Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed

into a final product. The manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from
which the product is made. These materials are then modified through manufacturing processes to become the
required part.

List of manufacturing processes-

1. Casting
2. Molding
3. Forming
4. Machining
5. Joining

Casting- Die casting, sand casting, low pressure casting

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is
ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold
setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples
are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be
otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.
Casting is a 6000-year-old process. The oldest surviving casting is a copper frog from 3200 BC
Molding-
(Powder metallurgy) compaction plus sintering, metal injection molding
(Plastics) Injection, compression molding,
Molding or moulding is the process of manufacturing by shaping liquid or pliable raw material using a rigid frame
called a mold or matrix. This itself may have been made using a pattern or model of the final object.
A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid or pliable material such as plastic, glass, metal,
or ceramic raw material. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold is the counterpart to
a cast. The very common bi-valve molding process uses two molds, one for each half of the object. Articulated
moulds have multiple pieces that come together to form the complete mold, and then disassemble to release the
finished casting; they are expensive, but necessary when the casting shape has complex overhangs. Piece-
molding uses a number of different molds, each creating a section of a complicated object. This is generally only
used for larger and more valuable objects.
A manufacturer who makes molds is called a mold maker. A release agent is typically used to make removal of the
hardened/set substance from the mold easily. Typical uses for molded plastics include molded furniture,
molded household goods, molded cases, and structural materials.

Forming- Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Pressing, Shearing, Stamping

Machining- Milling, Turning, Drilling, Reaming, Tapping, Sawing, Broaching, Planing, Honing

Joining- Welding, Soldering, Sintering, Fastening, Stitching, Stapling

Factory location and layout

The efficiency of a manufacturing facility depends on a number of factors, including the layout of machinery and
departments.
Typical plant layout procedures determine how to arrange the various machines and departments to achieve minimization
of overall production time, maximization of turnover of work-in-process, and maximization of factory output.
In general, there is strong relationship between the amount of material flow and the proximity of departments when one of
the facility planning procedures is deployed. That is, the larger the amount of flow between two departments

There are four types of arrangement of the facilities or plant of the conventional factory:
1. Static or fixed position layout
2. Process based layout
3. Cell or group layout
4. Product based layout

Fixed position layout

The fixed position layout describes the type of manufacturing where the process are brought to the product and not
the product to the process.
In general this type of layout is used for product that has constraining characteristics such as being very large, heavy
or has some other constraint that prevents its location from being altered while under manufacturing Production
equipment and personnel are transported to the product and generally involves low volume products with small lot
sizes.
Example: Airplane manufacturing, shipyards, railway systems.

Fixed position layout is used to construct airplanes. Why wouldn’t you want to build airplanes using assembly line
layout? At least 3 reasons:
 The plant would be very large and therefore very expensive.
 The planes are very heavy and therefore expensive to move, and
 When only partially built, the planes are very fragile. If the wings bounced up and down while they moved
down the assembly line, you might damage delicate hydraulic or electrical lines which could compromise the
plane’s ability to fly safely.

Process layout
Machines with similar functions are grouped together. This type of layout is used from job shopping or batch
production companies such as different types of car production and even in service industries.
The process based layout is used in manufacturing are arranged according to the particular process type. All machines
are grouped according to their function (process) such as lathes, mills, injection moulding, drilling etc.

Cell or group layout

Products with similar process requirements are assigned to the same manufacturing cell

Product layout
The layout conforms to the sequence of operations required to produce a product.
An example is automobile assembly, where almost all variants of the same model require the same sequence of
process

Advantage/disadvantage of layouts
Layout Advantage Disadvantage
Fixed - Large parts can be handled - Less flexibility
Process - High mix and product flexibility, easy to supervise equipment - Low utilisation of machines, complex flow can
be difficult to control and can have high work in progress
Cell - Good compromises between cost and flexibility for high variety operations, fast throughput. - More machines
needed, can give lower plant utilisation
Product - Low unit costs for high volume, equipment can be specialised, improving efficiency. - Low flexibility
NPTEL-

FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

          There are four basic production processes for producing desired shape of a product. These are casting, machining, joining
(welding, mechanical fastners, epoxy, etc.), and deformation processes. Casting process exploit the fluidity of a metal in liquid state as
it takes shape and solidifies in a mold. Machining processes provide desired shape with good accuracy and precision but tend to waste
material in the generation of removed portions. Joining processes permit complex shapes to be constructed from simpler components
and have a wide domain of applications.

         Deformation processes exploit a remarkable property of metals, which is their ability to flow plastically in the solid state without
deterioration of their properties. With the application of suitable pressures, the material is moved to obtain the desired shape with
almost no wastage. The required pressures are generally high and the tools and equipment needed are quite expensive. Large
production quantities are often necessary to justify the process.

COLD AND HOT WORKING OF METALS

Cold Working:

Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature is known as cold working. It is generally performed at room
temperature. In some cases, slightly elevated temperatures may be used to provide increased ductility and reduced strength. Cold
working offers a number of distinct advantages, and for this reason various cold-working processes have become extremely important.
Significant advances in recent years have extended the use of cold forming, and the trend appears likely to continue.

          In comparison with hot working, the advantages of cold working are

1. No heating is required
2. Bettter surface finish is obtained
3. Better dimensional control is achieved; therefore no secondary machining is generally needed.
4. Products possess better reproducibility and interchangeablity.
5. Better strength, fatigue, and wear properties of material.
6. Directional properties can be imparted.
7. Contamination problems are almost negligible.

          Some disadvantages associated with cold-working processes are:

1. Higher forces are required for deformation.

2. Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.
3. Less ductility is available.
4. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free.
5. Strain hardening occurs (may require intermediate annealing).
6. Undesirable residual stresses may be produced

Cold forming processes, in general, are better suited to large-scale production of parts because of the cost of the required equipment
and tooling.

Warm Working:

          Metal deformation carried out at temperatures intermediate to hot and cold forming is called Warm Forming  . Compared to cold
forming, warm forming offers several advantages. These include:

• Lesser loads on tooling and equipment

• Greater metal ductility

• Fewer number of annealing operation ( because of less strain hardening )
Compared to hot forming, warm forming offers the following advantages.
• Lesser amount of heat energy requirement
• Better precision of components
• Lesser scaling on parts
• Lesser decarburization of parts
• Better dimensional control
• Better surface finish
• Lesser thermal shock on tooling
• Lesser thermal fatigue to tooling, and so greater life of tooling.

Hot Working:

          Plastic deformation of metal carried out at temperature above the recrystallization temperature, is called hot working. Under the
action of heat and force, when the atoms of metal reach a certain higher energy level, the new crystals start forming. This is called
recrystallization. When this happens, the old grain structure deformed by previously carried out mechanical working no longer exist,
instead new crystals which are strain-free are formed.

          In hot working, the temperature at which the working is completed is critical since any extra heat left in the material after working
will promote grain growth, leading to poor mechanical properties of material.

      In comparison with cold working, the advantages of hot working are

1. No strain hardening
2. Lesser forces are required for deformation
3. Greater ductility of material is available, and therefore more deformation is possible.
4. Favorable grain size is obtained leading to better mechanical properties of material
5. Equipment of lesser power is needed
6. No residual stresses in the material.

      Some disadvantages associated in the hot-working of metals are:

1. Heat energy is needed

2. Poor surface finish of material due to scaling of surface
3. Poor accuracy and dimensional control of parts
4. Poor reproducibility and interchangeability of parts
5. Handling and maintaining of hot metal is difficult and troublesome
6. Lower life of tooling and equipment.

Metal Casting

Introduction

Virtually nothing moves, turns, rolls, or flies without the benefit of cast metal products. The metal casting industry plays a key role in all
the major sectors of our economy. There are castings in locomotives, cars trucks, aircraft, office buildings, factories, schools, and
homes. Figure some metal cast parts.

Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of
the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by breaking
the mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting. By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and
rigidity frequently not obtainable by any other manufacturing process.  The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat
resisting material. Sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten metal. Permanent molds of metal can also
be used to cast products.

Advantages

The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many advantages.

1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many other
operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be minimized or eliminated.
2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can be achieved.
4. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is
the ideal process.
5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way.
6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations

1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are a limitation to this technique.
Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy
 and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding
process, and shell molding process.
2. The metal casting process is a labor intensive process
3. Table 4 : A Typical Composition of Molding Sand

Molding Sand Constituent Weight Percent

Silica sand 92
Clay (Sodium Bentonite) 8
Water 4

Casting Defects

The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings

      Gas defects

      Shrinkage cavities
      Molding material defects
      Pouring metal defects
      Mold shift

Gas Defects

A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the
casting. The defects in this category can be classified into blowholes and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated
cavities present in the casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas,
which gets entrapped during heating of molten metal.

Causes

The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of the mold or improper design of
the casting. The lower permeability is caused by finer grain size of the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive
moisture present in the mold.

      Metal contains gas

      Mold is too hot
      Poor mold burnout

Shrinkage Cavities

These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid
metal is required. For this reason risers are placed at the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not
attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.

Molding Material Defects

The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration, fusion, and swell.

Cut and washes

These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is
caused by the molding sand not having enough strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care of
by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper design of the gating system.

Metal penetration

When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is
coarse or no mold wash was applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration.

Fusion
This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. The
main reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles are of lower refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.

Swell

Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension of the casting. A proper
ramming of the mold will correct this defect.

Inclusions

Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during pouring solidification. The
provision of choke in the gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the mold can prevent this defect.

Pouring Metal Defects

The likely defects in this category are

      Mis-runs and

      Cold shuts.

A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A mis-run results when
the metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity before freezing.  Long, thin sections are subject to this defect and
should be avoided in casting design.

A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in
the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow
together and become one solid.  If the flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a seam in the part. 
Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough walls in
the casting design.

The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when the section thickness of the casting is very
small. Fluidity can be improved by changing the composition of the metal and by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.

Mold Shift

The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not been properly aligned.

WELDING

Welding which is the process of joining two metallic components for the desired purpose, can be defined as the process of joining two
similar or dissimilar metallic components with the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metal. Heat may be obtained by chemical reaction, electric arc, electrical resistance, frictional heat, sound and light energy.
If no filter metal is used during welding then it is termed as ‘Autogenous Welding Process'.

Classification of Welding Processes:

Welding processes can be classified based on following criteria;

1. Welding with or without filler material.

2. Source of energy of welding.
3. Arc and Non-arc welding.
4. Fusion and Pressure welding.

1. Welding can be carried out with or without the application of filler material. Earlier only gas welding was the fusion process in
which joining could be achieved with or without filler material. When welding was done without filler material it was called
‘autogenous welding'. However, with the development of TIG, electron beam and other welding processes such classification
created confusion as many processes shall be falling in both the categories.
2. Various sources of energies are used such as chemical, electrical, light, sound, mechanical energies, but except for chemical
energy all other forms of energies are generated from electrical energy for welding. So this criterion does not justify proper
classification.
3. Arc and Non-arc welding processes classification embraces all the arc welding processes in one class and all other processes
in other class. In such classification it is difficult to assign either of the class to processes such as electroslag welding and flash
 butt welding, as in electroslag welding the process starts with arcing and with the melting of sufficient flux the arc extinguishes
while in flash butt welding tiny arcs i.e. sparks are established during the process and then components are pressed against
each other. Therefore, such classification is also not perfect.
4. Fusion welding and pressure welding is most widely used classification as it covers all processes in both the categories
irrespective of heat source and welding with or without filler material. In fusion welding all those processes are included where
molten metal solidifies freely while in pressure welding molten metal if any is retained in confined space under pressure (as
may be in case of resistance spot welding or arc stud welding) solidifies under pressure or semisolid metal cools under
pressure. This type of classification poses no problems so it is considered as the best criterion.

THERMODYNAMICS –
It is the science of the relations between heat, Work and the properties of the systems.

Closed system- in which no mass is permitted to cross the system boundary i.e. we would always consider a system of
constant mass. We do permit heat and work to enter or leave but not mass.

Open system- in which we permit mass to cross the system boundary in either direction (from the system to
surroundings or vice versa).

Isolated System- in which there is no interaction between system and the surroundings. It is of fixed mass and energy,
and hence there is no mass and energy transfer across the system boundary.

Macroscopic and Microscopic Approaches

In macroscopic approach, certain quantity of matter is considered without a concern on the events occurring at the
molecular level. These effects can be perceived by human senses or measured by instruments.
e.g.: pressure, temperature

In microscopic approach, the effect of molecular motion is considered.

e.g.: At microscopic level the pressure of a gas is not constant, the temperature of a gas is a function of the velocity of
molecules.

Categories of Properties-

Extensive property: whose value depends on the size or extent of the system (upper case letters as the symbols).
e.g.: Volume, Mass (V, M).
If mass is increased, the value of extensive property also increases.
Intensive property: whose value is independent of the size or extent of the system.
e.g.: pressure, temperature (p, T).

State: It is the condition of a system as defined by the values of all its properties. It gives a complete description of the
system. Any operation in which one or more

Phase: It is a quantity of mass that is homogeneous throughout in chemical composition and physical structure. e.g.
solid, liquid, vapour, gas. Phase consisting of more than one phase is known as heterogenous system.

Paths: The succession of states passed through during a change of state is called the path of the system. A system is said
to go through a process if it goes through a series of changes in state.

Types of Processes-
•Isothermal (T)
•Isobaric (p)
•Isochoric (v)
•Isentropic (s)
•Isenthalpic (h)
•Isosteric (concentration)
•Adiabatic (no heat addition or removal)

Quasi-static Processes: A quasi-static process is one in which the deviation from

thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal. All states of the system passes through are
equilibrium states.
For e.g.: If we remove the weights slowly one by one the pressure of the gas will displace the piston gradually. It is
quasistatic.
On the other hand if we remove all the weights at once the piston will be kicked up by the gas pressure. (This is
unrestrained expansion) but we don’t consider that the work is done -because it is not in a sustained manner.
In both cases the systems have undergone a change of state.
Another e.g.: if a person climbs down a ladder from roof to ground, it is a quasistatic process. On the other hand if he
jumps then it is not a quasistatic process.

Equilibrium State- A system is said to be in an equilibrium state if its properties will not change without some
perceivable effect in the surroundings.
Equilibrium generally requires all properties to be uniform throughout the system.
There are mechanical, thermal, phase, and chemical equilibria

Nature has a preferred way of directing changes.e.g.:

 water flows from a higher to a lower level
 Electricity flows from a higher potential to a lower one
 Heat flows from a body at higher temperature to the one at a lower temperature
 Momentum transfer occurs from a point of higher pressure to a lower one.
 Mass transfer occurs from higher concentration to a lower one

Types of Equilibrium-
Between the system and surroundings, if there is no difference in
Pressure – Mechanical equilibrium
Potential -- Electrical equilibrium
Concentration of species -- Species equilibrium
Temperature-- Thermal equilibrium

Zeroth Law

if two systems (say A and B) are in thermal equilibrium with a third system (say C) separately (that is A and C are in
thermal equilibrium; B and C are in thermal equilibrium) then they are in thermal equilibrium themselves (that is A and B
will be in thermal equilibrium

Thermodynamic definition of work:

Positive work is done by a system when the sole effect external to the system could be reduced to the rise of a weight.

Thermodynamic definition of heat:

It is the energy in transition between the system and the surroundings by virtue of the difference in temperature.

First Law of Thermodynamics-

When a closed system executes a complete cycle the sum of heat interactions is equal to the sum of work interactions.
i.e. ∑Q = ∑W
Second Law of Thermodynamics-
Statement 1: It is impossible to construct a device which operating in a cycle will produce no effect other than raising of
a weight and exchange of heat with a single reservoir.

Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device which operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than
the transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter body.

Statement 3: The entropy of a system plus its surroundings (i.e. an isolated system) can never decrease.

 Irreversible Processes increase the entropy of the universe

 Reversible Processes do not affect the entropy of the universe
 Impossible Processes decrease the entropy of the universe
 ΔS universe= 0
 Entropy Generation in the universe is a measure of lost work
 ΔS Universe= ΔS System+ ΔS Surroundings

Summation of 3 Laws-

>You can’t get something for nothing

To get work output you must give some thermal energy
>You can’t get something for very little
To get some work output there is a minimum amount of thermal energy that needs to be given
>You can’t get every thing
However much work you are willing to give 0 K can’t be reached.

Violation of all 3 laws: try to get everything for nothing

Definitions of Reversible Process-

A process is reversible if after it, means can be found to restore the system and surroundings to their initial states.
Examples:
 Evaporation and condensation
 Elastic expansion/compression (springs, rubber bands)

OTTO CYCLE-
It consists of two isochores and two adiabatics
•There is no heat interaction during 1-2 and 3-4
•Heat is added during constant volume heating (2-3) Q2-3= cv(T3- T2)
•Heat is rejected during constant volume cooling (4-1) Q4-1= cv(T1- T4)
•Which will be negative because T4 >T1

CARNOT CYCLE-
It consists of two isotherms and two adiabatics
•Process 4-1 is heat addition because v4 < v1
•Process 2-3 is heat rejection because v3 < v2
Compared
Process Work Heat -
1-2 (p1v1-p2v2)/ (g-1) 0
2-3 p2v2 ln (v3/v2) p2v2 ln(v3/v2)
3-4 (p3v3-p4v4)/ (g-1) 0
4-1 p4v4 ln (v1/v4) p4v4 ln(v1/v4)