant learning simultaneously “In-depth Reflective Dialogue”
opportunities for students to think and reflect on what they are learning,
how they are learning, and the significance of what they are learning.
• Assemble these activities into an effective instructional strategy, i.e., an
interdependent sequence of learning activities, and a coherent course
structure
Step 5. Make sure the primary components are integrated

Check to ensure that the key components (Steps 1-4) are all consistent
with, and support each other
PHASE 2 INTERMEDIATE DESIGN PHASE:

Step 5 Assemble the Components into a Coherent Whole
Step 6 Create a thematic structure for the course

Creating a course structure simply means dividing the semester into 4 to 7 segments
that focus on the key concepts, issues, or topics that constitute the major foci of the
course. Then you arrange these concepts or topics into a logical sequence and decide
how many weeks or class sessions to allocate to each one value of doing this is seeing
more readily how to create questions or assignments for students that gradually become
more complex and more challenging
Identify 4 to 7 major concepts, issues, or topics for your course. What is the appropriate
sequence for introducing these to the students? What initial ideas do you have for
assignments or problems that would reflect the increasing complexity of the subject as
students move from topic to topic?
Step 7 Select or create an instructional strategy
Important conceptual distinction needs to be made between teaching techniques and an
instructional strategy. A teaching technique is a discrete, specific teaching activity.
Lecturing, leading discussions, setting up small group work all are teaching techniques.
An instructional strategy, on the other hand, is a set of learning activities, arranged in a
particular sequence so that the energy for learning increases and accumulates as
students go through the sequence.
This usually requires, among other things, that you set up some activities that (a) get
students ready or prepared for later work
(b) give them opportunities to practice—with prompt feedback—doing whatever it is you
want them to learn to do,
(c) assess the quality of their performance,

(d) allow them to reflect on their learning.
51
Step 8 Integrate the course structure and the instructional strategy to create
an overall scheme of learning activities.
PHASE3 FINAL DESIGN PHASE: Finish Important Remaining Tasks
Step 9 Develop the grading system

Develop your grading system. It should reflect the full range of learning goals and
activities, but it is also important to remember that you do NOT have to grade
everything. In addition, the relative weight of each item as it affects the course grade
should reflect the relative importance of that activity.
• What are the key components of your grading system?
• What will be the relative weight of the grade components? Are you going to
determine that yourself, or will you involve the class in this process?
Step 10 De-Bug possible problems

What Could Go Wrong? Now "de-bug" the design by analyzing and assessing your "first
draft” of the course. Among other things, this means checking for possible problems. For
example: Will the students have time to do their out-of-class assignments? Will they be
able to obtain the necessary resources? (e.g., How many students will be trying to
obtain reading material reserved in the library at the same time?)
• What problems might arise in the course design as you envision it at this time?
What might you do to solve these problems?
Step 11 Write the course syllabus

Let Students Know What You Are Planning (Syllabus) Now it is the time to write the
syllabus.
This should include, among other things:
• General management information—instructor, office hours, phone, etc.

• Goals for the course Structure and sequence of class activities, including due
dates for major assignments/tests/projects Text and other required reading
material Grading procedures
• Course policies: attendance, Honor Code, work turned in late, make-up exams,
etc.
Step 12 Plan an evaluation of the course and of your teaching

It is very important to plan an evaluation of the course itself and of your own
teaching. This is the only way you can get the information and insights you need
in order to make the course better and to improve your own teaching over time
• video/audio tape of the class sessions

• student ratings of instruction
• student interviews and/or questionnaires
• outside observers
• test results of students
52
Exercise
1. Hilda Tabas model of curriculum development is also known as grassroot model of

curriculum development Explain with example
2. How tyler’s model of curriculum development is different from Tabas model of

curriculum development ?
3. Develop 1credit course for teaching health and hygiene to street children using
wheeler’s model
4. Develop curriculum for any course of your choice by using Hunkin’s decision
making model
5. Explain with example steps of Weinstein and Fantini model.
6. Develop curriculum to teach environmental awareness to STD VIII students .
53
Module 3 Curriculum Transaction
Chapter 1 Planning Curriculum implementation
1.0 Objectives

• Explain the principles and criteria for developing learning opportunities.

• Explain the use of ICT in curriculum transaction
1.1 Introduction
Curriculum implementation entails putting into practice the officially prescribed courses
of study, syllabuses and subjects. The process involves helping the learner acquire
knowledge or experience. It is important to note that curriculum implementation cannot
take place without the learner. The learner is therefore the central figure in the
curriculum implementation process. Implementation takes place as the learner acquires
the planned or intended experiences,
knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learner to
function effectively in a society A planning process to implement the curriculum
statement based on student's needs The needs of learners should be considered within
the contexts of:
• Their current physical, social, intellectual, and emotional development

• The classroom and school environment
• The special nature of their communities

• A wider knowledge about the health status, needs, and physical activity patterns
of children, adolescents, and adults.
Each subject can be broken down into a number of modules. The teacher might need
to translate these modules into concrete learning targets for actual teaching in the
classroom. It will be beneficial to the children if these learning targets are defined in
terms of different types of outcomes.
54
1.2 Planning Curriculum implementation
step1: Specifying Learning Targets in behavioural terms All learning targets

should be expressed in observable behaviour or skills
step 2 : Setting Teaching Priorities A very important part of curriculum implementation

is that the teacher should consider carefully the order in which learning targets should be
learnt. It is logical to put learning targets requiring lower level skills before those
requiring higher level skills,
step 3: Specifying Baseline Assessment Procedures This is to identify the current

skill level or the pre-requisite skills of the children.
Step 4: Select teach target skills effectively following teaching approaches are
used
The following are ways to teach target skills
Prompting This skill can be used at any stage of the programme. There are various
kinds of prompts : physical guidance, physical prompts, gestures, verbal prompts, eye
pointing, etc. Prompts should only be used when required and should be faded out as
soon as the children demonstrate certain degree of mastery.
Shaping This refers to the increase in precision in the behaviour to be performed. It
involves successive approximation of the target behaviour.
55
Fading This means gradual removal of the various prompts as the children begin to
master the target behaviour. At the initial stage, the teacher can use prompts with more
help .Then at a later stage , he can use prompts with less help
Generalization When the children know how to apply the knowledge or skills they have
acquired to new situations, they have achieved generalization. The ultimate purpose of
generalization is to reinforce the children's social adjustment.
Step 5 Organization of Resources

• Successful curriculum implementation also depends upon the effective utilization
of resources in the school and in the community, particularly human resources.
• All members of staff can contribute to curriculum implementation in terms of

knowledge and experience. Through regular contacts with the children, the
teacher can identify the range of knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes which
need to be developed in them.
• . Parents are also valuable resources of the school. They should be encouraged to
participate in curriculum implementation and to follow-up at home on what their
children have learnt at school, thus reinforcing their learning.
• The effective use of space in the school helps to develop in the children an
awareness, understanding and appreciation of their surroundings. Physical
constraints can be overcome by careful planning and flexible utilization of
teaching bases and common areas. Arrangements within the classroom can be
varied to suit different teaching purposes.
• Community resources should be utilized for teaching purposes as well.

Appropriate use of these resources will help to enhance the children's
understanding of the people around them, their role in society and the
relationship between people and their environment. Therefore, facilities available
in the community should be used or introduced to the children to enrich their life
experiences.
Step 6 Classroom Arrangements

• Classroom arrangements should provide a favourable environment and
atmosphere conducive to learning. This requires good planning in the use of
space, arrangement of furniture, display of learning materials, etc. Flexibility
should be allowed so that the arrangements can vary according to the type of
learning activity adopted at the time. For example, desks and chairs can be
arranged in groups rather than in straight lines so that the children can work in
groups of various sizes according to their different abilities and learning needs.
• To enhance the learning environment, display boards are valuable display areas
for the children's work, group projects, charts, diagrams, photos, cut-outs from
newspapers or magazines, etc. all of which have much to contribute to the
children's learning and enhance their sense of achievement. The following is an
example of classroom arrangements.
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Step 7 Assessment
• A well-structured curriculum should enable the school to follow a procedure of

teaching intervention, incorporating assessment, programme planning and
evaluation. To achieve this aim, criterion-referenced assessment designed by the
teacher is recommended.
• Assessment should not be seen as something external to the learning process or

something added on at the end of a learning sequence simply for administrative
purposes or as a means of reporting to parents.
Monitoring and evaluation:-
For successful implementation Monitoring is necessary. It can be defined

as a continuous or periodic check and overseeing by those responsible for the
course at every level. It should focus attention on processes and performance
with the objective of drawing attention to particular features that may require
corrective action. It includes putting activities in place to ensure that input
deliveries, work plans, expected output and other actions are proceeding
according to plans. Monitoring should enable curriculum planners to detect
serious setbacks or bottlenecks of the implementation process that may cause the
programme not to achieve expected learning outcomes
Evaluation is a system of feedback, providing information to planners,

teachers/trainers, students, parents and decision-makers.
1.2 Criteria for selecting learning opportunities
Developing an understanding-based materials/ Learning activities selection process is

important, because curriculum materials often help to determine what teachers are able
to do and are likely to do in the classroom.
Criteria 1 –Do the materials focus on big ideas and/or essential questions? Curriculum
materials and textbooks that are understanding-based usually identify the “big ideas”
developed through the materials and often include essential questions for each chapter
or unit. Unfortunately, many materials have a limited focus on big ideas and/or essential
questions, or write questions for each unit that are not really essential in nature.
Criteria 2 – Do the materials contain effective and engaging activities?

.Are the activities designed to insure the successful mastery of understanding? Do they
help students to engage in inquiry into essential questions? Do they help students to
explain and explore their understanding on a regular basis? Are many of the activities
“constructivist” in nature –that is, require continual interactions between teachers and
students and require students
Criteria 3 – Do the learning opportunities require learners to be thoughtful,
reflective, and use high level skills?

Understanding based materials constantly ask students to think and reflect –
to explain their solutions to problems, to interpret data, the apply their

knowledge to new situations, to explore diverse perspectives, to empathize with others,
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and to learn more about themselves (self-knowledge) and so on. The six facets are
continually woven into the fabric of the materials through both assessments and
instructional strategies
Criteria 4 – Do the learning opportunities include valid and varied assessments
- both traditional and performance-based?
Many materials vary in the nature and types of suggested assessments. However, it is
rare to find many materials that incorporate both traditional multiple choice, true-false,
sentence completion assessments along with more open-ended and thoughtful
understanding-based assessments, such as writing prompts, performance tasks, and
reflective journals.
Criteria 5 – Do the learning opportunities continually revisit big ideas?

A good understanding based curriculum revisits the same ideas and develops them
overtime in more complex ways. . For example, a good understanding based
mathematics curriculum will examine spatial relationships in more complex ways as
students progress
Criteria 6: Do the materials reflect a “developmentally appropriate” approach to
student learning?
Understanding based curricula appropriately challenge students and provide rigorous
academic learning that are developmentally appropriate. For example, reading level
formulas are not used to produce sterile reading materials below the level of student
understanding.
Criteria 7 – Are the learning opportunities geared to the diverse abilities,

interests and needs of students?
Good materials support the varied needs of students in a diverse classroom

environment.
The teacher’s guide specifically notes differentiated strategies for various ability levels,
such as choices and options, modifications, accommodations for varied learners, and
appropriate enrichment activities.

Criteria 9 – Do the learning opportunities encourage interdisciplinary
connections?
Effective materials encourage interdisciplinary connections. One way is that they may
integrate big ideas and/or essential questions not only from the discipline being studied
but other disciplines as well.
Criteria 10 – Are outside experiences, including family involvement, part of the
learning experience?
The learning experience should suggest multiple opportunities for connecting the
curriculum to the outside world through authentic learning opportunities Authentic
experiences such as field trips ,interviews, use of real data, etc. are included throughout
the program and are tied to big
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ideas and/or essential questions. The program is organized in such a way that parents
can help their child work on homework that is tied to understanding based learning.
• List what you consider to be the elements in curriculum implementation
• https://www.google.co.in/search?q=Learner-
centered+methods+and+media&espv
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Chapter 2 Use of Learner-centered methods and media
with their strength and limitation
2.1 Introduction
Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered

education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that
shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student.
In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop
learner autonomy and independences by putting
responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students
Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices
that enable lifelong learning and independent problem-
solving .Student-centered learning theory and practice are
based on the constructivist learning theory that emphasizes the learner’s critical role in
constructing meaning from new information and prior experience, This learning moves
students from passive receivers of information to active participants in their own
discovery process. What students learn, how they learn it and how their l
Learner-centered teaching is teaching that:
• Takes students interests into account

• Follows students' passions and capitalizes on their strengths
• Helps students form a strong learning community

• Gets away from the idea of the teacher as the primary expert of the class, and
• Works toward meeting individual students' needs as they grow.
2.2 Learner-centered methods
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• Active Learning earning
Active learning is a student centered approach in which the responsibility for learning is
placed upon the student, often working in collaboration with classmates. In active
learning teachers are facilitators rather than one way providers of information. The
presentation of facts, so often introduced through straight lecture, is deemphasized in
favor of class discussion, problem solving, cooperative learning, and writing exercises.
some of the other examples of active learning techniques include role-playing, case
studies, group projects, think-pair-share, peer teaching, debates, Just-in-Time Teaching,
and short demonstrations followed by class discussion.
Strengths
• Increased content knowledge, critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, and
positive attitudes towards learning in comparison to traditional lecture-based
delivery
• Increased enthusiasm for learning in both students and instructors
• Development of graduate capabilities such as critical and creative thinking,
problem-solving, adaptability, communication and interpersonal skills
• Improving students perceptions and attitudes towards information literacy
Limitations
• Faculty need to be expert in the content area.
• May be difficult to organize active learning experiences.
• Requires more time and energy and may be stressful for faculty.
• Faculty may receive less favorable evaluations from students.
• Students may be stressed because of the necessity to adapt to new ways of
learning
• https://collaborativegrouplearning.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/collaborative-
learning-process-1.png
• http://sydney.edu.au/education_social_work/learning_teaching/ict/theory/collabo
rative_learning.shtml#sthash.l9n45Wok.dpuf
• Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning refers to methodologies and environments in which learners

engage in a common task in which each individual depends on and is accountable to
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each other. It involves use of small groups so that all students can maximise their
learning and that of their peers. It is a process of shared creation: two of more
individuals interacting to create a shared understanding of a concept, discipline or area
of practice that none had previously possessed or could have come to on their own.
Collaborative learning activities can include collaborative writing, group projects, and
other activities. Collaborative learning is a technique teachers use to group students
together to impact learning in a positive way.
Strengths:
• Development of higher-level thinking, oral communication, self-management,
and leadership skills.
• Promotion of student-faculty interaction.
• Increase in student retention, self-esteem, and responsibility.
• Exposure to and an increase in understanding of diverse perspectives.
• Preparation for real life social and employment situations
• Collaboration affects personality: increases openness, conscientiousness,
agreeableness, trust and stability
• Teamwork strengthens community bonds, socialization and both written and
verbal communication
• Collaboration increases measures of achievement
• Group work increases subject matter comprehension, efficiency and productivity
Limitations
• Certain individuals do not feel comfortable participating in a group setting, even

at a distance i.e. shyness, fear of criticism.
• collaborative learning generally grants the students more control over the flow of
information, there is the possibility that the focus of the instruction may veer
from its intended course.
• Problems may result if group members cannot agree or will not compromise. This
can prove to be a huge problem if the group project is to be graded at the group
level.
• It can often be difficult to assemble all members of a particular group at the same
time, especially in a distance-learning environment. This is only a disadvantage
in situations where the collaboration is a mandatory part of the instruction and
not simply an option available to the students.
• The abundance of information that a group generates can prove to be difficult to
compile individually.
• Problem base learning (PBL )

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered
pedagogy in which students learn about a subject
through the experience of solving an open-
ended problem found in trigger material. This is an
approach that challenges students to learn through
engagement in a real problem. It is a format that
simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies
and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing
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students in the active role of problem-solvers confronted with an ill-structured situation
that simulates the kind of problems they are likely to face as future managers in
complex organizations.
Strengths:
1. Development of Long-Term Knowledge Retention

Students who participate in problem-based learning activities can improve their abilities
to retain and recall information,
2. Use of Diverse Instruction Types
problem-based learning activities can be used to the meet the diverse learning needs
and styles of your students, effectively engaging a diverse classroom in the process.
3.Continuous Engagement
Providing a problem-based learning challenge can engage students by acting as a break
from normal lessons and common exercises.
4. Development of Transferable Skills
Problem-based learning can help students develop skills they can transfer to real-world
scenarios,
5. Improvement of Teamwork and Interpersonal Skills

Successful completion of a problem-based learning challenge hinges on interaction and
communication, meaning students should also build transferable skills based
on teamwork and collaboration.
Limitations
1. Potentially Poorer Performance on Tests
Devoting too much time to problem-based learning can cause issues when students take
standardized tests, as they may not have the breadth of knowledge needed to achieve
high scores.
2. Student Unpreparedness
Some students may not display enough maturity to effectively work in a group, not
fulfilling expectations and distracting other students.
3. Time-Consuming Assessment
Monitoring and assessing each individual child is time consuming
4. Varying Degrees of Relevancy and Applicability

It can be difficult to identify a tangible problem that students can solve with content
they’re studying and skills they’re mastering.
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Co-operative learning
Co-operative learning is a teaching
method where students of mixed levels of
ability are arranged into groups and
rewarded according to the group's success,
rather than the success of an individual
member. It is an organized and structured
way to use small groups to enhance
student learning and interdependence.
Students are given a task, better known as
an assignment, and they work together to
accomplish this task. Each individual has responsibilities and is held accountable for
aiding in the completion of the assignment; therefore, success is dependent on the work
of everyone in the group.
Strengths
1. “Cooperative small groups require students to learn from each other through their
interactions.
2. Cooperative small groups have positive effects on students’ interpersonal
relationship in the classroom and can improve attitudes of students of different
races, ethnicities and academic abilities toward one another.
3. Cooperative small groups have a positive effect on achievement and are
particularly effective in promoting conceptual and higher-level learning
4. It has a positive effect on student learning when compared to individual or
competitive conditions.
5. Higher ability students are in a position to be experts, leaders, models and
teachers; lower ability students get the benefits of having higher ability students
in their group
Limitations
1.A burden is making the students responsible for each other’s learning apart from
themselves
2. low-achieving students become passive and do not focus on the task
3. Depending on an individual’s motivation and interest on a particular subject that will

determine how well they would learn
4. The goal of scaffolding is for students to become independent and able to think by
themselves, without the help of others
5. It is difficult for the teacher to be sure that the groups are discussing the academic
content rather than something else.
6. Higher ability students may not experience the stimulation or challenge that they
would with other higher ability students.
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ak0.pinimg.com/736x/e9/60/f6/e960f695f9b8207a1b9b63bdc1010a7e.jpg
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• Inquiry base learning (IBL)
Inquiry" is defined as "a seeking for truth, information, or
knowledge -- seeking information by questioning."
Individuals carry on the process of inquiry from the time
they are born until they die. This is true even though they
might not reflect upon the process. The process of
inquiring begins with gathering information and data
through applying the human senses -- seeing, hearing,
touching, tasting, and smelling. Inquiry based learning is
mainly involving the learner and leading him to
understand. Inquiry here implies on the possessing skills and attitude of yours, which
allows to ask questions about new resolutions and issues while gaining new information.
Strengths
1. IBL is a student-centered and student-lead process. This way they share
responsibility for their own learning
2. IBL cultivates self-motivation and the natural curiosity and desire of individuals to
learn
3. IBL is appropriate for any age group and as students get older, more
sophisticated questioning and research skills are developed
4. The method provides students with opportunities to learn with more freedom and
utilize varied learning styles
5. As students investigate authentic situations IBL offers the opportunity to develop
a range of life skills and job-skills like knowledge creation; team-working;
presentation; IT; problem-solving; creativity; project management
6. The teacher has the role of facilitator, rather than the transmitter of knowledge.
Limitations
1. Students might tend to concentrate more on discussing and debating rather than
on inquiring critically into concepts, ideas or models
2. If students work in groups it may prove difficult to test their level of individual
participation
3. It is time consuming process
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Chapter 3 Use of Learner-centered media
3.1 Introduction
Media complements instructor-led learning by encouraging students to listen to music,

read print materials, or watching a documentary or movie clip. The primary advantage of
this approach is that the instructor takes on the role of a facilitator who helps students
interpret what they are listening to, reading or seeing. Media can also be student-
generated. This approach utilizes asks the student to step into the role of the teacher
and create content that will engage learners and help them to master concepts.
Lastly, social media can also be used to enhance teaching and learning and it includes
varied online technology tools that allow people to communicate easily via the internet to
share information and resources. Teaching media is a tool used by teachers when
teaching to help clarify the subject matter presented to students, and prevent the
occurrence of verbal self-student. Teaching is much use of verbal, would be boring,
instead of teaching would be more interesting if the students delighted in learning, or
pleased because he felt attracted to and understand the lessons he received. Thus,
learning activities will be more effective.
Media can be used to support the following instructional activities:

• Gain attention. A picture on the screen, a question on the board, or music playing as
students enter the room all serve to get the student’s attention.
• Recall prerequisites. Use media to help students recall what they learned in the last
class, so that new material can be attached to and built upon it.
• Present objectives to the learners. Hand out or project the day’s learning objectives.
• Present new content. Not only can media help make new content more memorable,
media can also help deliver new content
• Support learning through examples and visual elaboration. One of the biggest
advantages of media is to bring the world into the classroom when it is not possible to
take the student into the world.
• Elicit student response. Present information to students and pose questions to them,
getting them involved in answering the questions.
• Provide feedback. Media can be used to provide feedback relating to a test or class
exercise.
• Enhance retention and transfer. Pictures enhance retention. Instructional media help
students visualize a lesson and transfer abstract concepts into concrete, easier to
remember objects
. • Assess performance. Media is an excellent way to pose assessment questions for the
class to answer, or students can submit mediated presentations as classroom projects.
3.2 Types of Media
• Real objects and models

• Printed text (books, handouts, worksheets)
• Printed visuals (pictures, photos, drawings, charts, graphs)
• Display boards (chalk, bulletin, multipurpose)
• Interactive whiteboards • Overhead transparencies
• Slides and filmstrips • Audio (tape, disc, voice)
• Video and film (tape, disc)
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• Television (live)
• Computer software
• The Web
Strengths
• Many media sources (feature films, music videos, visualizations, news stories)
have very high production quality capable of showcasing complex ideas in a short
period of time. This helps develop quantitative reasoning.
• Media offers both cognitive and affective experiences. It can provoke

discussion, an assessment of one's values, and an assessment of self if the scenes
have strong emotional content.
• The use of media sources help connect learners with events that are culturally
relevant. As a result, a positive consequence of utilizing media is that instructors
must keep their materials and examples up-to-date.
• News stories can be used to connect theories taught in the classroom with real
world events and policies.
• Films, music, YouTube are a familiar medium to students that helps gain
attention and maintain student interest in the theories and concepts under
discussion. Students can see the theories and concepts in action.
• Analytical skills can be developed by analyzing media using the theories and
concepts they are studying.
• The use of media in the classroom enables students to see concepts and new
examples when they are watching television, listening to music, or are at the
movies with friends.
• Students can experience worlds beyond their own, especially if the media is
sharply different from their local environment.
3.3 ICT as a mode of curricular transaction with their strengths

and limitation
• Computer based learning
• Online learning
• Blended learning
Curriculum Transaction is the effective and desired implementation of the curriculum

contents on the basis of aims and objectives listed in the curriculum. Curriculum
Transaction incorporates effective planning for providing learning experiences for its
learners, organization of planning, administration/implementation of the organized
planning and evaluation of the implementations by the implementer and the experts in
the relevant field. ICTs are transforming the curriculum in a number of ways, and the
kinds of learning activities that promote higher-order thinking skills, which make use of
all sorts of software and online project-based resources are, in turndemanding that
teachers re-think traditional pedagogies. The curriculum is becoming more dynamic and
interactive as a result of the many kinds of ICT-based learning activities, projects and
software applications being developed. Students are being encouraged to engage in
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more independent, collaborative activities, able to work with pupils from schools in other
regions and countries on projects that can cover many curricula objectives
simultaneously.
• Computer based learning
Computer-based learning (CBL) is the term used for any kind of learning with the help of
computers. Computer-based learning makes use of the interactive elements of the
computer applications and software and the ability to present any type of media to the
users. Computer-based learning has many benefits, including the advantage of users
learning at their own pace and also learning without the need for an instructor to be
physically present.
• Drill and Practice

Drill and practice software is generally used the same way that worksheets or flash cards
are used in classrooms. It provides repeated exposure to facts or information, often in a
question or game-type format. Drill and practice software was the most prevalent type
of computer application for many years, since teachers were not quite sure how else
computers could be used. Drill and practice software also fit nicely into a behavioral
approach to teaching and learning since it measured student performance. Drill and
practice software deals primarily with lower-order thinking skills. Drill and practice
applications do not utilize the full power of computers..
• Tutorial
Tutorial software presents concepts or skills and then gives students the opportunity to
practice them. Drill and practice software does not include a teaching component.
Tutorials may be linear or non-linear where they can branch off in one of several
directions based on interest or need. Tutorials are often very interactive. Students do not
just passively sit and read computer screens. Tutorials, like drill and practice software,
capitalize on individualized instruction and adjust the pace and feedback based on the
students’ progress. Students who are absent or who need remediation can often benefit
from using a computerized tutorial, provided one is available that covers what was
missed.
• Problem Solving
Problem solving software allows learners to see the results of their reactions to various
events. Learners manipulate variables, and feedback is provided based on these
manipulations. There is a lot of power to using problem solving applications in the
classroom, provided they match the curriculum. It is sometimes otherwise difficult to
provide feedback based on individual choices students without the computer.
• Simulation
A simulation is a representation or model of a real event, object, or phenomenon where

learners can see the results of their actions. Sometimes it is not practical or feasible to
do the real thing, so a simulation is used to provide experiences that otherwise would be
denied. The difference between simulation software and problem solving software is that
simulation software deals with realistic situations. This is a very powerful application of
computers and the educational community can capitalize on this type of software.
Students are given the power to manipulate aspects of models or situations. They see
the results of their decisions immediately. Simulation software address higher-order
thinking skills.
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• Tool Software
Tool software is the most prevalent computer application used in education right now. It
encompasses all software that can be used as a tool for student learning. The software
itself is not the focus, but rather the student is using it to help them express their
thoughts and show their understanding. As a result, tool software is not tied to a specific
grade or content area. Tool software helps students and teachers to manage
information. The use of tool software in the curriculum is only as effective as the activity
that the teacher develops. Word processors, desktop publishing packages, spreadsheets,
data bases, graphics programs, telecommunications software, and multimedia software
are samples of tool software.
• Computer Programming
This used to be a big category of computer use in the schools, but the emphasis on
programming skills has decreased significantly. Many schools no longer even offer
programming classes, but instead are teaching students to use multimedia and other
computer tools. Logo helps students understand mathematics.
Strengths:
1. Immediate feedback: The immediate feedback provided by interactive terminals

keeps students interacting and eager to keep trying.
2. Active participation: Even weaker students are obliged to participate actively. They
often remain passive in lectures.
3. No annoyance: The computer will wait patiently for an answer and does not express
annoyance with wrong response.
4. Graphics facility: Interactive graphics make it possible to sample many more
illustrations that could easily be shown in a textbook.
5. Mathematical calculations: Mathematical calculations can be done as readily for
realistic examples as for artificially simple class that can be solved analytically.
6. Accurate data: Large volumes of data can be handled with accuracy and without
drudgery.
7. Enrichment of course: The novel technique provides enrichment of course through
added variety.
Limitations
1. poorly designed CAI systems can dehumanize or regiment the educational

experience and thereby diminish student interest and motivation.
2. CAI stem from the difficulty and expense of implementing and maintaining the
necessary computer systems.
3. Student and teachers training in the computer technology is required. This
process can distract from the core educational process.
http://online-learning.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/onlinelearning-e
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• Online learning
Online learning is educational content and instruction that is

delivered via the Internet. Content and instruction are
delivered through a variety of methods including text, audio,
video, simulations and other interactive tools., though some
courses require synchronous communication through video
conferencing.
Synchronous learning occurs with all participants interacting

at the same time, while asynchronous learning is self-paced and allows participants to
engage in the exchange of ideas or information without the dependency of other
participants′ involvement at the same time .Synchronous learning is the exchange of
ideas and information with one or more participants at the same time. Examples are
face-to-face discussion, online real-time live teacher instruction and feedback, Skype
conversations, and chat rooms or virtual classrooms where everyone is online and
working collaboratively at the same time.
In asynchronous online courses, students proceed at their own pace. They have access
to various enrichment courses in online learning, and can participate in college courses,
internships, sports, or work and still graduate with their class. It use technologies such
as email, blogs, wikis, and discussion boards, Students and instructors most often
interact asynchronously (interactions separated by time), through email, discussion
forums and announcements
1. Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL)
It is designed to encourage or require students to work together on learning tasks. CSCL

uses blogs, wikis etc. The collaborative tools also prepare students with technology skills
necessary in today's workforce.
2. Classroom 2.0
Classroom 2.0 refers to online multi-user virtual environments that connect schools
across geographical frontiers. Also known as eTwinning, computer-supported
collaborative learning (CSCL) allows learners in one school to communicate with learners
in another that they would not get to know otherwise, enhancing educational outcomes
and cultural integration.
3. E-learning 2.0
E-learning 2.0 is a type of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) system.
Learning takes place through conversations about content and grounded interaction
about problems and actions. In addition to virtual classroom environments, social
networks have become an important part of E-learning 2.0.
Strengths
• Little or no face-to-face interaction -While this may seem obvious, students have a
tendency to underestimate the impact of never meeting the instructor and other
students in the class.
• Convenient time – People who attend online learning can take up the class
anytime as per their convenience. People who work during the day can take the
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evening classes. Usually, online classes are available 24*7, so that the people can
take the class anytime on any day.
• Save money – Online learning has less cost per credit hour and students are
exempted from the transportation expenses. Individuals who have kids at their
home, can study from home by saving the cost of the child care.
• Reach – Online learning can be accessed with the help of a computer/ laptop and
an internet connection. The use of computers and new technology helps to
improve the technical skills of an individual.
• Flexibility – People can join the online discussions at any time or visit the
classmates or instructors remotely in the chat rooms. Students can study when
they are at the peak of their energy. Course syllabus and materials are always
available online and thus, students do not have to spend their time searching the
materials.
• Immediate results – Most of the online learning technologies combine the online
quizzes and other tools to evaluate the pace of learning rapidly. Feedback is also
received within a span of seconds. Doubts can be clarified through a direct chat
with the instructors.
• Career developments – Students can take up the online course and achieve more
than one degree at a time. They can complete their degree course while they are
working or raising their family. Earning a degree while you are working shows that
you are an ambitious employee and you are ready to face new challenges.
Limitations
• No face to face interaction – The main disadvantage of online learning is the lack
of face to face interaction. Students have a tendency to believe that they would
never meet the instructors or other classmates. There is a less possibility of
building a good and healthy relation with the instructor and classmates.
• More work – Students who pursue e-learning need to devote more number of
hours for their study. Online learning requires a greater amount of reading and
assignments than the traditional classes. They are expected to spend at least 10
hours per week for each online course.
• Self direction – Online learning requires a higher intensity of self direction. One
needs to be active in finding the information that they need. They should ensure
that they are taking the right classes for their career. People who are taking
online learning should plan their time management skills accordingly.
• Less instructional support – Although there are frequent interactions between the
student and the instructor, the students may face the issue of two way
communication or face to face interaction. A lack of communication between the
instructor and the students can create a frustration among the students who are
struggling with their material courses.
• Isolation – Though online learning offers a flexibility, it may also create a sense of
isolation among the students. Online learning is a solo act and it may make the
learners feel that they are completely alone.
• Health related problems – Online learning requires the use of computers for a
long time. It can cause eye-strain, bad posture and several other health effects
on the learner. Before taking up an online course, it is better o go through the
sitting posture and other necessary guidelines.
• Lack of accreditation – Before you enroll in any online course, ensure that the
program accredited.
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• Blended learning
Blended learning is a combination of offline (face-to-face, traditional learning) and online

learning in a way that the one compliments the other. It provides individuals with the
opportunity to enjoy the best of both worlds. Blended learning is often also referred to as
“hybrid” learning, and can take on a variety of forms in online education environments.
While some organizations may only use blended learning techniques on rare occasions,
others might utilize it as a primary teaching method within their curriculum. There are
two key principles commonly associated with blended learning: students who can share
information and work with other students directly in a collaborative setting have a more
enriched learning experience, and collaboration between students can be improved upon
if group activities rely on information gathered from online resources or lessons. It's also
been suggested that students who complete online coursework followed by interactive,
face-to-face class activities have richer educational experiences.
• Strengths
Successful evaluations
It can be time-consuming to evaluate every student in a face-to-face classroom; print

the tests, grade each individually by hand, and the process goes on. Instead, create
evaluations online, to make the deployment, grading and tracking process simpler.
Increased student engagement

To use blended learning tactic effectively, require students to complete assignments,
presentations, or tests before moving on to the remaining portion of the course.
Better communication
Adding an online component to your teaching improves communication with your

students. Not only can you still communicate face-to-face, but you can also have
(automatic) email notifications as well as built-in bulletins for the student you and each
other.
Flexible accessibility
Being online allows you to be available and make materials accessible anywhere,
anytime. Instead of having a set classroom time or office hours, you and your students
can access the course content whenever they need to. This allows you to grade
whenever you have a spare minute and gives students a chance to engage with content
when they leave the classroom.
Collaboration
Online assignments, course commenting and discussion boards naturally encourage

student collaboration. In a blended learning classroom, you have the best of both worlds,
with both online and offline teamwork opportunities.
Improved efficiency
Many instructors find their overall efficiency improves in a blended learning classroom. If
you set up your lessons correctly, you can have students watch the lecture and read any
necessary assignments on their own time, making room for discussions or Q/A during
class time.
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Tracking and reporting
One of the greatest benefits of online learning, especially through an LMS, is data
tracking and reporting. LMSs have the ability to track each step the student takes
throughout the course, including logins, time tracking and grading.
Save money
What will all these features cost you? While the LMS can be expensive up front, you’ll
save money that’s normally spent on resources and supplies
Save time Not only will you save money, but you’ll also save time. Using online learning
materials allows you to spend less time lecturing in-class, supervising assessments, and
grading
• Limitations
The Technology Can Be Challenging Rather Than Useful.

One of the key issues is the technological literacy, which can be a real problem for
teachers. Not all digital resources are reliable and easy to use.
Blended Learning Makes Teachers over work
There is a great deal of additional work for teachers involved in all stages of blended
learning. They have to broaden their horizons, pick the most suitable syllabus, and apply
significantly more time and effort to find the right balance between online and face-to-
face learning. Unfortunately, not all of them are willing to do so.
Students Can Experience Cognitive load
With a great range of possibilities provided by the blended learning model, teachers may
start overdoing with educational activities and content.
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Chapter 4 Models of Curriculum Implementation
4.1 Introduction
This model focuses on gaining advocates and sharing power equally between
administrators and teachers. The ORC model focuses on allowing for the personal needs
of the teachers to be addressed through maintaining high flexibility in the
implementation. The ORC model focuses on change from the perspective of the teacher.
4.2 ORC MODEL
Change involves a reaction. For the ORC model the reaction involves four clear steps.
Every teacher may not go through these four stages. However, these stages help to
explain what a leader can anticipate when trying to implement curriculum
Stage 1: Unrelated Concerns

The first stage is a stage of indifference. A teacher is aware change but do not see how it
relates to their own life. As such the teacher is not worried about whatever innovation is
coming. An example might be hearing about efforts to bring online learning to a school.
The teacher knows this innovation is out their but it has not impacted them yet.
Stage 2: Personal Concerns
The teacher is now concerned with how the new innovation or curriculum will impact
their life personally. For example, a Language teacher wrestling with how using online
learning will affect what they are trying to do in the classroom.
Stage 3: Task-Related Concerns

In stage 3, the teacher is thinking about how to use the new curriculum or innovation.
Questions begin to go through their head in terms of application. For example, the
teacher may wonder about such problems as how much time will it take to learn this?
What are the best ways to use this new innovation? What kind of support will I get?
These are just some of the many questions that are possible.
Stage 4: Impact-Related Concerns

Now the teacher has taken their focus of their performance and are now worried about
how this will affect students. At this stage, teachers are focusing on their students,
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peers, and school. For example, teachers start to wonder how online learning will benefit
the students. A teacher may start to wonder how other teachers are doing as they try to
use this new innovation. The shift here is from self to others.
Exercise
• Principal of Adarsha Vidyalay wants to introduce sex education in the school

analyze teachers reactions according to ORC model
• http://iresearcher.org/P4,%2039-48.pdf
• http://iresearcher.org/P4,%2039-48.pdf
4.3 Linkage model
The linkage model attempts to unify and integrate the three preceding models by
emphasizing the need to link procedures and agencies in a harmonious way. This could
be done by connecting agencies that can offer resources to users, and link them up with
more remote resource agents. These resources could consist of curriculum materials
from a central agency, consultancy or information about other users with related
experiences or interests. The linkage model shows how the various sets of guidelines are
interrelated, or “linked,” to help faculty better understand the competencies and develop
appropriate goals, objectives, and evaluation strategies. Linkage models encompass
elements of the problem solving, and social interaction models. An agent within the
system has an interest both within and outside the system, thereby serving as a link.
Stages involved in linkage models include the following: identification: a problem is
identified and defined; communication: communication channels linking the system to
outside resources are established; research: external information and/or skills bearing
on the problem defined are sought out and acquired; solution: with the assistance of the
external resource, a solution to the problem is identified or designed; implementation:
the solution is applied; and evaluation: the applied solution is monitored, often in
collaboration with the external resource, and appropriate action follows if necessary.
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• Enabling stakeholders - have some control and authority over the organization,
such as stockholders, directors, elected officials, governmental legislators and
regulators, and so on. These stakeholders provide an organization with resources
and necessary levels of autonomy to operate. When enabling relationships falter, the
resources can be withdrawn and the autonomy of the organization limited, restricted,
or regulated.
• Functional stakeholders are essential to the operations of the organization and
are divided between input—providing labor and resources to create products or
services (such as teaching staff, non -teaching staff and suppliers)—and output—
receiving the products or services (such as students and parents ).
• Normative stakeholders are associations or groups with which the organization
has a common interest. These stakeholders share similar values, goals, or problems
and often can include competitors that belong to industrial associations.
• Diffused stakeholders are the most difficult to identify because they include
publics who have infrequent interaction with the organization, and become involved
based on the actions of the organization. These are the publics that often arise in
times of a crisis; linkages include the media, the community, activists, and other
special interest groups
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Exercise
1. Explain with example implementation of linkage model

2.classify following in to appropriate linkage: Parents, school peon ,clerk, education
minister, education inspector, text book suppliers, Neighboring schools , corporate,
sarpanch, education officer, student union, teachers unions department of education
4.4 Factors influencing effective curriculum implementation
Teacher
Teachers role in curriculum implementation as an autonomous one. They select and
decide what to teach from the prescribed syllabus or curriculum. Since implementation
takes place through the interaction of the learner and the planned learning opportunities,
the role and influence of the teacher in the process is important.
Learners
Learners are also a critical element in curriculum implementation. While teachers are the
arbiters of the classroom practice, the learners hold the key to what is actually
transmitted and adopted from the official curriculum. The learner factor influences
teachers in their selection of learning experiences, hence it is important to consider the
diverse characteristics of learners in curriculum implementation.
physical facilities
physical facilities such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops, libraries and sports fields
in order to create an environment in which implementation can take place. The
availability and quality of resource material and the availability of appropriate facilities
have a great influence on curriculum implementation.
Interest Groups
These groups can influence implementation in the following ways :-

• Provide schools with financial resources to purchase required materials.
• Demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum.
Influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the interests of
the group.
School Environment
Schools located in rich socio-economic environments and those that have adequate
human and material resources can implement the curriculum to an extent that would be
difficult or impossible for schools in poor economic environments.
Culture and Ideology

Cultural and ideological differences within a society or country can also influence
curriculum implementation. Some communities may resist a domineering culture or
government ideology and hence affect the implementation of the centrally planned
curriculum.
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Instructional Supervision
Curriculum implementation cannot be achieved unless it has been made possible through
the supervisory function of the school head
Assessment
Assessment in the form of examinations influences curriculum implementation

tremendously. Due to the great value given to public examination certificates by
communities and schools, teachers have tended to concentrate on subjects that promote
academic excellence and little else. This action by the teacher
obviously can affect the achievement of the broad goals and objectives of the curriculum
1. In what way is the teacher an important factor in the implementation of a

prescribed curriculum?
2. You have been asked to prepare a speech for the principal on what can be done to
facilitate curriculum
implementation. List the major points you would include in your speech
3.Think of what you have learned in this unit. Do you feel that you can confidently
and effectively implement your class curriculum? Express your viws.
• Assessment vs. Evaluation” http://www.teachervision.fen.com/assessment/new-

teacher/48353.html
• Curriculum audit http://www.pdkintl.org/curriculum/curriculumAudits.
• htm Curriculum evaluation www.mcrel.org www.ascd.org
• bashttp://www.kenpro.org/curriculum-evaluation/ic-concepts-of-curriculum-
evaluation.html
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Module 4: Curriculum Evaluation
Chapter 1 Curriculum Evaluation: Concept and Meaning
1.0 Objectives:
Learners will be able to,

• Explain the various models of curriculum evaluation.
1.1 Introduction
Curriculum evaluation:
‘‘Successful curriculum leaders realize that evaluation in education is to help

the educational process better relates to individual learners.”
Evaluation has a long history. A Chinese emperor in 2200 B.C. required that his public
officials demonstrate their proficiency in formal competency. He introduces the concept
of evaluation. When from useful information including measurement, we make a
judgment, that is evaluation.
Curriculum is the sum of total of all experiences to be provided to the learners and
transected by teachers. It can also defined as the planned & guided learning experiences
formulated through a systematic reconstruction of knowledge. The developed curriculum
should be filtered through evaluation techniques. For this different models are to be
employees and ultimately finalized. A good curriculum is the important one for the
development of a child, system and finally for national development.
1.2 Concept and meaning
Curriculum evaluation is an essential phase of curriculum development. Through

curriculum evaluation a faculty discovers whether a curriculum is fulfilling its purpose
and whether students are actually learning It is a means rendering value judgment to a
set of experiences selected for educational purposes. It is a process that involves
gathering information about the effectives of Curricular and measurement is done in
terms of levels of achievement of the pre-set objectives Evaluation has a wider meaning.
It goes beyond measurement
Worthen and Sanders (1987) define curriculum evaluation as “the formal determination
of the quality, effectiveness, or value of a programme, product, project, process,
objective, or curriculum”
Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) define curriculum evaluation as “a process or cluster of
processes that people perform in order to gather data that will enable them to decide
whether to accept, change, or eliminate something- the curriculum in general or an
educational textbook in particular”
Gay (1985) argues that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its weaknesses
and strengths as well as problems encountered in implementation; to improve the
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curriculum development process; to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and
the returns on finance allocated.
Oliva (1988) defined curriculum evaluation as the process of delineating, obtaining, and
providing useful information for judging decision alternatives. The primary decision
alternatives to consider based upon the evaluation results are: to maintain the
curriculum as is; to modify the curriculum; or to eliminate the curriculum.
According to Gatawa (1990), the term curriculum evaluation has three major meanings:
• The process of describing and judging an educational programme or subject.
• The process of comparing a student’s performance with behaviourally stated
objectives.
• The process of defining, obtaining and using relevant information for decision-making
purposes.
Curriculum evaluation refers to the process of studying the merit or worth of some
aspect, or the whole of a curriculum. Depending on the way in which the term curriculum
is defined, the focus or objects of curriculum evaluation could include Curriculum design,
Learning environment, Instruction Process, Resources and Materials used in instructional
process It is also essential to find out about the adequacy as well as the provision of the
required teaching resources such as teaching aids, laboratories, library books and
instruments Curriculum evaluation is clearly a process by which we attempt to gauge the
value and effectiveness of any piece of educational activity which could be a rational
project, or a piece of work under taken by or with pupils. Educational prepares future
generation to take their due place in the society. It becomes essential that substandard
educational goals, materials and methods of instruction are not retained but up-dated in
consonance with the advances in social cultural & scientific field. It is also important to
ascertain how different educational institutions and situations interpret a given or
prescribed curriculum. Hence, arises the need for curriculum evaluation.
Curriculum evaluation monitors and reports on the quality of education. distinguishes
three types of decisions for which evaluation is used;-
1. Course Improvement: deciding what instructional material and methods are
satisfactory and where changes are needed.
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2. Decisions about individuals: Identifying the needs of the pupil for the sale of
planning of instruction and grouping, acquainting the pupil with his own deficiencies.
3. Administrative regulations: Judging how good the school system is, how good
individual teachers are.
The goal of evaluation must be to answer questions of selection, adoption, support and
worth of educational materials and activities. It helps in identifying the necessary
improvements to be made in content, teaching methods, learning experiences,
educational facilities, staff-selection and development of educational objectives. It also
serves the need of the policy makers, administrators and other members of the society
for the information about the educational system. curriculum evaluation aims to examine
the impact of implemented curriculum on student (learning) achievement so that the
official curriculum can be revised if necessary and to review teaching and learning
processes in the classroom. Curriculum evaluation establishes:
• Specific strengths and weaknesses of a curriculum and its implementation;
• Critical information for strategic changes and policy decisions;

• Inputs needed for improved learning and teaching;
• Indicators for monitoring.

Curriculum evaluation may be an internal activity and process conducted by the various
units within the education system for their own respective purposes. These units may
include national Ministries of Education, regional education authorities, institutional
supervision and reporting systems, departments of education, schools and communities.
1.3 Types of Evaluation
Formative Evaluation
The term formative indicates that data is gathered during the formation or development
of the curriculum so that revisions to it can be made. Formative evaluation may include
determining who needs the programme (eg. secondary school students), how great is
the need (eg. students need to be taught ICT skills to keep pace with expansion of
technology) and how to meet the need (eg. introduce a subject on ICT compulsory for all
secondary schools students). In education, the aim of formative evaluation is usually to
obtain information to improve a programme. In formative evaluation, experts would
evaluate the match between the instructional strategies and materials used, and the
learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve. For example, it is possible that in a
curriculum plan the learning outcomes and the learning activities do no match. You want
students to develop critical thinking skills but there are no learning activities which
provide opportunities for students to practice critical thinking. Formative evaluation by
experts is useful before full-scale implementation of the programme. Review by experts
of the curriculum plan may provide useful information for modifying or revising selected
strategies. In formative evaluation, learners may be included to review the materials to
determine if they can use the new materials. For example, so they have the relevant
prerequisites and are they motivated to learn. From these formative reviews, problems
may be discovered. For example, in curriculum document may contain spelling errors,
confusing sequence of content, inappropriate examples or illustrations. The feedback
obtained could be used to revise and improve instruction or whether or not to adopt the
programme before full implementation.
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Summative Evaluation
The term summative indicates that data is collected at the end of the implementation of
the curriculum programme. Summative evaluation can occur just after new course
materials have been implemented in full (i.e. evaluate the effectiveness of the
programme), or several months to years after the materials have been implemented in
full. It is important to specify what questions you want answered by the evaluation and
what decisions will be made as a result of the evaluation. You may want to know if
learners achieved the objectives or whether the programme produced the desired
outcomes. For example, the use of specific simulation software in the teaching of
geography enhanced the decision making skills of learners. These outcomes can be
determined through formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and
examinations. Also of concern is whether the innovation was cost-effective. Was the
innovation efficient in terms of time to completion? Were there any unexpected
outcomes? Besides, quantitative data to determine how well students met specified
objectives, data could also include qualitative interviews, direct observations, and
document analyses
Evaluation of curriculum presents the final stage inside cyclic process of improvement
and development of curriculum. Without evaluation procedure it would be hard to
imagine monitoring of institution progress toward desired needs. Curriculum evaluation
is the process of judging the value, effectiveness and adequacy of curriculum. o should
be useful and systematic. o The process of judging the value, effectiveness and
adequacy of curriculum. o should be useful and systematic. an approach to curriculum
evaluation which places the content, design, operation of evaluation procedure. The
school personnel participate in planning and conduct of school evaluation activities It is
participative evaluation where the control and the process rest on the school personnel
themselves. A range of evaluation activities may take place within the school. .
Accountability is shared by all, hence bias and conflict are minimized The real concern of
the school and community are addressed by the evaluation. Broad participation of school
personnel provide opportunities for building school cohesiveness. Provides reliable and
valid information on curriculum, resources, and general school functioning a voluntary
process of submitting a curricular program to an external accrediting body for review in
any level of education. studies the statement of the educational intentions of the
school.
Exercise
• Explain the concept of curriculum evaluation ? is curriculum evaluation necessary

express your views.
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Chapter 2 Models of curriculum evaluation
Tyler‘s Goal attainment model
2.1 Introduction
The objective oriented approach was developed in 1930s and was credited with the
works of Ralph Tyler. Hence Tyler’s goal attainment model or sometimes called the
objectives-centered model is the basis for most common models in curriculum design,
development and evaluation.. Tyler regarded evaluation as the process of determining
the extent to which the objectives of a project are actually attained Students are
assessed in areas such as reading, writing or math. Instructors discuss a learning-
objective that needs to be targeted. Teachers collaborate and discuss what learning-
connections students have already experienced. Teachers collaborate on curriculum and
instruction methods are developed. Assessments and/or evaluation is used to determine
what the students have learned.
2.2 Tyler‘s Goal attainment model
It focuses on formulation of goals through detailed analysis of feedback from students,

society and subject matter.
Step 1
Begin with the behavioral objectives that have been previously determined. Those
objectives should specify both the content of learning and the student behavior
expected: “Demonstrate familiarity with dependable sources of information on questions
relating to nutrition.”
Step 2
Identify the situations that will give the student the opportunity to express the behavior
embodied in the objective and that evoke or encourage this behavior. Thus, if you wish
to assess oral language use, identify situations that evoke oral language.
Step 3
Select, modify, or construct suitable evaluation instruments, and check the instruments
for objectivity, reliability, and validity. Use the instruments to obtain summarized or
appraised results.
Step4
Compare the results obtained from several instruments before and after given periods in
order to estimate the amount of change taking place.
Step 5
Analyze the results in order to determine strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum
and to identify possible explanations about the reason for this particular pattern of
strengths and weaknesses.
Step 6
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Use the results to make the necessary modifications in the curriculum
Advantages of objective – oriented model
1. It is easy to assess whether the project objectives are being achieved

2. The model checks the degree of congruency between performance and objective
3. The model focuses on clear definition of the objectives
4. It is easy to understand in terms of implementation
5. It produces relevant information to the project
Disadvantages of the objective – oriented model
1. It tends to focus on terminal rather than on-going programme performance

2. It has a tendency to focus directly and narrowly on objectives with the little attention
on the worth of the objectives
3. It neglect the value of the objectives themselves
4. It neglect the transaction the occurs within the project being evaluated
5. It neglect the context in which the evaluation is taking place
6. It ignores important outcomes other than those covered by the objectives
7. It promotes linear, inflexible approach to evaluation
8. There is a tendency to oversimplify project and tendency to focus on terminal rather
than on –going and pre-project information
9. It does not take unplanned outcomes into account. This is because it focuses on the
stated objectives.
10. It does not pay enough attention to process evaluation.
2.3 Stufflebeam‘s CIPP model
Daniel Stufflebeam is a famous educator and evaluator of

curriculum. One very useful approach to educational
evaluation is known as the CIPP, or Context, Input, Process,
Product approach, developed by Stufflebeam (1983). This
provides a systematic way of looking at many different
aspects of the curriculum development process. The CIPP
evaluation model (see figure 1) is a framework for guiding
evaluations of programs, projects, personnel, products,
institutions, and evaluation systemIts core concepts are context, input, process, and
product evaluation, with the intention of not to prove, but rather improve, the program
itself. An evaluation following the CIPP model may include a context, input, process, or
product evaluation, The approach when applied to education aims to determine if a
particular educational effort has resulted in a positive change in school, college,
university or training organisation. A major aspect of the Stufflebeam’s model is centred
on decision making or an act of making up one’s mind about the programme introduced.
CIPP model
Stufflebeam’s model of evaluation relies on both formative and summative evaluation to
determine the overall effectiveness a curriculum programme Evaluation is required at all
level of the programme implemented.
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Context Evaluation (What needs to be done and in what context)
This is the most basic kind of evaluation with the purpose of providing a rationale for the
objectives. The evaluator defines the environment in which the curriculum is implemented
which could be a classroom, school or training department. The evaluator determines
needs that were not met and reasons why the needs are not being met. Also identified are
the shortcomings and problems in the organisation under review (eg. a sizable proportion
of students in secondary schools are unable to read at the desired level, the ratio of
students to computers is large, a sizable proportion of science teachers are not proficient to
teach in English). Goals and objectives are specified on the basis of context evaluation. In
other words, the evaluator determines the background in which the innovations are being
implemented.The techniques of data collection would include observation of conditions in
the school, background statistics of teachers and interviews with players involve in
implementation of the curriculum.
Context
What is the relation of the course to other courses?

Is the time adequate?
What are critical or important external factors (network, ministries)?
Should courses be integrated or separate?
What are the links between the course and research/extension activities?
Is there a need for the course?
Is the course relevant to job needs?
Input Evaluation (How should it be done?)
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It is that evaluation the purpose of which is to provide information for determining
how to utilise resources to achieve objectives of the curriculum. The resources of the
school and various designs for carrying out the curriculum are considered. At this stage
the evaluator decides on procedures to be used. Unfortunately, methods for input
evaluation are lacking in education. The prevalent practices include committee
deliberations, appeal to the professional literature, the employment of consultants and
pilot experimental projects.
Inputs
What is the entering ability of students?

What are the learning skills of students?
What is the motivation of students?

What are the living conditions of students?
What is the students existing knowledge?

Are the aims suitable?
Do the objectives derive from aims?

Are the objectives smart?
Is the course content clearly defined?
Process Evaluation (Is it being done?) It is the provision of periodic feedback while the
curriculum is being implemented.
Process
What is the workload of students?
How well/actively do students participate?
Are there any problems related to teaching?

Are there any problems related to learning?
Is there effective 2-way communication?

Is knowledge only transferred to students, or do they use and
apply it?
Are there any problems which students face in
using/applying/analyzing the knowledge and skills?
Is the teaching and learning process continuously evaluated?
Product Evaluation (Did it succeed?) or outcomes of the initiative. Data is collected to

determine whether the curriculum managed to accomplish it set out achieve (eg. to what
extent students have developed a more positive attitudes towards science). Product
evaluation involves measuring the achievement of objectives, interpreting the data and
providing with information that will enable them to decide whether to continue,
terminate or modify the new curriculum. For example, product evaluation might reveal
86
that students have become more interested in science and are more positive towards
the subject after introduction of the new science curriculum. Based on this findings the
decision may be made to implement the programme throughout the country.
Product
Is there one final exam at the end or several during the course?
Is there any informal assessment?

What is the quality of assessment (i.e. what levels of KSA are assessed?)
What are the students?
How do students use what they have learned?

How was the overall experience for the teachers and for the students?
What are the main lessons learned?

Has the teachers reputation improved as a result or been ruined?
Advantages
1.Sensitive to feedback
2. Rational decision making among alternatives

Disadvantages
1. It Over values efficiency

2. It undervalues students aims
2.4 Scriven‘s Goal free model
Michael John Scriven (born 1928) is a British-born Australian polymath and academic
philosopher, best known for his contributions to the theory and practice of
evaluationGoal-free evaluation (GFE) is any evaluation in which the evaluator conducts
the evaluation without particular knowledge of or reference to stated or predetermined
goals and objectives. Goals are “broad statements of a program’s purposes or expected
outcomes, usually not specific enough to be measured and often concerning long-term
rather than short-term expectations whereas objectives are “statements indicating the
planned goals or outcomes of a program or intervention in specific and concrete terms”
The goal-free evaluator attempts to observe and measure all actual outcomes, effects, or
impacts, intended or unintended, all without being cued to the program’s intentions.
Scriven’s Goal Free Evaluation Model (1972) suggests that focusing on a program or
activity’s goals can be an important starting place for a technologist working in the
domain of evaluation.
Scriven‘s Goal free model

Goals are a subset of anticipated effects - Intended effects and Unintended effects
Scriven differentiates between two major roles of curriculum evaluation: the “formative”
and the “summative” Formative evaluation – during the development of the programme
and Summative evaluation at its conclusion
87
Formative evaluation It is carried out during the process of curriculum development
The evaluation results may contribute to the modification or formation of the curriculum
For example, results of formative evaluation may help in
1.Selection of programme components
2.Modification of programme elements
Summative evaluation It is carried out after offering the curriculum once or twice.
Such an evaluation will summarise the merits and demerits of the programme. A
curriculum that operates satisfactorily over a period time may become obsolete. To
prevent this from occurring a permanent follow up of curriculum and quality control of
the programme should be maintained
Steps of goal free model
1. Determine what effects this curriculum had, and evaluate them whether or not, they
were intended
2. Evaluate the actual effects against a profile of demonstrated needs
3. Notice something that everyone else overlooked or produce a novel overall

perspective
4. Do not be under the control of the Management. Choose the variables of the
evaluation independently.
If the program is achieving its stated goals and objectives, then these achievements
should show up; if not, it is argued, they are irrelevant" . The goal-free evaluator
attempts to observe and measure all actual outcomes, effects, or impacts, intended or
unintended, all without being cued to the program's intention.
• Watch video Goal-Free Evaluation hughpiat https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8lB9MiVxNT0
Exercise
• Explain how Screven’s Goal Free model can be source of additional Knowledge.
88
2.5 Kilpatrick‘s 4 level model
Donald Kirkpatrick, Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin and past president
of the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), first published his Four-
Level Training Evaluation Model in 1959, in the US Training and Development
Journal.The model was then updated in 1975, and again in 1994, when he published his
best-known work, "Evaluating Training Programs." Kirkpatrick's Four-Level Training
Evaluation Model can help you objectively analyze the effectiveness and impact of your
training, so that you can improve it in the future.
Levels of Kilpatrick’s model

The four levels of Kilpatrick’s model are:
http://www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/hrd/isd/work_environment.jpg
Level 1: Reaction
This level measures how your trainees (the people being trained), reacted to the
training. Obviously, you want them to feel that the training was a valuable experience,
and you want them to feel good about the instructor, the topic, the material, its
presentation, and the venue. It's important to measure reaction, because it helps you
understand how well the training was received by your audience. It also helps you
improve the training for future trainees, including identifying important areas or topics
that are missing from the training.
89
Level 2: Learning
At level 2, you measure what your trainees have learned. How much has their
knowledge increased as a result of the training? When you planned the training session,
you hopefully started with a list of specific learning objectives: these should be the
starting point for your measurement. Keep in mind that you can measure learning in
different ways depending on these objectives, and depending on whether you're
interested in changes to knowledge, skills, or attitude. It's important to measure this,
because knowing what your trainees are learning and what they aren't will help you
improve future training.
Level 3: Behavior
At this level, you evaluate how far your trainees have changed their behavior, based on
the training they received. Specifically, this looks at how trainees apply the information.
It's important to realize that behavior can only change if conditions are favorable. For
instance, imagine you've skipped measurement at the first two Kirkpatrick levels and,
when looking at your group's behavior, you determine that no behavior change has
taken place. Therefore, you assume that your trainees haven't learned anything and that
the training was ineffective.However, just because behavior hasn't changed, it doesn't
mean that trainees haven't learned anything. Perhaps their boss won't let them apply
new knowledge. Or, maybe they've learned everything you taught, but they have no
desire to apply the knowledge themselves.
Level 4: Results
At this level, you analyze the final results of your training. This includes outcomes that
you or your or your education institution have determined to be good for business, good
for the staff , or good for the bottom line.
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/kirkpatrick.htm
Advantages
• The model addressed the need of training professionals to understand training
evaluation in a systematic way It has provided straightforward system or
language for talking about training outcomes and the kinds of information that
can be provided to assess the extent to which training programs have achieved
certain objectives
• the information about level four outcomes is perhaps the most valuable or
descriptive information about training that can be obtained. For training
professionals in organizations this bottom-line focus is seen as a good fit with the
competitive profit orientation of their sponsors
• The four-level model has therefore provided a means for trainers in organizations
to couch the results of what they do in business terms.
• The model represents a straightforward guide about the kinds of questions that
should be asked and the criteria that may be appropriate.
• The model reduces the measurement demands for training evaluation.
Disadvantages
90
• Incompleteness of the model, the assumption of causality, and the assumption of
increasing importance of information as the levels of outcomes are ascend
• The four-level model presents an oversimplified view of training effectiveness that

does not consider individual or contextual influences in the evaluation of training.
Exercise
1.Select one of the models described and write a detailed explication and critique of that
model.
2. Suppose a classroom teacher posed this question to you: “I want to evaluate my own
course. I don’t know much about statistics. Can you tell me how to evaluate it in a way
that won’t take too much time?” Write the answer you would give that teacher.
3. As a practising teacher, on which model or models of curriculum design do you think
your national school curriculum was based? How does the model affect what you actually
teach in class?
4. You have been nominated by your school head to evaluate the content of the
mathematics syllabus used at your school. List the major steps you will take to achieve
this.
5 evaluate any one credit of M.A education human right curriculum using CIPP model
91
Chapter 3 Curriculum improvement through problem
solving model
3.1 Introduction
Process of curriculum development is essential for successful achieving educational goals

for medical students. It asks for systematic approach which should respect several
aspects: the needs of patients, of the society, the students and teaching staff. This
process should be maximal efficient and effective; it should be built upon previous work.
Process itself should be done in a specific algorithm starting from the definition of final
goals of the educational process, through the selection of the certain tools for achieving
this goals, and integration of different elements inside one curriculum. Curriculum should
present mosaics of different courses, learning and teaching strategies, and integrate it
into one picture which is specific for a certain institution. It has to respect all existing
material and human resources of the institution. Problems faced during implementation
might be hindrance for effective implementation and achieving the goal successfully.
Problems can also be opportunities: they allow you to see things differently and to do
things in a different way: perhaps to make a fresh start.
stages to solving a problem:
Step 1:
it determines the overall focus of the project. In this step, the team defines the problem
as concretely and specifically as possible curriculum Problem is evaluate through all
dimensions
Evaluating the problem
Clarifying the nature of a problem

Formulating questions
Gathering information systematically
92
Collating and organising data
Condensing and summarising information
Defining the desired objective
Step 2:
Baseline data are collected on the present process if they do not already exist. This
permits measurement of the current level of performance so future gains can be
subsequently measured.
Managing the problem

Using the information gathered effectively
Breaking down a problem into smaller, more manageable, parts

Using techniques such as brainstorming and lateral thinking to consider options
Analysing these options in greater depth

Identifying steps that can be taken to achieve the objective
Step 3:
Goals provide vision and direction and help the team make choices and know which path
to take. Be sure to state your goal(s) in terms that are measurable. This way, the team
can evaluate its progress toward the goal. As the team imagines the goal, it will identify
benefits of achieving the solution to the problem. It is done through decision making.
Decision-making
deciding between the possible options for what action to take

deciding on further information to be gathered before taking action
deciding on resources (time, funding, staff etc) to be allocated to this problem
Step 4:
An Action Plan is developed by team. This includes who will do what by when to
implement the solution. The team sees to it that the Action Plan developed is carried out
and documented.
Resolving the problem

Implementing action
Providing information to other stakeholders; delegating tasks

Reviewing progress
Step 5:
93
the team evaluates how effective the solution has been. Data must be collected to
determine if the implemented strategy did, in fact, improve the process being studied.
Performance must be clearly measured and evaluated.
Examining the results

Monitoring the outcome of the action taken
Reviewing the problem and problem-solving process to avoid similar

situations in future
. This process is necessary to provide the evidences that institution made a step in the
right direction, as well as useful information to stakeholders. It helps in the process of
identification of problems inside curriculum and institution, solving of problems and
redesigning of certain aspects of curriculum.
Exercise
1.Justify whether problem solvin model is more effecive in evaluaton of curriculum?

2. As a teacher observe what problems you are facing implementing the curriculum in
the class how you will solve these problems to overcome these problems to implement
curriculum effectively.
94

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Centre for Distance Education

SNDT Women’s University

Course Code: 322001

Dr. Arundhati Chavan

Dr. Arundhati Chavan

Mr. Mangesh Kadam

Ms. Minal M. Kawale

@Centre for Distance Education, S.N.D.T Women’s University.

• Explain the concept of curriculum and process of curriculum development

• Identify the methods and media to be used for curriculum transaction.

Module 1: Curriculum Development: An Introduction

Learners will be able to

• State the components of curriculum. Explain the foundations of curriculum.

• Meaning and concept of curriculum

• Body of knowledge to be transmitted

• Foundations of Curriculum: (Philosophical, Social and Psychological) and its

• Knowledge as a base of curriculum development

Module 2: Models of Curriculum Development

• Explain the various models of curriculum development.

• Ralph Tyler‘s model

• Hunkin‘s Decision- Making model

• Fink‘s model of integrated course design

Module 3: Curriculum Transaction

• Explain the principles and criteria for developing learning opportunities.

• Criteria for selecting learning opportunities

• ICT as a mode of curricular transaction with their strengths and limitation:

• Models of curriculum implementation

Module 4: Curriculum Evaluation

Learners will be able to

• Curriculum evaluation: concept and meaning

- Tyler‘s Goal attainment model.

Scriven‘s Goal free model

• Curriculum improvement through problem solving model

• Aggarwal, Deepak (2007): Curriculum development: Concept, Methods and

• McKernan, James (2007): Curriculum and Imagination: Process, Theory,

• NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework-2005, NCERT, Sri AurobindoMarg,

• SaritaKumari (2005) Curriculum and Instruction, Isha Books, Delhi

Module 1: Curriculum Development: An Introduction ........................................................................... 7

Chapter 1 Meaning and Concept of Curriculum ........................................................................ 7

Chapter 2 Understanding curriculum ...................................................................................... 12

Chapter 3 The elements of the curriculum .............................................................................. 16

Chapter 4 Foundations of Curriculum: .................................................................................... 20

Chapter 5 Knowledge as a base of curriculum development .................................................. 29

Module 2 Models of Curriculum Development .................................................................................... 36

Chapter 1 Hilda Taba‘s model .................................................................................................. 36

Chapter 2 Ralph Tyler‘s model ................................................................................................. 40

Chapter 3 Wheelers model and Hunkin‘s Decision- Making model ........................................ 44

Chapter 4 Weinstein and Fantini model .................................................................................. 48

Module 3 Curriculum Transaction ........................................................................................................ 54

Chapter 1 Planning Curriculum implementation ..................................................................... 54

Chapter 3 Use of Learner-centered media .............................................................................. 66

Chapter 4 Models of Curriculum Implementation................................................................... 74

Module 4: Curriculum Evaluation ......................................................................................................... 79

Chapter 1 Curriculum Evaluation: Concept and Meaning ....................................................... 79

Chapter 2 Models of curriculum evaluation ............................................................................ 83

Chapter 3 Curriculum improvement through problem solving model .................................... 92

Chapter 1 Meaning and Concept of Curriculum

Learners will be able to

• State the components of curriculum. Explain the foundations of curriculum.

1.1 Meaning and concept of curriculum

• The Explicit Curriculum

• The Implicit Curriculum